Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

XLD agar

Xylose lysine deoxycholate (XLD) agar is a selective and differential culture medium designed for the isolation and differentiation of Gram-negative enteric pathogens, particularly Salmonella and Shigella species, from clinical specimens such as stool samples and from food or environmental sources.^[1] Developed by W.I. Taylor in 1965 as an improvement over earlier xylose lysine agars, it supports the growth of these pathogens while inhibiting most Gram-positive bacteria and many non-pathogenic enteric flora.^[2] The medium's formulation includes fermentable carbohydrates like xylose, lactose, and sucrose, along with L-lysine, to enable differentiation based on acid production and pH changes, indicated by phenol red, which shifts the agar from red to yellow upon fermentation.^[1] The selective component, sodium deoxycholate, suppresses the growth of Gram-positive organisms and some Gram-negative non-enterics, while sodium thiosulfate and ferric ammonium citrate allow for the detection of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) production, resulting in black-centered colonies for H₂S-positive Salmonella strains.^[1] Typical colony appearances include red colonies for Shigella (non-fermenters that do not decarboxylate lysine) and red colonies with black centers for most Salmonella species (due to lysine decarboxylation reversing acidification and H₂S production), contrasting with yellow colonies from lactose/sucrose fermenters like Escherichia coli.^[3] Recognized in pharmacopeial standards such as the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) for microbiological examination of nonsterile products, XLD agar is widely used in clinical microbiology laboratories, food safety testing, and water quality assessments to detect and presumptively identify enteric pathogens, often in conjunction with enrichment broths for enhanced sensitivity.^[4] Its efficacy has been validated in comparative studies showing high recovery rates for Shigella (up to 90%) and Salmonella (around 83%), making it a preferred alternative to media like Hektoen enteric agar or Salmonella-Shigella agar.^[5]

History and Development

Origin and Formulation

XLD agar, or xylose lysine deoxycholate agar, was developed in 1965 by microbiologist Welton I. Taylor while serving as an associate professor in the Department of Microbiology at the University of Illinois. Taylor formulated the medium specifically for the isolation and identification of Shigella species from stool specimens, addressing the need for more effective culture media in clinical diagnostics for enteric infections.^[2]^[6] The initial purpose of XLD agar was to enhance the differentiation of enteric pathogens, particularly Shigella, beyond the capabilities of existing media such as Salmonella-Shigella (SS) agar, which often inhibited the growth of fastidious organisms. Taylor incorporated xylose as a key fermentable sugar to facilitate the detection of Shigella, which does not ferment xylose and thus produces distinct colony appearances, while lysine was included to exploit the decarboxylation activity of Salmonella species, aiding in their presumptive identification.^[2]^[7] A central innovation in Taylor's design was the integration of three sugar indicators—xylose, lactose, and sucrose—combined with a hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) detection system using thiosulfate and ferric ions, which overcame limitations in prior media by allowing simultaneous selective inhibition via deoxycholate and differential reactions for multiple pathogens. This formulation supported the growth of more fastidious enteric bacteria compared to SS agar, improving recovery rates from clinical samples.^[2]^[7] Subsequent refinements to the medium extended its utility for broader Salmonella detection in various specimen types.

Evolution and Adoption

Following the original formulation introduced by Taylor in 1965, refinements to XLD agar were made in the late 1960s through evaluations and optimizations to improve its selectivity and support for Salmonella isolation. Taylor and Harris (1967) and Taylor and Schelhart (1967, 1968) compared XLD with traditional media using stool specimens and adjusted parameters such as carbohydrate concentrations to optimize differentiation and recovery rates of Salmonella species, including slower-fermenting serovars.^[8]^[9] By the early 1970s, further evaluations confirmed these refinements increased isolation efficiency from clinical specimens, with XLD outperforming traditional media like SS agar in recovering 83% of Salmonella isolates compared to 80% on Hektoen enteric agar.^[5] In the 1970s, XLD agar gained widespread adoption in clinical and food safety laboratories for enteric pathogen surveillance, supported by comparative studies demonstrating its superior performance in isolating both Salmonella and Shigella from stool samples.^[10] This led to its integration into routine protocols for bacterial diarrhea diagnosis, including use by the CDC in reference laboratory testing and emphasis in WHO guidelines for managing epidemic dysentery and cholera as a key selective medium for Shigella and Salmonella detection in resource-limited settings. Key milestones in the 1980s and 1990s solidified XLD agar's role in standardized testing. It was incorporated into the FDA's Bacteriological Analytical Manual (BAM) as a recommended plating medium for Salmonella recovery from food by the mid-1980s, enhancing regulatory compliance in contamination assessments. Globally, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) referenced XLD in revisions to its 6579 standard starting in the 1990s for Salmonella detection in foodstuffs, with further extensions to water and dairy analysis through harmonized methods that improved inter-laboratory reproducibility. These developments marked XLD's transition from a research tool to an essential component of international microbiological protocols.

Composition

Key Ingredients

Typical formulations of XLD agar may vary slightly between standards and manufacturers (e.g., USP/EP vs. FDA BAM); the following lists a common composition per liter. XLD agar is composed of several key ingredients that contribute to its selective and differential properties for isolating enteric pathogens such as Salmonella and Shigella species. The formulation includes yeast extract (3.0 g), which serves as a source of nitrogen, carbon, and vitamins essential for bacterial growth.^[11]^[9] L-lysine (5.0 g) is incorporated to enable the detection of lysine decarboxylation, a biochemical reaction that helps differentiate Salmonella from other enteric bacteria by producing an alkaline environment.^[11]^[9] Carbohydrates play a critical role in differentiation: xylose (3.75 g) is fermented by most enteric bacteria except Shigella, leading to acid production and color change in the pH indicator; lactose (7.5 g) and sucrose (7.5 g) are included as fermentable sugars that non-pathogenic coliforms can utilize to produce acid, aiding in their distinction from pathogens.^[11]^[9] Sodium chloride (5.0 g) maintains osmotic balance to support the growth of enteric organisms without stressing them.^[11]^[9] For selectivity, sodium deoxycholate (2.5 g) acts as an inhibitory agent that disrupts the cell membranes of Gram-positive bacteria, thereby suppressing their growth while allowing Gram-negative enterics to proliferate.^[11]^[9] The hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) detection system consists of sodium thiosulfate (6.8 g), which provides sulfur for H₂S production by certain Salmonella strains, and ferric ammonium citrate (0.8 g), which reacts with H₂S to form a black precipitate of iron sulfide, enabling visual identification of H₂S-positive colonies.^[11]^[9] Phenol red (0.08 g) functions as the pH indicator, shifting from red (alkaline) to yellow (acidic) in response to fermentation or decarboxylation reactions, thus highlighting differential carbohydrate utilization.^[11]^[9] Finally, agar (15.0 g) solidifies the medium to facilitate colony formation and observation.^[11] The balanced ingredients result in a final pH of 7.4 ± 0.2.^[11]^[9]

Physical and Chemical Properties

XLD agar, in its prepared form, presents as a clear to slightly opalescent red gel, occasionally with a slight precipitate.^[7] The medium maintains a pH of 7.4 ± 0.2 at 25°C, establishing a near-neutral starting environment conducive to the indicator functions.^[7]^[12] Due to the light sensitivity of its indicators, prepared XLD agar requires storage at 2–8°C in the dark or in amber containers to preserve stability.^[7]^[12] The shelf life of prepared plates typically ranges from 2 to 3 months under these conditions.^[13]^[14] The indicator systems comprise pH-sensitive mechanisms tied to carbohydrate metabolism, utilizing phenol red to shift from red (alkaline) to yellow (acidic) coloration, alongside a precipitation-based system involving ferric salts that forms black deposits in response to hydrogen sulfide production.^[7]^[12]

Preparation

Standard Procedure

The standard procedure for preparing XLD agar involves suspending 56.68 grams of dehydrated medium powder in 1 liter of purified or distilled water.^[9] The mixture is then heated to boiling with frequent agitation to ensure complete dissolution, taking care not to overheat or autoclave the medium, as this would degrade heat-labile components such as sugars and pH indicators.^[9]^[15] Once boiling is achieved, the solution is cooled to 45–50°C in a water bath to maintain sterility and prevent further degradation.^[9]^[15] At this temperature, any required supplements for specific variants, such as enrichment additives, may be incorporated aseptically if the standard formulation is being modified. The cooled medium is gently mixed and poured into sterile Petri dishes, typically using 15–20 ml per standard 90 mm plate to achieve a uniform depth of approximately 4–5 mm. The plates are allowed to solidify at room temperature in a laminar flow hood or clean environment to minimize contamination risks.^[9] Prior to inoculation, the surface of the solidified agar should be dried by inverting the plates and incubating them at 35–37°C for 15–30 minutes or until moisture evaporates, ensuring optimal colony development and reducing spreading. All steps must be performed under aseptic conditions, with personal protective equipment including gloves and lab coats to prevent contamination and ensure safety when handling boiling solutions. Throughout the process, the medium's red to reddish-orange color and slightly opalescent appearance should be verified upon cooling, indicating proper preparation.^[15]

Quality Control and Storage

Quality control of XLD agar ensures its reliability for isolating enteric pathogens by verifying key parameters post-preparation. The pH of the prepared medium should be 7.4 ± 0.2 at 25°C, as deviations can affect selective and differential properties.^[7] Sterility testing involves incubating uninoculated plates at 35–37°C for 24–48 hours, during which no microbial growth should occur; any observed growth indicates contamination and requires discarding the batch.^[16] Performance evaluation uses control organisms: Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium (ATCC 14028) should produce red colonies with black centers, while Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922) yields yellow colonies after 18–24 hours of aerobic incubation at 35°C.^[7]^[17] Storage guidelines maintain the medium's integrity and extend usability. Dehydrated XLD agar powder should be kept in tightly sealed containers at room temperature (15–30°C), protected from light and moisture, with a typical shelf life of up to 3 years from manufacture when unopened.^[18] Prepared plates or tubes are stored at 2–8°C in the dark, upright to minimize condensation, and can remain viable for 1–2 weeks, though some formulations support up to 8 weeks under optimal conditions.^[7]^[17] Always check the manufacturer's expiration date, as shelf life varies by lot. Degradation compromises the medium's efficacy, so inspect before use. Signs include physical changes such as cracking, shrinking, or surface drying, as well as discoloration from the characteristic red-orange hue to brown or green tones, often due to moisture exposure or oxidation.^[7] If any deterioration is evident, discard the medium to avoid false results in pathogen detection.^[17]

Principle of Action

Selective Properties

XLD agar functions as a selective medium primarily through the incorporation of sodium deoxycholate, a bile salt derivative that acts as a detergent to disrupt the lipid membranes of Gram-positive bacteria. This agent solubilizes membrane lipids and dissociates associated proteins, leading to increased permeability, loss of ion gradients, and rapid cell death in susceptible organisms. Gram-positive bacteria, lacking an outer membrane, are particularly vulnerable to this disruption, whereas Gram-negative enterics exhibit greater tolerance due to their lipopolysaccharide (LPS) layer and efflux pumps that mitigate bile salt accumulation.^[19]^[20] The medium's selectivity is further enhanced by the presence of sodium chloride at 5 g/L, which imposes osmotic stress that suppresses the growth of certain non-enteric Gram-positive bacteria, such as staphylococci and enterococci, in addition to the primary inhibition by deoxycholate. Moreover, acidic byproducts generated during the fermentation of carbohydrates by growing enterics lower the local pH, providing an auxiliary inhibitory effect against these salt-sensitive and acid-intolerant non-target organisms. These combined factors ensure that the medium favors the proliferation of enteric pathogens over competing fecal microbiota.^[19]^[20] This selective profile allows XLD agar to permit the growth of key Gram-negative pathogens like Salmonella and Shigella, as well as some coliforms, while inhibiting most Gram-positive components of fecal flora. By targeting the majority of non-enteric contaminants, the medium significantly reduces background growth, facilitating the isolation of target organisms from complex samples such as stool or food matrices.^[9]

Differential Properties

XLD agar differentiates enteric pathogens through biochemical reactions involving carbohydrate fermentation, amino acid decarboxylation, and sulfide production, visualized via pH and precipitate indicators. Developed by Taylor in 1965, the medium incorporates xylose, lactose, and sucrose as fermentable sugars, L-lysine for decarboxylation testing, sodium thiosulfate for hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) detection, and phenol red as a pH indicator to distinguish organisms like Salmonella and Shigella from other enterics.^[2]^[21] Sugar fermentation provides initial differentiation: most enteric bacteria, including Salmonella spp., rapidly ferment xylose, producing acid that lowers the pH below 6.8 and turns the phenol red indicator yellow. Shigella spp., however, do not ferment xylose, maintaining the neutral to alkaline pH (above 6.8) and resulting in red colonies. Coliforms and other lactose- or sucrose-fermenting bacteria produce excess acid from these disaccharides, leading to prolonged yellow coloration that persists beyond the transient xylose fermentation seen in Salmonella. This sequential fermentation pattern helps isolate non-lactose fermenters while suppressing overgrowth by rapid fermenters.^[21]^[12] Lysine decarboxylation further refines identification among xylose fermenters. Salmonella spp. possess lysine decarboxylase, converting lysine to cadaverine and other alkaline amines, which raise the pH and revert the medium to red after initial acidification. Shigella spp. lack this enzyme, so their colonies remain red without the acid production step but do not undergo reversion. This alkaline reversal is crucial for presumptive Salmonella identification, as it counteracts xylose-induced acidity in a way not seen in most other enterics.^[2]^[21] H₂S production adds specificity for Salmonella. The medium's sodium thiosulfate is reduced by Salmonella spp. (except certain serovars like S. Paratyphi A and S. Choleraesuis) to H₂S, which reacts with ferric ammonium citrate to form insoluble black iron sulfide precipitates within colonies, yielding red colonies with black centers. Shigella spp. do not produce H₂S, resulting in uniformly red colonies without precipitates. This visual marker enhances differentiation from H₂S-negative pathogens.^[12]^[21] The indicators interact synergistically: phenol red shifts from red (pH >6.8, alkaline or neutral) to yellow (pH <6.8, acidic) based on net metabolic activity, while black precipitates specifically denote H₂S. This combination allows presumptive identification without additional tests, though confirmation via biochemical or serological methods is required.^[2]^[12]

Applications

Isolation in Clinical Settings

XLD agar serves as a primary selective and differential medium for isolating Salmonella and Shigella species from clinical specimens, including stool samples, rectal swabs, and rectal biopsies, particularly in patients exhibiting symptoms of diarrhea, dysentery, or foodborne illness.^[7] This application is critical in clinical microbiology laboratories for rapid preliminary identification of these enteric pathogens, which are major causes of bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide.^[22] The standard protocol involves suspending fresh stool in saline or using a rectal swab to streak the specimen onto XLD agar plates with a sterile loop, ensuring isolated colonies through quadrant streaking.^[7] Plates are then incubated aerobically at 35-37°C for 18-24 hours. Suspicious colonies are subcultured to triple sugar iron (TSI) agar or urea agar for further biochemical confirmation, where reactions such as acid production, gas formation, and urease negativity help differentiate Salmonella from other enteric bacteria. Brief reference to H2S production and xylose fermentation on XLD aids initial selection of these colonies for subculture.^[7] In clinical practice, XLD agar demonstrates high sensitivity, detecting approximately 80-90% of Salmonella cases in direct stool platings, though enrichment broths can enhance recovery in low-burden samples.^[5] It plays an essential role in outbreak investigations for conditions like typhoid fever and shigellosis, enabling timely public health responses. For comprehensive screening, XLD is routinely paired with non-selective media like MacConkey agar or other selective media such as Hektoen enteric agar to maximize pathogen detection.^[22]

Use in Food and Environmental Testing

XLD agar plays a crucial role in food safety testing by facilitating the isolation of Salmonella species from various food matrices, particularly after selective enrichment. In protocols outlined by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's Bacteriological Analytical Manual (BAM) Chapter 5, samples from meats, eggs, and produce undergo pre-enrichment in non-selective media, followed by selective enrichment in selenite cystine or tetrathionate broth to promote Salmonella growth while suppressing competitors. ^[23] The enriched broth is then streaked onto XLD agar, enabling the detection of low contamination levels, such as less than 1 colony-forming unit per gram (CFU/g), which is essential for identifying sporadic outbreaks in these high-risk foods. ^[23] This method supports traceback efforts, as seen in the 2010 nationwide egg recall involving Salmonella Enteritidis, where BAM procedures, including XLD plating, were instrumental in confirming contamination sources during regulatory investigations. In environmental and water testing, XLD agar is employed for detecting Salmonella in potable water and wastewater, often integrated into U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) methods. For instance, EPA Method 1200 for non-typhoidal Salmonella in drinking and surface water involves initial enrichment in tryptic soy broth (TSB), followed by transfer to modified semisolid Rappaport-Vassiliadis (MSRV) medium and isolation on XLD agar via plating of presumptive positives from membrane filtration or concentrated samples. ^[24] Similarly, for dairy products like milk and cheese, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 6579-1 standard recommends pre-enrichment, selective enrichment in Rappaport-Vassiliadis soya peptone broth or Muller-Kauffmann tetrathionate novobiocin broth, and isolation on XLD agar to detect Salmonella at levels relevant to product safety. These approaches ensure compliance with microbial criteria for potable water and dairy, where XLD's differential capabilities benefit Shigella detection in direct plating scenarios. ^[24] XLD agar's utility in these contexts is further emphasized in Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) plans for poultry processing, where it is a standard component for routine Salmonella monitoring to meet regulatory requirements under the USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service guidelines. ^[25] By inhibiting non-enteric flora through its selective agents like sodium desoxycholate and sodium thiosulfate, XLD reduces background growth in pre-enriched samples, improving the specificity and efficiency of pathogen isolation in complex environmental and food matrices. ^[23] This selective inhibition is particularly advantageous in highflora samples from poultry or water, minimizing false negatives and supporting rapid response to contamination events.

Colony Characteristics

Characteristics for Target Pathogens

XLD agar is particularly useful for identifying Salmonella and Shigella species through distinct colony morphologies resulting from their metabolic activities. For hydrogen sulfide (H₂S)-positive Salmonella strains, such as Salmonella Typhimurium, colonies typically appear as 2-3 mm in diameter, red or pink with prominent black centers after 24 hours of incubation at 35-37°C.^[26] These black centers arise from H₂S production, while the red coloration is maintained due to lysine decarboxylation, which neutralizes initial acid production from xylose fermentation and prevents a shift to yellow.^[21] In contrast, H₂S-negative Salmonella strains, such as Salmonella Paratyphi A, form 2-3 mm red colonies lacking black centers, closely resembling Shigella colonies and necessitating further differentiation.^[26] Shigella species produce characteristically small, 0.5-2 mm diameter colonies that are red, moist, and translucent on XLD agar after 24 hours, without black centers or yellowing.^[27] This appearance stems from their inability to ferment xylose, lactose, or sucrose, resulting in no acid production and thus no pH indicator change to yellow. Most Shigella strains, except Shigella dysenteriae type 1 which may form very tiny colonies, exhibit this uniform morphology.^[27] Interpretation of colonies on XLD agar relies on these features for presumptive identification: red colonies with black centers indicate H₂S-positive Salmonella, while red colonies without black centers suggest either H₂S-negative Salmonella or Shigella, both requiring subsequent biochemical or serological confirmation for definitive speciation.^[21] This differentiation aids in rapid screening but underscores the need for orthogonal tests due to morphological overlap between H₂S-negative Salmonella and Shigella.^[26]

Characteristics for Non-Target Organisms

On XLD agar, coliform bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Enterobacter, and Klebsiella typically produce large (3-4 mm), flat, mucoid, yellow colonies due to their fermentation of lactose and sucrose, which lowers the pH and changes the phenol red indicator.^[3]^[28] These organisms are not fully inhibited by the medium's sodium deoxycholate content, allowing growth that can mimic or overwhelm target colonies.^[20] Proteus species form smaller (2-3 mm) colonies that appear red to yellow, with some strains developing black centers from hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) production, potentially leading to false positives for Salmonella.^[3]^[28] Although the deoxycholate in XLD agar suppresses swarming behavior characteristic of Proteus, heavy overgrowth can still obscure plates and complicate interpretation.^[29] Pseudomonas species exhibit weak growth on XLD agar, forming small, flat, rough colonies that are pink or red, as the medium partially inhibits their proliferation but does not prevent all strains from appearing.^[3]^[20] These appearances arise from limited sugar fermentation and the selective properties of deoxycholate, which primarily target Gram-positives but affect some non-enterics.^[28] In practice, the presence of yellow colonies signals coliform overgrowth, which can mask true positives, while Proteus swarming remnants or H₂S-positive variants necessitate further confirmatory tests to distinguish from pathogens.^[20]^[30] This differential observation aids in identifying interfering flora, ensuring accurate isolation of enteric targets.

Limitations

Sources of Error

One major source of error in XLD agar is false positives arising from non-target organisms that mimic Salmonella colony morphology. Proteus species, such as P. mirabilis, and Citrobacter species, including C. freundii, can produce hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), resulting in black-centered colonies that resemble those of Salmonella on XLD agar.^[31]^[21] Additionally, some non-pathogenic bacteria, like certain Pseudomonas and Proteus strains, may form red colonies due to limited sugar fermentation, further complicating differentiation.^[7]^[9] False negatives can occur with H₂S-negative Salmonella strains, which fail to produce the characteristic black centers and instead appear as red or colorless colonies similar to Shigella. For instance, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi and S. Gallinarum typically form red colonies without H₂S production, increasing the risk of misidentification or oversight.^[21]^[32] Slow-growing Salmonella strains may also be missed if incubation is limited to less than 24 hours, as full color development often requires up to 48 hours at 35–37°C.^[33] Procedural factors contribute to additional errors, such as overcrowded plates from inadequate streaking techniques, which can lead to satellite growth where weaker organisms grow in the proximity of stronger ones, obscuring target colonies. Aging of the medium can cause pH drift, altering the phenol red indicator and leading to inaccurate color reactions for differentiation.^[21] False positive rates on XLD agar vary across studies (e.g., up to 27% in some food samples), primarily due to interfering H₂S producers like Proteus, with higher incidence in samples containing high Proteus loads.^[31]^[34]

Mitigation Strategies

To address potential ambiguities in pathogen identification on XLD agar, confirmatory testing is essential, involving subculture of suspicious colonies to specialized media for biochemical and serological verification. Subculturing to triple sugar iron (TSI) agar assesses carbohydrate fermentation and hydrogen sulfide production, while urea broth tests for urease activity to differentiate Salmonella from urease-positive contaminants like Proteus. API 20E strips provide a comprehensive biochemical profile for enteric bacteria identification, confirming Salmonella through reactions in multiple enzymatic tests. Serological typing using polyvalent antisera targets Salmonella O (somatic) and H (flagellar) antigens, enabling serovar differentiation via slide agglutination.^[35]^[36]^[26]^[37] Procedural optimizations enhance XLD agar's reliability, particularly for samples with low pathogen loads or competing flora. Pre-enrichment in Gram-negative (GN) broth selectively amplifies Salmonella and Shigella while suppressing Gram-positive organisms, improving recovery from clinical or environmental specimens prior to plating on XLD. Incubation should be limited to 24-48 hours at 35-37°C to allow characteristic colony development without overgrowth by non-target organisms, which can obscure differentials. Combining XLD with chromogenic agars, such as CHROMagar Salmonella, increases specificity by enabling visual distinction of Salmonella through unique color reactions, reducing false positives in mixed cultures.^[38]^[33]^[39] In high-risk scenarios where XLD results are inconclusive, molecular alternatives like real-time PCR targeting invA or ttr genes offer direct detection of Salmonella DNA, bypassing culture limitations and providing results in hours. These methods are particularly useful for ambiguous colonies or low-prevalence samples, with sensitivities exceeding 95% in enriched matrices. Adherence to standardized guidelines, such as those from the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) and ISO 6579-1, mandates using at least two selective media (e.g., XLD paired with Hektoen enteric agar) for isolation, followed by confirmatory tests to ensure accurate reporting.^[40]^[41]^[42]

Comparison to Other Media

Versus SS Agar

Salmonella-Shigella (SS) agar is a selective and differential medium primarily used for the isolation of Salmonella and Shigella species from clinical specimens, employing brilliant green dye and bile salts to inhibit Gram-positive bacteria and many coliforms, while relying on lactose fermentation for differentiation—non-fermenters appear as colorless colonies—and sodium thiosulfate with ferric citrate for hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) production, resulting in black-centered colonies for H₂S-positive Salmonella.^[43] Compared to XLD agar, SS agar shows key differences in selectivity and differentiation: XLD provides superior detection of xylose-fermenting Salmonella strains, achieving approximately 83% recovery versus 74% on SS agar, due to its xylose-based indicator system that better distinguishes these pathogens from background flora; SS agar more strongly inhibits certain Shigella strains, leading to lower recovery rates (68% versus 90% on XLD); and XLD minimizes false yellow colonies (mimicking Shigella) from coliforms through lysine decarboxylation followed by excess acid production from lactose and sucrose, which counters pH reversion, whereas SS agar's lactose-only differentiation can yield more ambiguous results from partial fermenters.^[5]^[7]^[5] In terms of performance from stool specimens, XLD agar isolates more Salmonella (334 versus 299 isolates) and Shigella (36 versus 27 isolates) than SS agar, with an overall higher validity index and fewer false-positive plates (52% suspect colonies confirmed negative on XLD versus 72% on SS), making XLD particularly advantageous for mixed enteric infections.^[5]^[5] XLD agar is generally chosen for broad enteric pathogen screening in clinical settings due to its balanced sensitivity for both Salmonella and Shigella, while SS agar may be preferred in scenarios with high suspicion of Shigella alone, though combinations of both media are often recommended for optimal recovery.^[44]^[45]

Versus HE Agar

Hektoen Enteric (HE) agar is a moderately selective and differential culture medium primarily used for isolating and differentiating Salmonella and Shigella species from stool specimens. Its selectivity is achieved through bile salts and sodium citrate, which inhibit gram-positive bacteria and much of the normal enteric flora, while allowing growth of gram-negative pathogens. The medium contains fermentable carbohydrates including lactose, sucrose, and salicin, with bromothymol blue serving as the pH indicator to detect acid production from fermentation, turning colonies yellow-orange or salmon-colored for fermenters. Acid fuchsin enhances colony transparency for better visualization, particularly of Shigella. Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) production is indicated by the reduction of sodium thiosulfate in the presence of ferric ammonium citrate, forming black precipitates in colony centers.^[46]^[47] In comparison to XLD agar, HE agar differs significantly in its indicator system and biochemical basis for differentiation, leading to distinct colony morphologies and varying specificity. On HE agar, Salmonella colonies typically appear blue-green, often with black centers for H₂S producers, while Shigella forms green, moist, and transparent colonies due to non-fermentation of the carbohydrates and the action of acid fuchsin. XLD agar, by contrast, employs phenol red as its pH indicator and incorporates xylose and lysine to exploit Salmonella's lysine decarboxylase activity, resulting in red-centered colonies with black H₂S precipitates that revert from initial yellow after xylose fermentation. This xylose-lysine combination in XLD enhances specificity for Salmonella by distinguishing it from H₂S-producing mimics like Citrobacter (which ferment xylose to yellow without reversion), with higher recovery (83% vs. 80% for Salmonella) and lower false-positive rates (52% vs. 74% of suspect plates), where lactose/sucrose non-fermentation is less discriminatory on HE. HE agar is also more prone to overgrowth by swarming Proteus species, as its bile salts provide weaker inhibition against such motile gram-negatives. Both media share a similar mechanism for H₂S detection via thiosulfate and ferric ammonium citrate.^[10]^[31] Performance evaluations show that XLD agar generally outperforms HE in terms of efficiency and reduced workload, with comparable recovery rates for target pathogens but fewer false positives. Studies indicate XLD recovers 83% of Salmonella and 90% of Shigella isolates, versus 80% for both on HE, with XLD producing 145% fewer false positives overall (403 versus 988 suspect colonies per study). XLD provides clearer differentiation within 18-24 hours of incubation, minimizing the need for subculturing, while HE may require up to 24-48 hours for unambiguous results and detects slightly more H₂S-negative Salmonella but at the cost of higher false-positive rates from Citrobacter and Proteus, necessitating more biochemical confirmations. For Shigella, XLD achieves approximately 90% recovery compared to 80% on HE, though HE's transparent green colonies can aid initial visual identification in mixed flora.^[10]^[48] XLD agar is typically chosen for routine clinical and food microbiology labs due to its higher specificity, lower false-positive burden, and cost-effectiveness in high-volume settings. HE agar is often employed as a complementary or backup medium when XLD results are ambiguous, particularly for enhancing Shigella recovery or in cases of suspected H₂S-variable strains, allowing labs to leverage their combined strengths for improved overall diagnostic accuracy.^[31]^[10]

References

[1]
[PDF] CRITERION XLD Agar - Hardy Diagnostics
Xylose-Lysine-Deoxycholate (XLD) Agar was developed by Taylor for the differentiation, isolation, and identification of enteric pathogens, and to support ...
[2]
Isolation of shigellae. I. Xylose lysine agars - PubMed
Isolation of shigellae. I. Xylose lysine agars; new media for isolation of enteric pathogens. Am J Clin Pathol. 1965 Oct;44(4):471-5.
[3]
Xylose Lysine Deoxycholate (XLD) Agar- Principle, Uses ...
Aug 10, 2022 · XLD Agar is a selective medium for isolating Salmonella and Shigella, using xylose and lysine to differentiate them from other bacteria.
[4]
[PDF] 62 MICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF NONSTERILE ...
Subculture on plates of Xylose Lysine Deoxycholate Agar. Incubate at 30 to 35 for 18 to 48 hours. Interpretation— The possible presence of Salmonella is ...
[5]
Isolation of Shigellae: VIII. Comparison of Xylose Lysine ... - NIH
XLD fround 83% of salmonellae produced by the composite of four media and 90% of the shigellae. Hektoen enteric agar found 80% of both. Salmonella-Shigella agar ...
[6]
Welton Ivan Taylor - Prabook
From assistant professor to associate professor Department Microbiology University Illinois, 1965—1969, associate professor Department Microbiology, 1969—1987.
[7]
[PDF] XLD Agar - Hardy Diagnostics
Xylose Lysine Deoxycholate (XLD) Agar was developed by Taylor for the differentiation, isolation, and identification of enteric pathogens, and to support ...Missing: Welton University
[8]
https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/deepweb/assets/sigmaaldrich/product/documents/304/465/tn1352en-mk.pdf
[9]
[PDF] Xylose-Lysine Deoxycholate Agar (XLD Agar) - Technical Data
XLD Agar has been recommended for the identification of Enterobacteriaceae (1) and for the microbiological testing. XLD. Agar was formulated by Taylor (2-6) for ...
[10]
Isolation of Shigellae: VIII. Comparison of Xylose Lysine ...
Taylor, W. I. 1965. Isolation of shigellae. L. Xylose lysine agars: new media for isolation of enteric pathogens. Amer. J.
[11]
[PDF] Laboratory Methods for the Diagnosis of Epidemic Dysentery and ...
Desoxycholate citrate agar (DCA) and Hektoen enteric (HE) agar are suitable alternatives to XLD agar as media of moderate to high selectivity. Do not use SS ...
[12]
[PDF] Bacteriological Analytical Manual (BAM) Chapter 5: Salmonella - FDA
Updated section C.7a to include oysters. • March 2022: Section C.28 updated to include dairy feed as a validated animal food.Missing: 1984 1990s
[13]
International Microbiological Criteria - NCBI
ISO (International Organization for Standardization). 1981. General Guidance for Detection of Salmonella. ISO 6579. Washington, DC: ISO. WHO (World Health ...
[14]
BAM Media M179: Xylose Lysine Desoxycholate (XLD) Agar - FDA
Oct 16, 2017 · FDA's Bacteriological Analytical Manual (BAM) presents the agency's preferred laboratory procedures for microbiological analyses of foods ...Missing: inclusion 1984 ISO 1990s
[15]
None
### Summary of Physical and Chemical Properties of Prepared XLD Agar
[16]
https://microbeonline.com/xylose-lysine-deoxycholate-xld-agar-composition-preparation-results-uses/
[17]
XYLOSE LYSINE DEOXYCHOLATE (XLD) MEDIA
In stock90 mm Petri Dish | 20 ml Prepared Medium · IVD | Sterile | pH 7.4 ± 0.2 · Pack of 10, Vacuum · Packaged Storage Conditions 2-8°C · Usage Shelf life: 3 months ...
[18]
https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/deepweb/assets/sigmaaldrich/product/documents/343/038/tn1344en-ms.pdf
[19]
XLD Agar: Composition, Principle, Results, and Uses - Microbe Online
Apr 22, 2015 · Sterility testing: Incubate un-inoculated plates of XLD agar for 48 hours at 35-37°C and observe any growth. · Performance testing: Inoculate ...
[20]
[PDF] XLD AGAR
XLD Agar is a modification of Taylor's original work, whom first developed XL Agar as a non-selective medium for the isolation of enteric organisms.
[21]
None
### Summary of XLD Agar Information
[22]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4443274/
[23]
XLD Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
Jan 7, 2022 · XLD Agar is a selective differential medium for the isolation of Gram-negative enteric pathogens from fecal specimens and other clinical ...What is XLD Agar? · Composition of XLD Agar · Principle of XLD Agar
[24]
BAM Chapter 5: Salmonella
### Summary of XLD Agar Principle from BAM Chapter 5: Salmonella
[25]
Salmonella, Shigella, and Yersinia - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Hektoen and xylose-lysine-deoxycholate (XLD) agars are highly selective and both detect H2S production, facilitating identification of Salmonella species.
[26]
[PDF] Method 1200: Analytical Protocol for Non-Typhoidal Salmonella in ...
May 1, 2012 · Presumptive colonies are sub-cultured onto xylose lysine desoxycholate (XLD) agar and incubated at 36.0°C ± 1.5°C for 18 – 24 hours.
[27]
[PDF] MLG 4.15 Isolation and Identification of Salmonella from Meat ...
Aug 12, 2024 · Streak RV to. XLD plates. Incubate at 35°C for 18 – 24 hrs. Isolation and Identification of Salmonella from Meat, Poultry Pasteurized Egg ...
[28]
[PDF] Standard Operating Procedure for Identification of Salmonella by ...
On MacConkey: colourless colonies between 2 to 3 mm in diameter after 24 hours of incubation. On XLD: red-pink colonies from 2-3 mm in diameter at 24 hours; ...
[29]
12.6.2: XLD Agar
### Colony Characteristics on XLD Agar for Non-Target Organisms
[30]
https://www.tmmedia.in/xylose-lysine-deoxycholate-xld-agar-principle-composition-uses/
[31]
XLD Agar: Principle, Composition, and Uses - TM Media
Aug 27, 2025 · Sodium Deoxycholate inhibits the growth of Gram-positive bacteria. ... XLD Agar works through a combination of fermentation reactions ...Missing: percentage fecal flora
[32]
Development of an Improved Selective and Differential Medium for ...
The specificity of XA medium (92.0%) was superior to that of XLD (73.0%), with a total of 14 and 47 false-positive results found on XA medium and XLD, ...
[33]
[PDF] PP0320 Xylose Lysine Deoxycholate (XLD) Agar Pre-Poured Media
Xylose Lysine Deoxycholate (XLD) Agar was developed from Xylose Lysine Agar by Taylor in 1965⁽¹⁾ by the addition of thiosulphate, ferric ions and ...Missing: formulation | Show results with:formulation
[34]
[PDF] XLD (XYLOSE-LYSINE-DESOXYCHOLATE) AGAR
Remel XLD (Xylose-Lysine-Desoxycholate) Agar is a solid medium recommended for use in qualitative procedures for selective and differential isolation of enteric ...
[35]
[PDF] Discrepancies in the Microbiological Analysis of Foods: Causes and ...
Jul 2, 2024 · These data suggest a false-positive rate of around. 4% and a false-negative rate that varies by pathogen, with atypical strains and low ...
[36]
[PDF] Bacteriological Analytical Manual (BAM) - Chapter 5: Salmonella
Apply biochemical and serological identification tests to: a. Three presumptive TSI cultures recovered from set of plates streaked from RV medium (or SC broth ...
[37]
[PDF] Salmonella Species Presumptive and Confirmation Tests
Feb 1, 2007 · Urease Test: Transfer all presumed-positive cultures grown on TSI slants to tubes of urea broth and incubate at 35-37 °C for 22-26 hrs.
[38]
Salmonella Serotyping; Comparison of the Traditional Method ... - NIH
Nov 11, 2019 · The serotype is determined by agglutination of the bacteria with specific antisera to identify variants of somatic (O) and flagella (H) antigens ...
[39]
[PDF] GN Broth - for the enrichment of Salmonella and Shigella from stool ...
Hardy Diagnostics GN (Gram-Negative) Broth is recommended for the selective enrichment of Shigella and. Salmonella spp. in clinical and non-clinical specimens.
[40]
Evaluation and Implementation of a Chromogenic Agar Medium for ...
In our revised protocol, we plate stool samples directly and after enrichment in GN broth onto BBL and XLD, striving for a high sensitivity of Salmonella ...
[41]
Performance of molecular methods for the detection of Salmonella in ...
Oct 9, 2020 · The test methods being evaluated here, added specific details on Salmonella stool culture and Taqman Array Card assay, added more background information.
[42]
[PDF] Isolation and Identification of Salmonella Species in Public ... - APHL
The goal of this document is to provide PHLs with methods to isolate and identify Salmonella spp. from stool specimens as efficiently as possible. Fecal ...
[43]
ISO 6579-1:2017 - Microbiology of the food chain — Horizontal ...
: Published. Publication date. : 2017-02. Stage. : International Standard confirmed [90.93]. Edition. : 1. Number of pages. : 50. Technical Committee : ISO/TC ...
[44]
Salmonella Shigella (SS) Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation ...
Jan 6, 2022 · Sodium thiosulfate and Ferric Citrate permit detection of hydrogen sulfide by the production of colonies with black centers. Neutral red ...Composition of Salmonella... · Principle of Salmonella... · Result Interpretation on...
[45]
Comparison of Media for Direct Isolation and Transport of Shigellae ...
The combination of XLD agar and SS agar is recommended for direct isolation of shigellae, and, whenever possible, these solid media should be taken to the ...
[46]
[PDF] SS AGAR
Therefore SS Agar should not be used for the primary isolation of Shigella, instead an alternate product such as Hektoen Enteric Agar (Dalynn PH45) or XLD Agar ...<|separator|>
[47]
[PDF] Hektoen Enteric (HE) Agar - Salmonella and Shigella
The addition of ferric ammonium citrate and sodium thiosulfate enable the detection of H2S, noted by the production of black centered colonies. Sodium ...Missing: composition | Show results with:composition
[48]
Hektoen Enteric Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results ...
Jan 4, 2022 · Hektoen Enteric Agar is a selective medium for isolating and differentiating Salmonella and Shigella using bile salts and indicator systems.
[49]
A comparison of six different plating media used in the isolation of ...
Hektoen Enteric Agar ranked second, with the other agars being comparable in their recovery of Salmonella spp. Problems with the various media are summarized.