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Granulation

Granulation is a fundamental particle size enlargement process in pharmaceutical manufacturing, where fine powder particles are aggregated into larger, more uniform granules to enhance powder flow, content uniformity, and compressibility for the production of tablets and capsules.^[1] This technique addresses common challenges with fine powders, such as poor handling, segregation, and inconsistent dosing, by forming stable agglomerates that facilitate downstream processing like compression and coating.^[2] The process typically involves mixing active pharmaceutical ingredients with excipients and a liquid binder in wet granulation, the most widely used method, which promotes adhesion through mechanisms like viscous flow or capillary forces, followed by drying to remove moisture and solidify the granules.^[3] Dry granulation, an alternative for moisture-sensitive materials, employs mechanical compaction via roller compaction or slugging without liquids, yielding denser granules suitable for heat-labile drugs.^[4] Recent advancements, including continuous granulation using twin-screw extruders, have improved scalability, process control, and efficiency in industrial settings.^[5] Beyond pharmaceuticals, granulation is applied in industries such as fertilizers for uniform nutrient distribution and food processing for improved product handling and quality.

Overview

Definition and Principles

Granulation is a particle size enlargement process that involves the agglomeration of finer powders, liquids, or solids into larger, free-flowing, and uniform granules, typically ranging from 0.2 to 4.0 mm in diameter.^[6] This technique is widely applied in pharmaceutical manufacturing to prepare intermediates for tablet compression or capsule filling, transforming cohesive or poorly flowing materials into more handleable forms.^[1] The process relies on controlled bonding to ensure granule integrity without excessive friability. The underlying principles of granulation center on interparticle forces that promote adhesion and cohesion among particles. Key forces include van der Waals attractions, which dominate in dry fine powders and arise from molecular interactions; capillary forces, generated by liquid bridges in wet conditions that draw particles together; and electrostatic forces, which can enhance or hinder agglomeration depending on charge distribution.^[6] Binders, such as hydrophilic polymers like polyvinylpyrrolidone or starch derivatives, play a critical role by increasing viscosity and facilitating adhesion through liquid films or solid bridges formed upon drying.^[7] Granule strength is achieved via densification, which reduces porosity and increases packing density, and bonding mechanisms like solid bridge formation or mechanical interlocking, ensuring the granules withstand handling and subsequent processing.^[8] Granules can exhibit varied morphologies, including spherical shapes that promote smooth flow due to reduced interparticle friction, versus irregular forms that may increase cohesion; similarly, porous structures allow for better liquid penetration but lower density, while dense granules offer superior mechanical strength.^[7] These structural differences influence overall performance in downstream applications. The primary benefits of granulation include improved powder flowability for accurate dosing, minimization of dust generation to enhance safety and cleanliness, and enhanced compressibility that facilitates uniform tablet formation.^[1] For instance, wet and dry granulation methods exemplify these principles by leveraging liquid or mechanical forces, respectively, to achieve agglomeration.^[6]

Historical Development

The origins of granulation techniques trace back to the early 20th century in fertilizer production, where the process was developed to improve the handling and uniformity of chemical fertilizers. In 1926, the first documented granulation of fertilizers occurred in Chile, involving the melting of sodium nitrate at approximately 400°C and cooling it into bead-like granules using spray methods, marking an initial effort to create larger, more manageable particles from fine powders.^[9] By the 1930s, advancements included the Oberphos process in the United States, which utilized rotating cylinder granulators for superphosphate-based compounds, and the Eirich process in Europe employing horizontal disc mixers to enhance particle cohesion without liquids.^[9] In the pharmaceutical industry, granulation gained prominence post-1950s as a critical step in tablet manufacturing to address poor powder flowability and ensure uniform drug distribution. Wet granulation, involving the addition of liquid binders to form agglomerates, became a standard method during this period, evolving from manual mixing to mechanized processes that improved tablet compressibility and dissolution rates.^[10] Dry granulation, which was developed in the 1950s with techniques like slugging for moisture- and heat-sensitive active pharmaceutical ingredients, relying on mechanical compaction techniques like slugging to densify powders without solvents, thereby minimizing degradation risks.^[11] Influential developments included early roller compaction patents in the late 19th century for metallurgical applications, such as the 1884 U.S. patent by J.M. Wilcox for a roller press design that laid foundational principles for powder densification later adapted to granulation.^[12] In the mid-1970s, the introduction of high-shear mixers revolutionized wet granulation in pharmaceuticals, providing intense mechanical energy for rapid binder distribution and granule formation, which became a commonly adopted method for scalable production.^[13]^[14] A significant milestone in the 1950s was the Tennessee Valley Authority's introduction of drum granulation technology for fertilizers, which by 1964 accounted for 90% of U.S. granular fertilizer output, demonstrating the shift toward efficient, large-scale particle agglomeration.^[9] The 2000s marked a transition to continuous granulation processes, driven by FDA guidance on Process Analytical Technology and Quality by Design principles released in 2004, which encouraged innovations like twin-screw extruders for real-time monitoring and optimized granule quality in both fertilizers and pharmaceuticals.^[15] Since the 2010s, adoption of Quality by Design (QbD) has further refined granulation optimization, emphasizing risk-based process controls and predictive modeling to enhance reproducibility and regulatory compliance across industries.^[15] In the 2020s, granulation has seen further innovations including AI-driven process optimization and sustainable techniques to reduce energy consumption and environmental impact.^[16]

Methods of Granulation

Wet Granulation

Wet granulation involves the agglomeration of fine powders into larger, cohesive granules through the addition of a liquid binder, which facilitates nucleation, growth, and consolidation of the particles into a wet mass, followed by drying to remove the liquid.^[17] This method enhances powder flowability, compressibility, and uniformity, making it suitable for materials that can withstand the drying process.^[1] The process begins with the dry mixing of primary powders, such as active pharmaceutical ingredients and excipients, to ensure homogeneity. A liquid binder, typically water, ethanol, or isopropanol, is then added to form a wet mass, where the liquid wets the particles, promoting initial nucleation and subsequent granule growth through coalescence and layering mechanisms. The wet mass undergoes kneading or shearing to consolidate the granules, after which it is dried using methods like fluid bed drying or oven drying to evaporate the liquid and achieve the desired moisture content, typically below 2%. Finally, the dried granules are screened to obtain uniform sizes.^[17]^[1] Binders play a crucial role in providing adhesion between particles; common types include povidone (PVP), starch, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), and maltodextrin, which are incorporated either as dry powders activated by the liquid or dissolved in the granulating fluid. Binder concentrations typically range from 2-10% w/w of the total formulation to achieve optimal bonding without excessive stickiness. The liquid-to-solid ratio is generally maintained between 0.2 and 0.5 to ensure adequate wetting while avoiding over-saturation, with adjustments based on powder hydrophilicity and desired granule porosity.^[17]^[4] One key advantage of wet granulation is the formation of strong interparticle bonds via the liquid bridge and subsequent solidification, resulting in durable, cohesive granules with improved handling properties, particularly for heat-stable materials that tolerate the drying step.^[17] However, challenges include the risk of over-wetting, which can lead to lump formation and uneven granule size distribution, as well as the energy-intensive drying phase that increases processing time and costs.^[1]^[17] Variations in wet granulation include batch processes, such as high-shear mixing where intense agitation promotes rapid granule formation, and continuous processes using twin-screw extruders for steady-state production with integrated wetting and conveying.^[17] Unlike dry granulation, which avoids liquids and is better suited for moisture-sensitive substances, wet granulation relies on liquid addition and removal for effective agglomeration.^[1]

Dry Granulation

Dry granulation is a powder agglomeration technique that forms granules through mechanical compression without the addition of liquids, making it ideal for moisture- or heat-sensitive materials in pharmaceutical manufacturing. The method enhances powder flowability, reduces dust, and improves compressibility for subsequent tableting, often serving as an alternative to wet granulation processes.^[1]^[17] The process begins with feeding a powder blend—typically consisting of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) and excipients—into a compactor under controlled pressure. This compresses the material into dense ribbons or slugs, which are then milled and sized to yield granules of desired particle size distribution, usually 0.5–2 mm for optimal flow and compaction properties. Unlike wet granulation, no drying step is required, streamlining the workflow and reducing processing time.^[1]^[17] The predominant technique is roller compaction, where powder is passed between two counter-rotating rolls under high pressure (typically 2–100 kN/cm) to form a continuous ribbon, followed by immediate milling to break it into granules. This continuous process is scalable and widely adopted in industry for its efficiency. Slugging, a less common batch method, involves compressing the powder into oversized tablets (slugs) using a conventional tablet press, which are then crushed and screened; it is simpler for small-scale operations but prone to inconsistencies in slug density due to variable powder feeding.^[1]^[18] Excipients in dry granulation formulations focus on aiding flow and compaction rather than adhesion, as no liquid binders are used. Lubricants such as magnesium stearate (0.5–1% w/w) are commonly incorporated to minimize sticking to equipment surfaces and enhance powder flow during feeding, while glidants like colloidal silicon dioxide (0.1–0.3% w/w) further improve handling. Fillers including microcrystalline cellulose or lactose may also be added to adjust bulk density and ensure uniform compaction.^[19]^[20]^[17] Key advantages include the avoidance of moisture and elevated temperatures, which preserves the stability of thermolabile or hygroscopic APIs, enabling high drug loadings of 70–100% in some cases. The process is economical, requiring fewer unit operations and generating minimal waste compared to solvent-based methods.^[1]^[17] However, limitations arise from the reliance on mechanical interlocking and plastic deformation for bonding, resulting in weaker interparticle forces than those formed by liquid bridges in wet granulation, which can lead to reduced tablet tensile strength and increased friability. Additionally, the milling step may induce particle segregation if the powder blend contains components with disparate sizes or densities, potentially affecting content uniformity.^[18]^[21] To optimize yield, fines produced during compaction and milling—often 10–30% of the output—are routinely recycled by reintroducing them into the feed hopper, though repeated processing may slightly degrade granule quality over cycles.^[1]^[17]

Granulation from Solids

Granulation from solids, also known as melt granulation, is a solvent-free agglomeration technique in pharmaceutical manufacturing where heat is applied to soften or melt a solid binder, allowing it to adhere powder particles into granules without the use of liquids, making it suitable for moisture-sensitive or heat-stable active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs).^[1] This method improves powder flow, compressibility, and content uniformity while avoiding issues associated with wet processing.^[22] The process typically involves mixing the API and excipients with a thermoplastic binder, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), poloxamer, or lipid-based materials like glycerol monostearate, at concentrations of 5-20% w/w. The blend is then heated in equipment like a high-shear mixer, fluidized bed processor, or twin-screw extruder to a temperature above the binder's melting point (usually 40-80°C for low-melting binders) but below the degradation point of the API, promoting binder distribution and granule formation through mechanisms like viscous flow and solidification upon cooling. The resulting granules are cooled, milled if necessary, and sized to achieve uniform particles, often 0.5-2 mm.^[1]^[23] Common binders include polymers with low melting points, such as PEG 6000 (melting at ~60°C) or polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) derivatives, selected based on the formulation's thermal stability. The heating rate and temperature are controlled to prevent API degradation, with cooling often performed in a fluidized bed to ensure rapid solidification and prevent agglomeration.^[1] Advantages of melt granulation include the elimination of drying steps, reduced risk of solvent residues, and suitability for high-dose or poorly compressible drugs, enabling continuous processing in twin-screw extruders for improved scalability. It is particularly beneficial for formulating sustained-release matrices or enhancing bioavailability of lipophilic drugs.^[22]^[24] However, challenges involve precise temperature control to avoid overheating sensitive materials, potential for uneven binder distribution leading to variable granule properties, and higher energy use for heating compared to room-temperature methods. Unlike mechanical dry granulation, melt granulation relies on thermal softening for stronger bonding but requires validation for thermal stability.^[1]

Equipment and Techniques

Key Equipment

High-shear mixers are essential equipment in wet granulation processes, where they facilitate the rapid mixing of powders with a liquid binder to form a uniform wet mass through intense mechanical agitation. These devices typically feature a mixing bowl, impeller, and chopper blades that operate at high speeds, enabling efficient nucleation and growth of granules while minimizing processing time. Configurations often include jacketed vessels for temperature control and are available in batch or continuous modes.^[1] Fluidized bed granulators serve dual functions in granulation by combining agglomeration and drying in a single unit, where air is passed through a perforated distributor plate to suspend powder particles, and a binder solution is sprayed onto the fluidized bed to promote granule formation. This equipment enhances granule uniformity and density through controlled fluidization, with various spray configurations for optimal binder distribution and drying efficiency. Fluidized bed systems are particularly suited for heat-sensitive materials due to their gentle drying mechanism via hot air circulation.^[1] Roller compactors are key for dry granulation, compacting powders into dense ribbons using two counter-rotating rolls under hydraulic pressure, typically ranging from 5 to 20 kN/cm, followed by milling to produce granules. These machines improve powder flow and density without moisture addition, featuring adjustable roll gaps (1-6 mm) and speeds (1-30 rpm) for precise control over ribbon thickness and compaction force. Slugging presses, an alternative compaction method, employ heavy-duty tablet presses to form oversized tablets or slugs from powder blends, which are then broken down into granules, offering a simpler setup for smaller batches but less efficiency for continuous operations.^[17]^[1] Fluid bed dryers are widely used post-granulation to remove moisture from wet granules by suspending them in a stream of heated air, ensuring uniform drying and preventing agglomeration or degradation. These systems maintain gentle agitation to avoid over-drying, with drying times typically 30-120 minutes depending on load and air temperature. Oscillating mills, often integrated after compaction, size ribbons or slugs into uniform granules via a rotating perforated screen and oscillating rotor, providing gentle size reduction for friable materials without excessive fines generation.^[17] Twin-screw extruders enable continuous wet granulation by conveying, mixing, and kneading powders with liquid binders through intermeshing screws, producing extrudates that are spheronized or dried into granules. This integrated system supports high-throughput processing with modular screw configurations for varying shear and residence times, making it ideal for scalable pharmaceutical production.^[4] Auxiliary equipment such as sieves and feeders supports granulation by ensuring precise particle size classification and consistent material delivery. Vibratory or rotary sieves classify granules into desired size fractions (e.g., 0.5-2 mm) post-milling, removing oversize or fines for quality control. Volumetric or gravimetric feeders, including screw or vibratory types, provide uniform powder feeding to granulators or compactors, minimizing segregation and enabling accurate dosing in continuous lines.^[17]

Process Parameters and Control

In wet granulation processes, the liquid addition rate is a critical parameter, often maintained at an appropriate level of saturation, typically around 20-50% depending on the powder bed and materials, to achieve optimal granule formation without excessive wetting.^[25] This liquid-to-solid (L/S) ratio influences nucleation and growth mechanisms, with higher rates promoting coalescence but risking over-wetting.^[26] In high-shear wet granulation, impeller speed ranges from 100-500 rpm to generate sufficient shear for uniform mixing and granule densification, while chopper speeds of 1000-3000 rpm aid in breaking down agglomerates.^[27] For dry granulation via roller compaction, compaction force is paramount, often set between 50-200 MPa to densify the powder ribbon without fracturing, alongside roll speed and gap width to control ribbon thickness and granule yield.^[28] These parameters must be tuned based on material properties to ensure consistent granule attributes across batches. Granule quality is evaluated through metrics such as size distribution, determined via sieve analysis to target a narrow range (e.g., 80-90% between 0.5-2 mm) for downstream processing efficiency.^[29] Bulk and tapped densities assess compressibility, with ideal values promoting uniform die filling, while flowability is quantified using Carr's index, where values below 20% indicate excellent flow suitable for tableting.^[30] Poor flowability (Carr's index >25%) can lead to segregation or inconsistent tablet weights, underscoring the need for these metrics in quality control. Control strategies leverage Process Analytical Technology (PAT) for real-time oversight, including near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy to monitor moisture content in-line during wet granulation and drying, enabling endpoint detection at 1-5% residual moisture.^[31] PAT tools facilitate automated adjustments, such as varying liquid spray rates based on torque feedback, to maintain process robustness and comply with FDA guidelines for quality-by-design.^[32] Optimization employs Design of Experiments (DoE) to elucidate factor interactions, such as L/S ratio and impeller speed on granule size, using factorial or response surface designs to define a design space for scalable processes.^[33] Scale-up from lab to production considers geometric similarity and specific energy input, with pilot studies ensuring parameter translation (e.g., maintaining equivalent shear rates) to avoid deviations in granule properties.^[34] Common issues include over-granulation in wet processes, resulting in sticky masses from excessive liquid leading to poor drying and segregation, often mitigated by precise L/S control.^[35] In dry granulation, under-compaction at low forces yields friable granules prone to attrition, compromising flow and compressibility, necessitating higher pressures or feed screw adjustments.^[36]

Applications

Pharmaceuticals

In pharmaceutical manufacturing, granulation serves as a critical intermediate step in the production of solid dosage forms such as tablets and capsules, transforming fine powders into larger, free-flowing aggregates that facilitate processing and ensure consistent dosing.^[1] This process enhances the uniformity of the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) distribution within the formulation, minimizing content variability and improving blend homogeneity, which is essential for reproducible drug delivery.^[1] Additionally, granulation can optimize API bioavailability by altering particle size and surface area to promote better dissolution rates, particularly for poorly soluble drugs through techniques like reverse wet granulation.^[1] Wet granulation remains the preferred method for most APIs due to its ability to create strong bonds via liquid binders, resulting in granules with superior flowability and compressibility suitable for a wide range of formulations.^[1] In contrast, dry granulation is favored for hygroscopic or moisture-sensitive drugs, such as aspirin, where exposure to liquids could degrade stability or promote hydrolysis; this method relies on mechanical compaction to form slugs or ribbons that are subsequently milled into granules.^[17] These preferences ensure that the chosen technique aligns with the physicochemical properties of the API and excipients to maintain product integrity. Regulatory frameworks, including FDA guidelines on continuous manufacturing (ICH Q13), emphasize the integration of granulation within robust, real-time monitored processes to enhance efficiency and quality assurance for drug products.^[37] Validation of granule uniformity is a key requirement, with in-process controls targeting a relative standard deviation (RSD) of less than 5% for API content to meet standards for dosage unit uniformity.^[38] Examples include the use of granules as substrates for controlled-release pellets, where extrusion-spheronization followed by polymer layering enables sustained drug release profiles in multiparticulate systems.^[39] Post-granulation coating with taste-masking polymers, such as Eudragit, further refines these formulations by preventing premature API dissolution in the oral cavity while preserving bioavailability upon swallowing.^[40] Advancements in granulation have been driven by Quality by Design (QbD) principles since the early 2000s, with ICH Q8 guidelines promoting systematic risk assessment and process optimization to develop robust manufacturing controls.^[41] QbD implementation in wet granulation, for instance, identifies critical process parameters like binder addition rate and impeller speed to ensure consistent granule attributes, reducing variability and supporting scale-up for industrial fluid bed processes.^[41] This approach has facilitated the transition to continuous granulation lines, improving overall process reliability and regulatory compliance.^[37]

Fertilizers

In fertilizer production, granulation transforms nutrient-rich powders or melts into durable, spherical particles, typically sized 2-4 mm to optimize compatibility with broadcast spreaders and ensure even field distribution.^[42] This process is particularly adapted for nitrogen-based fertilizers like urea and ammonium nitrate, where steam granulation employs high-pressure steam to promote agglomeration of fine particles into larger granules, enhancing density and uniformity.^[43] Chemical granulation, alternatively, integrates reactive components such as ammonia and nitric acid to form ammonium nitrate granules directly, allowing precise control over nutrient composition during solidification.^[44] Key techniques include pan granulation, where raw fertilizer materials are tumbled in rotating pans and sprayed with liquid binders to build layered granules.^[45] Common binders, such as lignosulfonates derived from wood pulping byproducts, improve adhesion and granule integrity without introducing contaminants.^[46] Prilling serves as a melt-based variant, particularly for urea, involving the spraying of molten material from a tower where droplets solidify into prills upon cooling in countercurrent air, though it yields smaller, less dense particles compared to true granulation.^[47] Granulation offers significant benefits, including reduced caking through the incorporation of anti-caking agents like formaldehyde or ureasoft, which form protective crystalline barriers on granule surfaces. Recent developments include formaldehyde-free alternatives, such as biodegradable additives, to meet environmental regulations and reduce health risks.^[48] It also enhances metering accuracy by minimizing segregation during handling and transport, while enabling slow-release formulations via polymer coatings that regulate nutrient dissolution in soil.^[49] Industry standards recommend granule crushing strength of at least 3 kg per granule (for ~3 mm granules) to withstand mechanical stresses, with anti-caking measures ensuring stability under storage pressures up to 0.5 bar.^[50]^[51] Environmentally, granulation lowers dust emissions compared to powdered forms, as uniform particles reduce airborne particulates during production and application, aligning with emission control guidelines.^[52] Off-spec granules are routinely recycled back into the process, minimizing waste and resource consumption in closed-loop systems.^[53]

Food and Other Industries

In the food industry, granulation plays a crucial role in sugar production through controlled crystallization processes that form uniform granules. During sugar refining, sucrose solutions are evaporated and seeded to initiate crystal growth, followed by centrifugation and drying to produce granulated sugar with specific particle sizes that ensure consistent dissolution and handling properties.^[54] This crystallization control minimizes impurities and achieves high yields by regulating supersaturation and temperature, resulting in granules suitable for baking and confectionery applications.^[55] Similarly, agglomeration techniques enhance the solubility of instant coffee and tea powders by clustering fine spray-dried particles into porous granules using steam or binders, improving wettability and reducing dust during packaging.^[56] These granules dissolve rapidly in hot water, providing a smoother beverage texture compared to non-agglomerated powders.^[57] In the plastics industry, granulation via underwater pelletizing converts molten polymers into spherical pellets by extruding the melt through a die and cutting it in a water bath, which rapidly cools and solidifies the material into uniform sizes.^[58] This method is particularly effective for thermoplastics like polyethylene and polypropylene, ensuring precise size control essential for consistent extrusion feeds in downstream processing.^[59] In plastic recycling, granulation reduces post-consumer waste into standardized pellets through shredding, washing, and melt extrusion, allowing recycled materials to serve as reliable feedstocks while maintaining quality for reprocessing.^[60] Proper size control in these granules prevents inconsistencies in melt flow and enhances the efficiency of recycling lines.^[61] Metallurgical applications of granulation are exemplified in steel production, where blast furnace slag is granulated by pouring molten slag into high-velocity water streams for quenching, forming glassy, amorphous particles that solidify rapidly without crystalline growth.^[62] This water quenching process, typically using large volumes of water in granulation pits, produces fine granules (1-5 mm) that are easier to handle and transport than lump slag, facilitating reuse in cement manufacturing.^[63] The resulting granules exhibit high reactivity due to their vitreous structure, improving grinding efficiency in subsequent applications. As of 2025, pilot projects for dry slag granulation using rotary cups enable heat recovery, reducing water consumption and greenhouse gas emissions while producing similar glassy products.^[64]^[62] Beyond these sectors, granulation is employed in detergent production through spray drying, where a slurry of surfactants and builders is atomized in a hot air chamber to form hollow, low-density granules that enhance powder flow and dissolution in water.^[65] In ceramics, wet granulation mixes powders with binders like polyvinyl alcohol before spray drying or extrusion to create spherical granules that improve packing density during pressing and promote uniform sintering by ensuring even heat distribution.^[66] Dry methods, such as roller compaction, are also used for ceramics to avoid moisture-related defects, yielding granules that withstand high-temperature sintering without excessive shrinkage.^[67] Across these industries, granulation confers benefits such as enhanced solubility and dispersion of particles in liquids, which is vital for food and detergent applications, while reducing segregation during storage and transport to maintain blend uniformity.^[1] These improvements in flowability and handling minimize processing losses and ensure product consistency, as granulated forms resist separation better than fine powders.^[17]

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This guidance applies to CM of drug substances and drug products for chemical entities and therapeutic proteins. It is applicable to CM for new products (e.g., ...
[43]
[PDF] Guidance for Industry - FDA
<5% RSD. IPC. (NM). Not tested. <5% RSD. IPC. (NM). Page 9. Contains Nonbinding Recommendations. 5. Comments/Justification. For this example, discussion and ...
[44]
[PDF] Pharmaceutical Pellets: A Versatile Carrier for Oral Controlled ...
It performs multiple functions like coating, drying, granulation and pelletization. Controlled release formulations are particularly prepared by utilizing this ...
[45]
Development and Evaluation of Taste Masked Granular Formulation ...
The purpose of this research was to mask the bitter taste of Satranidazole by coating complexation with low melting point wax and Eudragit EPO.
[46]
A quality by design study applied to an industrial pharmaceutical ...
This paper presents how QbD principles can be applied to an existing industrial pharmaceutical fluid bed granulation (FBG) process. A three-step approach is ...
[47]
Physical Properties of Granular Fertilizers and Impact on Spreading
Jul 28, 2016 · Particle size significantly impacts spread width. Granule fertilizer presents a risk of product segregation when spread (larger particles are ...
[48]
Processes for manufacturing compound fertilisers - FerTech Inform
Aug 16, 2022 · In the steam/water granulation process (Figure 1), granules are predominantly formed by the mechanism of agglomeration.
[49]
[PDF] 2 – BRIEF DECRIPTION OF KT'S CURRENT GRANULATION ...
KT's FDG granulation uses a fluidized bed where a surface layer solidifies by cooling/evaporation, and can granulate any molten, dissolved or suspended product.
[50]
The Pan Granulation Process - International Fertiliser Society
The process permits production of almost any particle size within narrow size limits. Furthermore, air pollution control is quite simple since the product ...
[51]
Process Behavior and Product Quality in Fertilizer Manufacturing ...
Lignin binders, containing sodium and calcium lignosulfonates are widely applied to make full utilization of the properties of dolomite in soil. Calcium ...
[52]
[PDF] Urea Finishing Process: Prilling Versus Granulation - UreaKnowHow
Solid urea is the largest nitrogen fertilizer product which is produced in two forms of granules and prills. Although the chemical properties of both prills ...
[53]
[PDF] IFA Technical Conference - International Fertilizer Association
Sep 27, 2002 · Prills are less hard and dense and have a lower crushing strength compared to urea granules. To increase the hardness of the prills formaldehyde ...
[54]
The two main granulation processes - FerTech Inform
Aug 15, 2022 · The following is a brief description of the two major granule formation mechanisms, agglomeration and accretion, encountered in most fertiliser granulation ...
[55]
Granule Hardness – EFBA - European Fertiliser Blenders Association
A crush strength of 3-5kg and above indicates granules will be sufficiently strong to maintain their integrity through the blending and spreading processes. The ...Missing: IFA guidelines
[56]
[PDF] 2007-nitrogenous-fertilizers-ehs-guidelines-en.pdf
Apr 30, 2007 · Recommended emission prevention and control measures include the following: •. Reduction of dust emissions by producing granular rather than ...
[57]
[PDF] Best Available Techniques for - Pollution Prevention and Control in ...
In all the granulation processes mentioned above the off-spec fraction from the screen- ing/crushing operation is recycled to the granulation equipment. All ...
[58]
[PDF] Industrial Applications of Crystallization in Food and Beverage ...
Sep 23, 2024 · During the process, sucrose is extracted, concentrated and crystallized to produce refined sugar. Crystallization helps achieve the desired.
[59]
(PDF) Crystal growth and crystallization control tactics in industrial ...
Aug 8, 2025 · Seeding is an important part of sugar crystallization. Contrary to shock seeding, full seeding with slurry or footing magma can be implemented ...
[60]
Agglomeration and solubility | Coffee Basics Pro
Jul 26, 2025 · Agglomeration clusters fine coffee particles into larger, porous granules that dissolve faster, look better, and handle more cleanly. This step ...
[61]
Instant Coffee - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Spry drying is generally followed by an agglomeration process, generating larger particles that can better dissolve in the consumer's cup (Bassoli, 2019).
[62]
Underwater pelletizers - MAAG Group
For the underwater pelletizing of polymers, MAAG offers pelletizers and pelletizing systems, dryers, temperature-controlled water systems and process water ...Missing: granulation | Show results with:granulation
[63]
BKG® Underwater Pelletizers & Systems - Nordson
Nordson's BKG® underwater pelletizing systems are engineered for processing thermoplastics and thermoplastic-like materials into perfectly shaped pellets.
[64]
[PDF] Granulation for post-consumer plastics recycling - P2 InfoHouse
The purpose of a granulator is to reduce material to a uniform and consistent size so it can be reclaimed for use in any of the various plastics manufacturing ...<|separator|>
[65]
How does the granulation process for extrusion work? | Bausano
More specifically, this consists of turning raw plastic materials – often in the form of waste or resins – into granules or pellets with a specific shape or ...Missing: feed | Show results with:feed
[66]
Blast Furnace Slag Granulation at the Cast House - IspatGuru
Granulation process is the controlled quenching of the slag in cold water which does not give time for crystalline growth to take place. Large volume of water ...
[67]
Dry slag granulation vs. water quenching - ScienceDirect.com
Jun 1, 2016 · The high-temperature blast furnace slag is conventionally treated by water quenching (WQ) method with enormous waste heat unrecovered.
[68]
Chapter 14 Detergent granulation - ScienceDirect.com
Typically, the powder detergent manufacture process requires drying, mixing, and densification, though not necessarily in that order. This applies specifically ...
[69]
Wet vs Dry Processing: Granulation of Ceramic Powders ... - Wiley
Forming semi-dry granules of ceramic powders allows for the transportation of intimately mixed packets of particles to a pressing operation, where the packets ...
[70]
The Critical Role Of Powder Granulation In Technical Ceramic ...
Oct 16, 2025 · Powder granulation plays a crucial role in enhancing the flowability, uniformity, and formability of powders, directly impacting the quality of ...