Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Alpha

Alpha (uppercase Α, lowercase α; Ancient Greek: ἄλφα, romanized: álpha) is the first letter of the Greek alphabet, derived from the Phoenician letter aleph, which originally represented a glottal stop and depicted the head of an ox.^[1]^[2] The Greeks adapted the Phoenician script around the 8th century BCE, transforming aleph into alpha to denote the vowel sound /a/, as part of their innovation in creating the first true alphabet with distinct letters for vowels and consonants.^[2]^[3] In classical Greek, alpha was pronounced as a long open front unrounded vowel [aː], similar to the "a" in "father," and it has retained this phonetic value in Modern Greek as well.^[4]^[5] The letter's adoption marked a pivotal development in writing systems, influencing the Latin alphabet—where alpha evolved into the modern "A"—and numerous other scripts, including Cyrillic and Gothic.^[1]^[3] Beyond its linguistic role, alpha holds symbolic significance as the beginning or primary element, often used in nomenclature to denote primacy, such as in astronomy for the brightest star in a constellation (e.g., Alpha Centauri).^[6] In scientific contexts, alpha appears frequently: in physics, it symbolizes the fine-structure constant (≈1/137) governing electromagnetic interactions, and alpha particles, which are helium nuclei emitted in radioactive decay.^[4] In mathematics and statistics, it represents angles, coefficients, or significance levels in hypothesis testing (e.g., α = 0.05).^[4] Additionally, in finance, "alpha" quantifies an investment's excess return relative to a benchmark, a concept formalized by William Sharpe in the Capital Asset Pricing Model. These diverse applications underscore alpha's enduring versatility across disciplines.

Origins and History

Proto-Sinaitic and Phoenician Roots

The Proto-Sinaitic script, dating to approximately 1850–1500 BCE, emerged in the Sinai Peninsula among Semitic-speaking workers in Egyptian turquoise mines, representing the earliest known alphabetic writing system. Derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs through the acrophonic principle—where symbols represent the initial sound of a depicted object rather than the object itself—this script simplified complex logographic systems into a linear arrangement of 22-30 signs. The first letter, ʾalp (meaning "ox" in Semitic languages), was depicted as a pictograph of a horned bovine head, capturing the /ʾ/ glottal stop sound and symbolizing strength in an agrarian, pastoral society. Key evidence comes from inscriptions at Serabit el-Khadim and Wadi el-Ḥôl, deciphered by scholars like Alan Gardiner in 1916, which demonstrate the script's adaptation for non-Egyptian laborers.^[7] From the Proto-Sinaitic script, the ʾalp sign evolved into the Proto-Canaanite alphabet (c. 1500–1050 BCE), used by Canaanite populations in the Levant, where the ox-head form became more stylized with bifurcated horns while retaining its glottal stop phoneme. By around 1050 BCE, this transitioned into the Phoenician alphabet, a fully consonantal abjad of 22 letters that spread via maritime trade across the Mediterranean. In Phoenician, the letter aleph (ʾalp) maintained its ox-head silhouette—often rendered as an angular V or inverted A—and served as a mater lectionis for vowels in later developments, though primarily denoting the glottal stop. The script's standardization is evidenced by inscriptions on sarcophagi, seals, and pottery from sites like Byblos and Tyre, highlighting its role in facilitating commerce and administration.^[8]^[7] The Greek adoption of the Phoenician alphabet occurred during the late 9th to early 8th century BCE (with recent evidence suggesting emergence around 850–825 BCE, possibly via Euboean traders at sites like Gabii or Gordion), likely through interactions at trading ports like Methone and Eretria in northern Greece, where Phoenician merchants introduced the system. Greeks repurposed aleph as alpha, transforming its consonantal glottal stop into the vowel /a/ to better suit Indo-European phonology, while simplifying the form into a more curved, recognizable "A" shape. This innovation marked the first systematic inclusion of vowels in an alphabet, enabling more precise representation of spoken Greek. Archaeological evidence, including graffiti from Eretria (c. 770–700 BCE) and Methone inscriptions (c. 700 BCE), confirms the rapid dissemination and adaptation, with alpha consistently appearing as the initial letter in early Greek abecedaria.^[9]^[8]^[10]

Adoption and Evolution in Greek

The Greek alphabet, including its first letter alpha, was adopted from the Phoenician script during the 8th century BCE, a period marked by intensified Greek-Phoenician interactions through trade and colonization in the eastern Mediterranean.^[11] This adaptation occurred amid Greek maritime expansion, particularly from centers like Euboea and the Ionian region, where early inscriptions demonstrate the integration of Phoenician letter forms into Greek writing practices by around 750–700 BCE.^[9] As the inaugural symbol, alpha retained its position at the alphabet's start, mirroring the Phoenician aleph's role, though the Greeks expanded the script to 24 letters by incorporating dedicated vowels.^[11] In early Greek dialects, alpha shifted from its Phoenician consonantal function—representing a glottal stop (/ʔ/)—to a vowel sound (/a/), addressing the Indo-European language's need for explicit vowel notation absent in the Semitic abjad.^[11] This phonetic transformation facilitated more precise representation of Greek phonology, with alpha appearing in initial inscriptions as a core vocalic element, contrasting sharply with aleph's mute or aspirate role in Phoenician.^[12] The orthographic form of alpha evolved from the angular, ox-head-derived shape of Phoenician aleph—often depicted as an inverted V or sideways A—to more stylized Greek variants. Early 8th-century BCE Greek alphas retained angularity in inscriptions from sites like Methone, but by the 5th century BCE, the Ionic style introduced rounded and curved elements, leading to the classical majuscule Α, a stable triangular form adopted widely in Attic and beyond.^[13] This progression reflected broader stylistic standardization, with the Ionic influence promoting legibility on durable surfaces like stone and pottery.^[14] Indirect influences from earlier Mycenaean writing systems, such as Linear B, are discernible in the cultural predisposition toward script use, though the alphabetic alpha marked a distinct break from syllabic precedents around 1200 BCE. Key artifacts, including Dipylon vase inscriptions from Athens (ca. 740 BCE), illustrate alpha's role in nascent Greek literacy, bridging proto-alphabetic experiments with formalized texts.^[15]

Greek Language Usage

Phonetic Value and Grammar

In Classical Greek, particularly in the Attic dialect of the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, alpha (α) represented the open central unrounded vowel /a/, similar to the "a" in the English word "father." This letter could denote either a short vowel (ᾰ) or a long vowel (ᾱ), with the length distinction crucial for poetic meter, as in Homeric hexameter, and sometimes for grammatical nuance in word formation.^[16] The macron (¯) over long alpha indicated doubled duration, approximately twice that of the short form, affecting pronunciation in contexts like verb conjugations where vowel length signaled tense or aspect.^[17] In Modern Greek, alpha retains the /a/ sound but without the classical length distinction, as part of a broader simplification of the vowel system that occurred during the Koine and Byzantine periods; it now functions uniformly as an open front unrounded vowel in a five-vowel phonemic inventory. Grammatically, alpha plays a central role as the characteristic vowel of the first declension (often called the alpha declension), primarily comprising feminine nouns with stems ending in -α or -ᾱ, which inflect through case endings like nominative singular -ᾱ (e.g., χώρα, chōra, "land" or "country"). This pattern extends to word formation, including the alpha privative prefix ἀ- (or ἄ- before vowels), which conveys negation or privation, as in ἄθεος (átheos, "without god"), the etymological source of English "atheist." In conjugations, alpha appears in stems of certain verbs, such as λείπω (leípō, "to leave"), where it alternates in forms to mark person and number. Dialectal variations in alpha's pronunciation were subtle across ancient Greek dialects, with Attic and Doric sharing the core /a/ value but differing in contextual length and aspiration; for instance, Doric preserved Proto-Indo-European *ā as long ᾱ, while Attic shifted it to η, indirectly affecting alpha's role in compensatory lengthening.^[18] Initial alpha in Attic often bore the rough breathing (spiritus asper, denoted ̔), pronounced as /ha/, as in ἁμαρτία (hamartía, "error" or "sin"), a feature less consistently aspirated in Doric inscriptions from regions like Sicily.^[19] Historically, the aspiration marked by rough breathing on initial alpha was fully pronounced as /h/ in Archaic and Classical Greek, evident in epic poetry like Homer's Iliad, where forms such as ἄνδρα (ándra, "man," aspirated as hándra in reconstructed pronunciation) reflect Indo-European origins. By the Hellenistic period (circa 300 BCE onward), this /h/ sound underwent psilosis (loss of initial aspiration) in Ionic and emerging Koine Greek, though Attic prose authors like Plato continued to notate it orthographically, as in ἅγιος (hágios, "holy"), preserving the distinction into the 4th century BCE. Alpha's phonetic influence extended to loanwords and etymology, directly shaping the Latin letter A, which adopted both its glyph and /a/ value through Etruscan transmission of the Greek alphabet in the 7th century BCE, facilitating the spread of Greek-derived terms into Latin vocabulary.^[20]

Orthographic Forms and Variants

The uppercase form of alpha is denoted as Α, typically rendered in an angular style with two slanting strokes connected by a horizontal crossbar, while the lowercase form is α, appearing as a single looped curve in printed variants or more fluid in cursive styles.^[21] In typography, alpha exhibits variations between serif styles, where small decorative strokes adorn the ends of lines (e.g., in fonts like Times New Roman), and sans-serif styles, which present cleaner, unadorned lines (e.g., in Arial or Helvetica).^[22] Early epichoric forms of alpha in archaic Greek inscriptions displayed regional variations, particularly in the position of the middle crossbar within the uppercase Α, with some local traditions placing it higher, centered, or lower to distinguish dialects or scribal preferences.^[21] These variants emerged in the 8th to 6th centuries BCE across city-states, grouped into green, blue, and red epichoric alphabets, before standardization in the Ionic form by the 4th century BCE.^[23] In polytonic Greek orthography, alpha accommodates various diacritics to indicate pitch accent and aspiration, including the acute accent (ά or ᾶ́), grave accent (ὰ), and circumflex (ᾶ); for the diphthong /ai/, an iota subscript appears below the lowercase alpha as ᾳ, often combined with accents or breathings (e.g., ᾀ for rough breathing with acute).^[24] The 1982 adoption of monotonic orthography in Greece simplified these, retaining only the acute accent (ά) on alpha where needed and eliminating the grave, circumflex, breathings, and iota subscript entirely.^[25] During the Byzantine era, alpha appeared in uncial and calligraphic manuscript forms, characterized by majuscule scripts with broader, rounded strokes for readability on vellum; in the 4th-century Codex Sinaiticus, an exemplar of early uncial writing, the uppercase alpha features a compact angular structure with a low crossbar, exemplifying the transition from epigraphic to book-hand styles.^[21]

Symbolism and Cultural Interpretations

Ancient Greek Perspectives (Plutarch)

In his Quaestiones Convivales (c. 100 CE), Plutarch engages in a scholarly dialogue on the placement of alpha as the first letter of the Greek alphabet, proposing etymologies that tie it to primacy and foundational origins. One participant, Ammonius, traces alpha to the Phoenician aleph, meaning "ox"—the most essential and primary animal—and attributes its introduction to Greece to the mythical Cadmus, framing it as a symbol of necessity and beginning in human civilization. Plutarch himself advances the view that alpha represents the initial articulate sound produced naturally by the human mouth, formed by simply opening the lips without tongue involvement, and connects this to Greek words evoking inception, such as aíein (to utter or sing) and anoígein (to open). This interpretation positions alpha not merely as a phonetic element but as an archetypal marker of linguistic and existential origins, evoking a sense of divine simplicity in the structure of speech.^[26] Plutarch's discussion subtly aligns alpha with broader philosophical notions of "firstness," potentially echoing associations with Apollo, the god of prophecy and origins whom Plutarch served as priest at Delphi, though direct linkages in his writings emphasize natural and mythical primacy over explicit divine attribution. Complementing this, in Pythagorean thought, alpha embodied the monad (number 1), symbolizing unity, the indivisible source of all multiplicity, and cosmic primacy as the generator of harmony and order. The letter's numerical value reinforced its role as the emblem of the "beginning" in Pythagorean cosmology, where the monad represented the divine principle underlying creation and numerical progression.^[27] Plato, in the Cratylus (c. 360 BCE), examines alpha within a theory of linguistic correctness, portraying vowels like alpha as elemental building blocks of names that imitate the essences of things through their sounds. He describes alpha as a smooth, open vowel that conveys lightness and adaptability, essential for forming combinations that capture qualities such as motion or stability, thus foundational to the structure of meaningful language. This phonetic analysis underscores alpha's role in enabling names to reflect reality, positioning it as a core component in the philosophical architecture of speech.^[28] Culturally, alpha functioned as a marker of primacy in ancient Greek oracles and inscriptions, often denoting initiation or excellence; for instance, in votive offerings and public records, it prefixed elements to signify first rank or origin, while Delphic traditions, including collections of maxims, began with alpha to invoke the outset of ethical guidance. Despite these recurring motifs, ancient sources reveal no unified symbolism for alpha, with interpretations varying across grammatical, mythical, and philosophical lenses, yet consistently highlighting its archetypal status as the "first" letter embodying commencement and priority.^[29]

Christian and Religious Symbolism (Alpha and Omega)

In Christian theology, the phrase "Alpha and Omega" originates from the Book of Revelation in the New Testament, where it is used to describe God as the eternal being who encompasses the beginning and the end of all things. Specifically, Revelation 1:8 states, "'I am the Alpha and the Omega,' says the Lord God, 'who is, and who was, and who is to come, the Almighty,'" emphasizing divine sovereignty over time and creation. This apocalyptic text, composed around 95 CE during the reign of Emperor Domitian, employs the first (Alpha, Α) and last (Omega, Ω) letters of the Greek alphabet to symbolize God's completeness and primacy, a motif repeated in Revelation 21:6 and 22:13, where it also applies to Jesus Christ as the fulfillment of prophecy.^[30]^[31] The symbolism gained prominence in early Christian iconography starting from the 4th century CE, often integrated into chi-rho monograms—the overlapping Greek letters Chi (Χ) and Rho (Ρ) representing Christ—that appeared in catacomb frescoes and sarcophagi. For instance, in the Catacombs of Domitilla in Rome, the chi-rho is flanked by Alpha and Omega, signifying Christ's eternal dominion and victory over death as the "first and the last." This visual tradition underscored the eschatological hope of resurrection, portraying God and Christ as the alpha of creation and the omega of redemption. Patristic theologians further elaborated on this, with Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 130–202 CE) linking the Alpha and Omega to Christ's incarnation as the recapitulation of humanity's beginning and end, restoring the divine image marred by sin through his earthly life and salvific work.^[32]^[33]^[34]^[35] Extensions of alpha-like symbolism appear in Judaism through the Hebrew letter Aleph (א), the first in the alphabet and numerically valued at 1, which in Kabbalistic tradition represents the divine breath or primal unity from which creation emanates. In Kabbalah, Aleph symbolizes the ineffable breath of God (ruach elohim), the silent force animating existence, as seen in meditative practices linking it to the sefirah of Keter (crown) on the Tree of Life. In Islamic mysticism, the Arabic Alif (ا)—analogous to Aleph and the first letter in abjad numerology with a value of 1—carries rare but profound symbolic weight, denoting the divine essence and unity (tawhid) in Sufi interpretations, where it evokes the singular origin of all being before manifestation.^[36]^[37]^[38]^[39] In modern religious contexts, Alpha and Omega persist as emblems of eternity in Christian liturgy and hymns, such as the ancient Mozarabic rite and Irish antiphonaries, where they invoke God's timeless presence during Eucharistic celebrations. Hymns like "Alpha, Omega" by Ken Bible reinforce this, proclaiming Christ as the encompassing reality of faith. Within Freemasonry, the symbols appear in emblems like the point within a circle, representing divine bounds of conduct and eternity, drawing from Christian motifs to signify the Great Architect's infinite nature.^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43]

Applications in Mathematics and Sciences

Mathematical Notation and Constants

In mathematics, the Greek letter alpha (α) has been employed since the 18th century as a symbol for arbitrary constants and variables, with Leonhard Euler frequently using it in his analytical works to denote parameters in equations and series expansions. This convention contributed to the broader adoption of Greek letters in mathematical notation during the Enlightenment era, facilitating distinction from Latin variables.^[44] One of the most common applications of α is as a variable denoting angles in trigonometry, particularly in right triangles where it labels the angle opposite side a.^[45] In standard notation, for a triangle with sides a, b, c opposite angles \alpha, \beta, \gamma respectively, trigonometric functions are expressed as \sin \alpha = a/c, \cos \alpha = b/c, emphasizing α's role in defining ratios without loss of generality.^[46] In complex analysis, α often represents the argument of a complex number z = re^{i\alpha}, where \alpha = \arg(z) measures the angle from the positive real axis to the line connecting the origin to z in the complex plane.^[47] This polar form aids in manipulations such as multiplication, where \arg(z_1 z_2) = \arg(z_1) + \arg(z_2) \mod 2\pi, with α capturing the principal value typically in (-\pi, \pi].^[48] The notation underscores α's utility in describing rotational properties without invoking multi-valued branches explicitly. Alpha also serves as a multi-index in multivariable calculus and polynomial theory, denoted as \alpha = (\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \dots, \alpha_n) where each \alpha_i is a non-negative integer, representing the degree of monomials in expansions.^[49] For a polynomial p(\mathbf{x}) = \sum_{|\alpha| \leq d} c_\alpha \mathbf{x}^\alpha, the multi-index \alpha satisfies |\alpha| = \sum \alpha_i and \mathbf{x}^\alpha = x_1^{\alpha_1} \cdots x_n^{\alpha_n}, simplifying Taylor series and partial derivatives like D^\alpha f = \frac{\partial^{|\alpha|} f}{\partial x_1^{\alpha_1} \cdots \partial x_n^{\alpha_n}}. This compact form, rooted in 20th-century developments in analysis, avoids enumerating all indices for higher dimensions.^[50] In set theory, α denotes transfinite ordinal numbers beyond finite cardinals, introduced by Georg Cantor in 1883 to order infinite well-ordered sets. For example, ordinals like \omega + \alpha extend the first infinite ordinal \omega by adding \alpha's position, where \alpha can be countable or uncountable, enabling transfinite induction: if a property holds for 0 and is preserved under successors and limits up to \alpha, it holds for all ordinals less than or equal to \alpha.^[51] Lowercase Greek letters such as α, β are conventionally used for these, distinguishing them from finite naturals.^[52] The fine-structure constant, denoted α, is defined mathematically as the dimensionless coupling parameter \alpha = \frac{e^2}{4\pi \epsilon_0 \hbar c} in SI units, where e is the elementary charge, \epsilon_0 the vacuum permittivity, \hbar the reduced Planck's constant, and c the speed of light.^[53] Introduced by Arnold Sommerfeld in 1916 to parameterize relativistic corrections in atomic spectra, its derivation arises from the electromagnetic fine-structure splitting, yielding \alpha \approx 1/137.035999 as a pure number independent of units. This formulation highlights α's role as a fundamental ratio in quantum electrodynamics, with extensions to physical interpretations in atomic and particle physics.^[54]

Physics, Chemistry, and Other Scientific Uses

In physics, alpha particles, denoted by the Greek letter α, represent a form of ionizing radiation emitted from radioactive nuclei during alpha decay. These particles are identical to helium-4 nuclei (⁴He²⁺), comprising two protons and two neutrons, with a positive charge of +2e and a mass of approximately 4 atomic mass units.^[55] They were first identified and characterized by Ernest Rutherford in 1899 through experiments on the absorption of radiation by thin metal foils, revealing their relatively low penetrating power compared to other radioactive emissions.^[56] In chemistry, the term alpha carbon, symbolized as the α-carbon, refers to the carbon atom directly adjacent to a functional group, such as the carbonyl group (C=O) in aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, or esters.^[57] This positioning makes the α-carbon reactive, often involved in mechanisms like enolization or nucleophilic substitutions. A key example is found in α-amino acids, the fundamental units of proteins, where the α-carbon bonds to an amino group (-NH₂), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom, and a variable side chain (R group), enabling peptide bond formation during protein synthesis.^[58] In astronomy, the Greek letter alpha (α) designates the brightest star within a constellation under the Bayer naming system, introduced by Johann Bayer in his 1603 star atlas Uranometria.^[59] Stars are assigned Greek letters in approximate order of decreasing apparent brightness, with α indicating the primary or most prominent member; for instance, Alpha Centauri (α Centauri) is the brightest star in the southern constellation Centaurus and the closest star system to the Sun at about 4.37 light-years away.^[60] This system facilitates systematic cataloging and remains a standard for identifying over 1,500 stars visible to the naked eye. In biology and biochemistry, the alpha helix (α-helix) is a prevalent secondary structure in proteins, forming a coiled polypeptide backbone stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the carbonyl oxygen of one amino acid and the amide hydrogen four residues ahead.^[61] Proposed by Linus Pauling, Robert Corey, and Herman Branson in 1951, this right-handed helix features 3.6 amino acid residues per turn and a pitch of 5.4 Å, contributing to the stability and functionality of proteins like hemoglobin and keratin.^[62] The structure's prevalence underscores its role in enabling compact folding and interactions essential for enzymatic activity and structural integrity.

Linguistic and Phonetic Applications

International Phonetic Alphabet

In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), the symbol [ɑ], known as turned script a or Latin alpha, represents the open back unrounded vowel, a low vowel articulated with the tongue positioned low and back in the mouth, without lip rounding.^[63] The symbol [ɑ] was first introduced in the 1899 revision of the IPA alphabet, published in Le Maître Phonétique (volume 14), as part of efforts to standardize vowel notation drawing from earlier phonetic traditions, including influences from Henry Sweet's Romic alphabet on the broader IPA system, and was fully standardized in the first official IPA chart of 1900, where it solidified its role in transcribing back vowels.^[64] It received further refinement in the 1899 revision, influenced by Danish phonetic notation systems that emphasized precise vowel distinctions.^[64] The symbol [ɑ] contrasts with , the open front unrounded vowel, highlighting the back-front distinction in vowel articulation; for instance, in General American English, the word "father" is transcribed as [ˈfɑːðɚ], featuring the open back [ɑ] in the stressed syllable, while a front equivalent might appear in words like "cat" as [kæt].^[63] Phonetically, [ɑ] is typically voiced, but voiceless variants are denoted with the diacritic [ɑ̥], as in devoiced contexts during whispering or in certain languages with vowel devoicing; raised forms, indicating a slightly higher tongue position toward mid height, are marked as [ɑ̝].^[63] These modifications allow for nuanced transcriptions beyond the basic symbol. Historically, the IPA's adoption of [ɑ] evolved through revisions, including the 1926 addition of related symbols like [ɒ] for rounded counterparts, but [ɑ] has remained a core element, positioned in the open-back sector of the vowel quadrilateral in the current 2020 IPA chart.^[64] Unlike the Greek letter alpha (Α/α), which denotes a front open vowel /a/ in ancient and modern Greek orthography and derives from Phoenician script, the IPA [ɑ] employs a Latin-derived turned form specifically adapted for phonetic precision, without direct reliance on Greek typography.

Military and Radio Phonetics

In the early 20th century, the development of radio telegraphy during the 1910s necessitated phonetic alphabets to ensure accurate letter transmission over noisy and interference-prone channels.^[65] The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) formalized the first international standard in the 1920s, employing city names for clarity, such as Amsterdam for the letter A.^[65] This system, however, revealed limitations in high-stress environments like combat, prompting revisions during World War II. Allied forces, including the U.S. Joint Army/Navy, adopted the "Able Baker" alphabet in 1941, with "Able" representing A, which the British Royal Air Force later incorporated in 1943.^[65] Postwar efforts for standardization led the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to introduce an updated version in 1951, using "Alfa" for A after rigorous phonetic testing.^[65] NATO officially adopted this as its phonetic alphabet on March 1, 1956, replacing variants like Able and establishing "Alpha" (spelled "Alfa" in official documents) as the code word for A, with the ITU endorsing it shortly thereafter.^[65] The NATO phonetic alphabet finds primary application in aviation, military operations, and emergency services, where precise spelling of words, callsigns, or identifiers is critical amid static or accents.^[66] For instance, the sequence "Alpha Bravo Charlie" clearly conveys the letters A-B-C in radio transmissions, reducing errors in coordinates, names, or commands.^[67] This system extends to maritime and amateur radio communications, ensuring interoperability among international partners.^[65] In contemporary settings, it supports digital adaptations, such as voice-assisted navigation in GPS systems for spelling waypoints or aircraft identifiers.^[68] Variations persist in historical and regional contexts; the U.S. military retained "Able" for A until fully transitioning to the international "Alpha" standard by the late 1950s.^[67] The choice of "Alpha" emphasizes phonetic distinctiveness, derived from the Greek letter and selected through empirical tests at institutions like Ohio State University, which evaluated words for recognizability in noisy conditions across English, French, and Spanish.^[69] Its short, two-syllable structure—pronounced "AL-fah"—minimizes confusion with similar-sounding terms like "echo" or "india," enhancing reliability in adverse audio environments.^[67]

Modern and Specialized Uses

Technology and Computing (Alpha Channel)

In digital image processing, the alpha channel represents the transparency or opacity of pixels within an RGBA color model, where the alpha value typically ranges from 0 (fully transparent) to 1 (fully opaque) or equivalently 0 to 255 in integer representations. This fourth channel, alongside red, green, and blue, enables precise control over how pixels blend with underlying layers, facilitating effects like semi-transparency in graphics software and video compositing. The concept originated in the late 1970s at the New York Institute of Technology, where Ed Catmull and Alvy Ray Smith developed the integral alpha channel to separate image synthesis from compositing, allowing for efficient handling of partial transparencies in digital video production.^[70]^[71] The foundational blending operation, known as alpha compositing, uses the formula to combine a foreground image over a background:

\text{final_color} = \alpha \cdot \text{foreground} + (1 - \alpha) \cdot \text{background}

This premultiplied alpha approach was formalized by Thomas Porter and Tom Duff in 1984 at Lucasfilm, providing a geometric model for compositing that became standard in rendering pipelines.^[72] Early implementations appeared in video compositing during the 1970s, evolving into widespread use by the 1980s at facilities like Industrial Light & Magic for films such as Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan (1982). In file formats, PNG supports full alpha channel transparency with 8-bit precision per pixel, enabling smooth gradients, while GIF is limited to binary (on/off) transparency without intermediate values, making PNG preferable for complex graphics.^[70]^[73] Adobe Photoshop integrated alpha channels starting with version 1.0 in 1990, allowing users to store selections and masks as grayscale channels for non-destructive editing and compositing.^[74] Beyond graphics, "alpha" denotes early-stage software development phases: an alpha version (e.g., v1.0-alpha) is an initial, unstable build for internal testing, often featuring incomplete features and bugs, preceding beta releases. Alpha testing specifically refers to in-house validation using white-box methods to identify core issues before external beta trials.^[75] In hardware, Digital Equipment Corporation's Alpha architecture, a 64-bit RISC design introduced in 1992, powered workstations and servers through the 1990s but derived its name from the Greek letter without direct ties to transparency concepts, ultimately phasing out by the early 2000s.^[76]

Finance and Statistics (Alpha as Metric)

In finance, alpha, commonly referred to as Jensen's alpha, serves as a key performance metric that quantifies the excess return of a portfolio or investment relative to the return predicted by the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM). Introduced by Michael C. Jensen in his 1968 study on mutual fund performance, it isolates the value added (or subtracted) by a portfolio manager's decisions, independent of market movements, thereby assessing managerial skill.^[77] The metric is derived from the CAPM framework, which posits that expected returns are a function of systematic risk, measured by beta—a portfolio's sensitivity to market fluctuations.^[78] The formula for Jensen's alpha is given by:

\alpha = R_p - \left[ R_f + \beta (R_m - R_f) \right]

where R_p is the portfolio's actual return, R_f is the risk-free rate, \beta is the portfolio's beta, and R_m is the market return.^[77] A positive alpha indicates outperformance attributable to manager skill, while a negative value suggests underperformance. This measure emerged in the 1960s alongside the development of efficient market theory, with William Sharpe's 1964 CAPM paper providing the foundational equilibrium model that alpha benchmarks against, influencing modern portfolio evaluation.^[78] To illustrate, consider a portfolio with a beta of 1.2, a market return of 10%, a risk-free rate of 3%, and an actual return of 15%. The expected return per CAPM is [3](/page/3%)\% + 1.2(10\% - [3](/page/3%)\%) = 12.9\%, yielding an alpha of

[15](/page/15&)\% - 12.9\% = 2.1\%

, signifying superior performance.^[77] In practice, alpha is applied to evaluate hedge funds, where it helps distinguish returns driven by market exposure from those generated by active strategies, as demonstrated in empirical analyses of fund performance from 1998 to 2003.^[79] Beyond finance, alpha denotes the significance level in statistical hypothesis testing, representing the probability of committing a Type I error—rejecting a true null hypothesis. Conventionally set at 0.05, this threshold determines whether observed data provide sufficient evidence against the null, balancing the risks of erroneous conclusions in inferential statistics.^[80] The concept traces to the Neyman-Pearson framework for optimal hypothesis tests, formalized in their 1933 lemma, which underpins modern significance testing by specifying error rates like alpha. In psychometrics, Cronbach's alpha measures the internal consistency or reliability of a scale, such as a questionnaire, by assessing how well items correlate to produce a unified construct. Developed by Lee J. Cronbach in 1951, it generalizes earlier split-half reliability coefficients and is expressed as:

\alpha = \frac{N \cdot \bar{c}}{\bar{v} + (N-1) \cdot \bar{c}}

where N is the number of items, \bar{c} is the average inter-item covariance, and \bar{v} is the average item variance; values above 0.7 typically indicate acceptable reliability.^[81] This metric remains a cornerstone for validating psychological and social science instruments, emphasizing scale coherence over individual item performance.

Digital Encoding

Unicode Standard

In the Unicode Standard, the Greek letter alpha is encoded in the Greek and Coptic block (U+0370–U+03FF). The uppercase form, GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA (Α), is assigned the code point U+0391, while the lowercase form, GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA (α), is at U+03B1.^[82] These characters were introduced in Unicode 1.0, released in October 1991, as part of the initial support for the Greek script to enable digital representation of ancient and modern Greek texts beyond the limitations of legacy encodings like ASCII, which lacked non-Latin scripts.^[82] For mathematical and typographic contexts, Unicode provides variants of alpha in the Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols block (U+1D400–U+1D7FF). The bold lowercase variant, MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL ALPHA (𝛂), is encoded at U+1D6C2, and the italic lowercase variant, MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL ALPHA (𝛼), at U+1D6FC.^[83] These styled forms, added in Unicode 3.1 (2001), facilitate precise notation in technical documents, such as vector representations or variables in equations, by approximating font-based styling like bold or italic without relying on external formatting. Alpha characters have a bidirectional class of L (left-to-right), ensuring they render in standard horizontal progression in mixed-script text, consistent with other alphabetic scripts.^[84] Font support for these code points is widespread in modern systems, spanning TrueType and OpenType formats; for instance, core system fonts like Arial Unicode MS and Noto Sans provide glyphs for both basic and mathematical variants, enabling consistent rendering across platforms.^[85] In web markup, alpha is commonly referenced via HTML entities for compatibility: Α or Α for the uppercase Α, and α or α for the lowercase α. These numeric and named entities allow embedding in HTML documents without direct Unicode support in older environments. No emoji variants exist for alpha, as the Unicode Emoji Standard focuses on pictographic symbols rather than alphabetic letters. However, historical and polytonic forms of alpha are integrated via the Greek Extended block (U+1F00–U+1FFF), which includes precomposed characters like GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI (ἀ, U+1F00) and GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA (Ἅ, U+1F0D), supporting ancient Greek orthography with breathing marks, accents, and iota adscripts.^[86] These were added in Unicode 1.1 alongside the basic forms to preserve scholarly and liturgical texts.

Legacy and Other Encodings

Prior to the widespread adoption of Unicode, the Greek letter alpha and its variants were encoded in various 8-bit and 7-bit character sets designed for specific systems or regions, often with limited support for the full Greek alphabet. One of the earliest standardized encodings for modern Greek was ISO/IEC 8859-7, published in 1987 by the International Organization for Standardization, which allocated the uppercase alpha (Α) to code point 0xC1 and the lowercase alpha (α) to 0xE1 within its 128–255 range for non-Latin characters.^[87] This single-byte encoding was equivalent to the Greek national standard ELOT 928 and focused on monotonic Greek orthography, supporting 144 characters including basic Greek letters but excluding most polytonic diacritics in its initial version. Microsoft's Windows-1253 code page, introduced in the early 1990s as an extension of the ISO 8859 family for Windows environments, retained the same positions for alpha—0xC1 for uppercase (Α) and 0xE1 for lowercase (α)—while adding support for polytonic Greek through additional code points for accented forms, such as 0xA2 for uppercase alpha with tonos (Ά).^[88] This encoding became the default for Greek text in Windows applications, enabling better handling of historical and literary Greek texts compared to ISO 8859-7, though it remained incompatible with non-Greek systems without conversion.^[89] In mainframe environments, IBM's EBCDIC variants provided alternative mappings for Greek characters, particularly in code page 875 (also known as CCSID 875), which was tailored for Greek-language data processing on IBM systems. Here, uppercase alpha (Α) was assigned to 0x41 and lowercase alpha (α) to 0x8A, reflecting EBCDIC's distinct structure where graphic characters occupy positions outside the standard ASCII range.^[90] This encoding supported the full modern Greek alphabet but was primarily used in legacy IBM hardware, limiting interoperability with ASCII-based systems. Earlier 7-bit systems relied on national variants of ISO/IEC 646, such as the Greek variant registered as ISO-IR 18 (also called Greek7-old) in the 1980s, which modified the ASCII invariant set by reassigning ambiguous positions (e.g., 0x23 to 0x7E) to a subset of Greek letters and symbols but lacked comprehensive support for the entire alphabet, including direct encodings for alpha. As a result, full Greek text often required transliteration into Latin characters—such as "a" for alpha—using ad hoc schemes in early computing applications like TeX or email, as the 94 printable positions in ISO 646 could not accommodate all 24 Greek letters without sacrificing essential punctuation or numerals.^[91] The migration from these 8-bit encodings to Unicode in the 1990s introduced challenges, particularly in web content where Greek pages encoded in ISO 8859-7 were frequently misinterpreted by browsers defaulting to ISO 8859-1, resulting in mojibake such as uppercase alpha (0xC1) rendering as "Á" and lowercase alpha (0xE1) as "á," turning phrases like "Αθήνα" (Athína) into garbled "Áθ¿να."^[92] This issue was prevalent in early internet documents lacking explicit charset declarations, as noted in IETF discussions on MIME and HTTP, prompting the development of Unicode as a universal successor to resolve such incompatibilities.^[93]

References

[1]
The Origin of the Alphabet
The Greeks, needing vowel symbols, used it for alpha (A). The Romans used it as A.
[2]
The ABG's of History - 1320
The alphabet, originally ABG's, was inspired by Egyptian hieroglyphics, spread from the Sinai, and was carried to Greece by the Phoenicians.
[3]
[PDF] ORIGINS OF THE ALPHABET
When the Romans adopted the Greek alphabet, along with other aspects of Greek culture, they continued the development and usage of the alphabet. Just as the ...
[4]
The Greek Alphabet - MIT
This table gives the Greek letters, their names, equivalent English letters ... alpha, a, father. Β, β, beta, b. Γ, γ, gamma, g. Δ, δ, delta, d. Ε, ε, epsilon, e
[5]
Greek Alphabet | BΘO - Skyline College
The name Phi Theta Kappa was taken from the initial letters of the three Greek words meaning "wisdom," "aspiration" and "purity. ... Lowercase. Alpha, Α, α.
[6]
Greek alphabet
THE GREEK ALPHABET To the Greek letter is appended the Latin possessive form of the constellation name, Vega, the Alpha star of Lyra, becoming Alpha Lyrae, and ...
[7]
(PDF) From Ox-Head to Consonant: The Scholarly Case for ‫א‬ (Aleph ...
The opening sign of the Northwest-Semitic alphabet-‫א‬ (ʾālep ̱ /aleph)-is almost universally derived from a pictograph of an ox head and secures its phonemic ...
[8]
Phoenician Alphabet Origin
An intriguing look into the origin of the Phoenician alphabet and how it led to the Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, Roman, Arabic and other alphabets.<|control11|><|separator|>
[9]
The early history of the Greek alphabet: new evidence fromEretria ...
Sep 15, 2016 · In most accounts of the adoption of the alphabet, the general view is that Greek was adopted from the Phoenician, and Phrygian was then adapted ...
[10]
Greek Alphabet - World History Encyclopedia
Aug 1, 2023 · The Greek Alphabet developed from the Phoenician script at some point around the 8th century BCE. The earlier Mycenaean Linear B script, ...
[11]
Alphabet Origins: From Kipling to Sinai
Dec 22, 2014 · The alphabet used by the Phoenicians was adopted and adapted by the Greeks and Etruscans. Crystalline sandstone bust of the Egyptian king ...
[12]
THE ALPHABET - A to L - Brianetics.info
In about 1000 BCE, in Byblos and in other Phoenician and Canaanite centres, the sign was given a linear form (1), the source of all later forms. In the Semitic ...
[13]
Ionic alphabet | Ancient Greek, Phoenician, Alphabet - Britannica
Oct 13, 2025 · Ionic alphabet, most important variety of the eastern form of the ancient Greek alphabet, developed late in the 5th century bc.
[14]
(PDF) Origins of the Greeks and Greek dialects - ResearchGate
Apr 30, 2022 · The Greeks came in EH IIB from northwestern Anatolia and slowly spread across the south of the Balkan Peninsula.<|control11|><|separator|>
[15]
Greek dialects - Brill Reference Works
Local dialects are used in every city or region from the Archaic to the Hellenistic period (in competition with the Koinḗ and regional Koinaí). In the Imperial ...
[16]
(PDF) Alphabet: From Linear B to the Greek 27-Letter Alphanumeric ...
Jul 3, 2025 · However, proponents of the Phoenician hypothesis have investigated the origins of the Greek alphabet without adequately considering the accounts ...
[17]
[PDF] Introduction to Attic Greek: (Second Edition)
Note that the vowels α, ι, and υ may Page 3 The Alphabet; Pronunciation 9 be long or short, whereas ε and ο are short and η and ω are long. The relations of ...
[18]
Vowels | Dickinson College Commentaries
Vowels are called open or close depending upon whether the mouth in speaking them is more open or less open. The most open vowel is ᾱ.
[19]
Lesson 1: The Greek Alphabet, Vowels, Consonants, and Dipthongs
Phonetic Value, Name. Α, α, papa, father, Alpha. Β, β, bed, Beta. Γ, γ, go, sing ... A Digital Tutorial For Ancient Greek Based on John William White's First ...
[20]
Pronunciation | Dickinson College Commentaries
A breathing, not counted as a letter, is written with every initial vowel or diphthong; the rough breathing (ʽ) represents the sound of h preceding the vowel, ...Missing: shifts | Show results with:shifts
[21]
None
### Summary: Influence of Greek Alpha on the Latin Alphabet
[22]
(PDF) The Greek alphabet - Academia.edu
This paper examines the development and structure of the Greek alphabet in relation to its Phoenician origins, addressing the phonemic adaptations and ...
[23]
https://www.omniglot.com/writing/greek.htm
[24]
Greek language and alphabets - Omniglot
Jun 8, 2025 · These local alphabets, known as epichoric, can be divided into three groups: green, blue and red. The blue group developed into the modern Greek ...
[25]
[PDF] TLG Guide to Unicode Precomposed Forms
This document gives additional information on the encoding of polytonic Greek using ... Lowercase Alpha + iota subscript + rough breathing + grave. 1F83.
[26]
[PDF] ALA-LC Romanization Tables: Modern Greek
In 1976, demotic became the official language of Greece; in 1982, monotonic became the official orthography. If it is not evident whether the text to be ...
[27]
https://www.britannica.com/topic/number-symbolism/Pythagoreanism
[28]
Number symbolism - Pythagoreanism, Numerology, Mysticism
Sep 23, 2025 · The number 1 symbolized unity and the origin of all things, since all other numbers can be created from 1 by adding enough copies of it.
[29]
Cratylus by Plato - The Internet Classics Archive
Download: A 127k text-only version is available for download. Cratylus By Plato Written 360 B.C.E. Translated by Benjamin Jowett. Persons of the DialogueMissing: 424c | Show results with:424c
[30]
https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1074&context=pretrib_arch
[31]
[PDF] The Date of the Book of Revelation - Scholars Crossing
Preterists suggest Revelation was written by A.D. 65 or 66, while Irenaeus suggests A.D. 95, linked to the end of Domitian's reign.
[32]
Eschatological Significance Of The Name 'The Alpha And The Omega'
The literary contexts suggest that in 1:8 and 21:6 the title refers to God, and in 22:13 it refers to Jesus Christ. It may be understood that this title refers ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
[33]
Early Christian Symbols in the Catacombs - Bible Study
Sometimes the Chi-Rho appears with the first and last Greek letters, Alpha (Αα) and Omega (Ωω), a symbol of eternal life in Christ, who is the first and the ...
[34]
The Chi Rho Symbol - EARLY CHURCH HISTORY
Monogram of Christ, Museo Pio Cristiano, Vatican Notice the Greek letters “Alpha” and “Omega” meaning “Christ is the Alpha and Omega” ( Rev1:8) included in ...
[35]
Christological monogram - Vatican Museums
The Christological monogram consists of the combination of the first two letters of the Greek name of Christ (X and P, chi-rho): its fortune, as a symbol of ...
[36]
Irenaeus - Forging Ploughshares
The summing up (ἀνακεφαλαίωσις) of Ephesians 1:10, ties the beginning and end, the alpha and omega, directly to the incarnation.
[37]
א Aleph — Alphabet of Kabbalah, a free course
The Sacred Breath. The letter א Aleph symbolizes the wind, air. א Aleph is associated with the Sephirah Kether. On the Tree of Life ...
[38]
Mysticism of Aleph - Sophian.org
Jan 11, 2011 · The vehicle and the Light become truly One, carrying the Divine mind, breath, spirit, in countless manifestations, implied by 1,000, the other ...
[39]
ALIF - The Secrets and Realities of the Arabic Letter Alif
Feb 18, 2013 · Alif in Arabic numerology which is known as Abjad, it is also the first letter and has the value of 1. This article is about the spiritual ...
[40]
The Sufi interpretation of the letter Alif
Feb 23, 2018 · The alif represents the number one and belongs to the element of fire. Because of its shape, the alif resembles the numeral 1. It symbolizes ...<|separator|>
[41]
CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Alpha and Omega (In Scripture)
Alpha and Omega, the first and last Greek letters, symbolize Christ as 'the First and the Last' and 'the beginning and the end' in the Apocalypse.Missing: Freemasonry | Show results with:Freemasonry
[42]
Alpha, Omega - Hymnary.org
Alpha, Omega, beginning and end, Who is, who was, and who is yet to come— May grace and peace now upon us descend. From Father, Spirit, and Christ the Son.
[43]
Behind the Masonic Symbol: The Point Within A Circle - Freemasonry
In these instances, the Alpha and Omega, or the symbol of God, shows the circle flanked by two perpendicular snakes rather than the straight lines we see in ...
[44]
Point Within A Circle - The Square Magazine
On early Egyptian monuments may be found the Alpha and Omega or symbol of God in the centre of a circle embordered by two perpendicular, parallel serpents ...
[45]
Why do we use Greek letters in mathematics? - Quora
Nov 1, 2015 · Greek letters apparently came in common use during the 18th-19th century, because they made it easier to distinguish mathematical symbols ...
[46]
Trigonometry Angles -- from Wolfram MathWorld
Wegner, K. W. "Equations with Trigonometric Values as Roots." Amer. Math. Monthly 66, 52-53, 1959. Referenced on Wolfram|Alpha.<|separator|>
[47]
What is the origin of the Greek letter alpha being used to denote ...
Nov 17, 2022 · The angles of a triangle opposite sides of length a , b and c are often denoted as α , β and γ with each being the first three letters in their ...Are theta, gamma, beta, and alpha just variables in trigonometry ...What I've understood is that theta is only a Greek letter that ... - QuoraMore results from www.quora.com
[48]
The Origins of Trigonometric Functions (sine, cosine, tangent ...
Oct 19, 2023 · The earliest traces of trigonometry can be found in the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Babylon, where they used theorems on the ratios ...
[49]
Complex Argument -- from Wolfram MathWorld
A complex number z may be represented as z=x+iy=|z|e^(itheta), (1) where |z| is a positive real number called the complex modulus of z, and theta (sometimes ...
[50]
11.7: Polar Form of Complex Numbers - Mathematics LibreTexts
Oct 2, 2022 · The complex number on the left hand side of the equation corresponds to the point with polar coordinate $\left(|w|^{3}, 3 \alpha\right)$, ...
[51]
Argument (complex analysis) - Wikipedia
In mathematics (particularly in complex analysis), the argument of a complex number z, denoted arg(z), is the angle between the positive real axis and the line ...
[52]
Multi-Index Notation -- from Wolfram MathWorld
Multi-index notation is used to shorten expressions that contain many indices. Let x in R^n and write x=(x_1,...,x_n). A multi-index alpha is an n-tuple of ...
[53]
Multi-index notation - Wikipedia
Multi-index notation is a mathematical notation that simplifies formulas used in multivariable calculus, partial differential equations and the theory of ...Definition and basic properties · Some applications · An example theorem · Proof
[54]
multi-index notation - PlanetMath.org
Mar 22, 2013 · Definition A multi-index is an n n -tuple α=(α1,…,αn) α = ( α 1 , … , α n ) of non-negative integers α1,…,αn α 1 , … , α n .
[55]
Ordinal number - Wikipedia
Ordinals were introduced by Georg Cantor in 1883 to accommodate infinite sequences and classify derived sets, which he had previously introduced in 1872 while ...
[56]
Ordinal Number -- from Wolfram MathWorld
Finite ordinal numbers are commonly denoted using arabic numerals, while transfinite ordinals are denoted using lower case Greek letters. It is easy to see that ...
[57]
Set Theory - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Oct 8, 2014 · According to Cantor, two sets $A$ and $B$ have the same size, or cardinality, if they are bijectable, i.e., the elements of $A$ can be put ...
[58]
Current advances: The fine-structure constant
The fine-structure constant α is of dimension 1 (i.e., it is simply a number) and very nearly equal to 1/137. It is the "coupling constant" or measure of the ...Missing: mathematical | Show results with:mathematical
[59]
Fine-structure constant - Wikipedia
The constant was named by Arnold Sommerfeld, who introduced it in 1916 ... He introduced a term for the fine-structure constant in 1916. The first ...Definition · Physical interpretations · History · Potential variation over time
[60]
[PDF] The Fine Structure Constant - Indian Academy of Sciences
Although it was Arnold Sommerfeld who formally intro- duced the fine structure constant in 1916 (as discussed later in this article), its history can be ...
[61]
Manhattan Project: Science > Radioactivity > ALPHA PARTICLES
An alpha particle is a positively-charged particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons. It is, in fact, identical with the nucleus of a helium atom.
[62]
Ernest Rutherford
In 1899 Ernest Rutherford studied the absorption of radioactivity by thin sheets of metal foil and found two components: alpha (a) radiation, which is absorbed ...
[63]
Alpha Carbon - Chemistry LibreTexts
Feb 28, 2022 · An alpha (symbol: α) carbon is a carbon atom bonded to a functional group in an organic compound; the carbon atom next to the α carbon is the beta (symbol: β) ...
[64]
Proteins, Peptides & Amino Acids - MSU chemistry
Hydrolysis of proteins by boiling aqueous acid or base yields an assortment of small molecules identified as α-aminocarboxylic acids. More than twenty such ...
[65]
[PDF] MIT 8.03SC Fall 2016 Textbook: The Physics of Waves
Waves are everywhere. Everything waves. There are familiar, everyday sorts of waves in water, ropes and springs. There are less visible but equally ...
[66]
Brightest Stars
* Bayer designation: names given to stars by astronomer Johanne Bayer in his 1603 star atlas Uranometria. The designations consist of a Greek letter ...
[67]
19.2 Surveying the Stars – Astronomy - UCF Pressbooks
Alpha Centauri itself is a binary star—two stars in mutual revolution—too close together to be distinguished without a telescope. These two stars are 4.4 light ...
[68]
The structure of proteins: Two hydrogen-bonded helical ... - PNAS
Two hydrogen-bonded helical structures for a polypeptide chain have been found in which the residues are stereochemically equivalent.
[69]
The discovery of the α-helix and β-sheet, the principal structural ...
These two they called the helix with 3.7 residues per turn and the helix with 5.1 residues per turn (Fig. ... 1951 paper by Pauling, Corey, and Branson (1).
[70]
[PDF] Handbook_of_the_IPA.pdf
The Handbook of the International Phonetic Association is a comprehensive guide to the. Association's 'International Phonetic Alphabet'.
[71]
IPA historical charts - International Phonetic Association
This document presents all versions and revisions of the International Phonetic Alphabet charts published throughout the Maître Phonétique and supplements ...
[72]
Latin alpha - Wikipedia
In the International Phonetic Alphabet, ⟨ɑ⟩ represents an open back unrounded vowel, while ⟨a⟩ represents an open front unrounded vowel. · Also in the General ...
[73]
The NATO phonetic alphabet – Alfa, Bravo, Charlie..., 20-Oct.
Oct 20, 2016 · The NATO phonetic alphabet became effective in 1956 and just a few years later became the established universal phonetic alphabet.
[74]
Where Did the NATO Phonetic Alphabet Come From? | HowStuffWorks
Aug 12, 2024 · The NATO or phonetic alphabet came into being in 1956 and is used to avoid spelling mistakes or miscommunication.
[75]
A Brief History of the NATO Phonetic Alphabet - Popular Mechanics
Mar 7, 2022 · ... NATO phonetic alphabet entries for “A” and “J.” The correct spellings are “Alfa” and “Juliett.” Headshot of Kimberly Hickok. Kimberly Hickok.Missing: Alpha | Show results with:Alpha
[76]
NATO Phonetic Alphabet :
If you own a boat, use a GPS device, and have a radio, learning this stuff is important. Practice Your NATO Phonetic Alphabet. When the letter appears say ...
[77]
How was Nato's phonetic alphabet chosen? - The Week
Feb 14, 2022 · It was created as a standardised way for aircrews around the world to make themselves recognised and understood.<|control11|><|separator|>
[78]
[PDF] Alpha and the History of Digital Compositing - cs.Princeton
Aug 15, 1995 · The integral alpha channel severed the image synthesis step from the compositing step, and this changed how digital compositing was done ...Missing: RenderMan | Show results with:RenderMan
[79]
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3606969
[80]
[PDF] Computer Graphics Volume 18, Number 3 July 1984 - keithp.com
Computer Graphics Volume 18, Number 3 July 1984. Compositing. Digital Images. Thomas Porter. Tom Duff 'f. Computer Graphics Project. Lucasfilm Ltd. ABSTRACT.
[81]
GIF or PNG? - Quality Web Tips - W3C
... alpha channel. Sample depths range from 1 to 16 bits. For the Web, PNG really has three main advantages over GIF: alpha channels (variable transparency), ...
[82]
[PDF] User guide: Adobe photoshop Macintosh version, 1990
and copy it into an individual alpha channel. You create an alpha channel using the Selection->Alpha command in the Select menu. An alpha channel is a ...
[83]
ALPHA VERSION definition | Cambridge English Dictionary
a version of computer software that is produced at the first stage of development: Our first alpha version was released three months ago. The alpha version ...
[84]
DEC Alpha: Understanding Its Core and Differences with x86
DEC Alpha processors were common in the 1990s and powered workstations and servers like the DEC 3000 AXP, AlphaStation, and AlphaServer.
[85]
THE PERFORMANCE OF MUTUAL FUNDS IN THE PERIOD 1945 ...
The model is illustrated in Section III by an application of it to the evaluation of the performance of 115 open end mutual funds in the period 1945–1964.Missing: alpha original paper PDF
[86]
CAPITAL ASSET PRICES: A THEORY OF MARKET EQUILIBRIUM ...
William F. Sharpe. Associate Professor of Operations Research, University of Washington.Search for more papers by this author. First published: September 1964.
[87]
Evaluating Hedge Fund Performance by Michel Guirguis :: SSRN
Jun 16, 2020 · In this paper, we are using Jensen's alpha, Sharpe ratio and multi-factor models to test the performance of hedge funds for the period 1998 to 2003.
[88]
6.2 - Significance Levels | STAT 200
Lower α levels mean that smaller p-values are needed to reject the null hypothesis; this makes it more difficult to reject the null hypothesis, but this also ...<|separator|>
[89]
Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests | Psychometrika
Download PDF · Psychometrika ... Cite this article. Cronbach, L.J. Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika 16, 297–334 (1951).
[90]
None
- **Greek Capital Letter Alpha (U+0391):**
[91]
[PDF] 1D400–1D7FF - The Unicode Standard, Version 17.0
Bold Greek symbols. 1D6A8 𝚨 MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL ALPHA. ≈ <font> 0391 Α greek capital letter alpha. 1D6A9 𝚩 MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL BETA. ≈ <font> ...
[92]
https://jkorpela.fi/unicode/greek.html
[93]
https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1945.html
[94]
[PDF] Greek Extended - The Unicode Standard, Version 17.0
Greek Extended. 1F00. 1F0 1F1 1F2 1F3 1F4 1F5 1F6 1F7 1F8 1F9 1FA 1FB 1FC ... 1F02 ἂ GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND. VARIA. ≡ 1F00 ἀ 0300 $̀. 1F03 ...Missing: historical | Show results with:historical
[95]
None
- **Hex Code Points for Greek Letters in ISO 8859-7:**
[96]
None
- **GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA (Α):**
[97]
Code Page Identifiers - Win32 apps - Microsoft Learn
Jan 7, 2021 · 1253, windows-1253, ANSI Greek; Greek (Windows). 1254, windows-1254, ANSI Turkish; Turkish (Windows). 1255, windows-1255, ANSI Hebrew; Hebrew ( ...Missing: points | Show results with:points
[98]
None
- **GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA (Α):**
[99]
[PDF] ISO International Register of Coded Character Sets To Be Used With ...
Its purpose is to identify widely used coded character sets and associate with each a unique escape sequence by means of which it can be designated according to ...
[100]
ISO 8859-7 vs. windows-1253 - Jukka Korpela
Jul 14, 2004 · ISO 8859-7 (ISO Latin/Greek alphabet) and windows-1253 (CP 1253) are eight-bit character codes which can be used for texts in (modern) Greek.Missing: mojibake 1990s
[101]
RFC 1945: Hypertext Transfer Protocol -- HTTP/1.0
Part 5: Latin/Cyrillic alphabet, ISO 8859-5, 1988. Part 6: Latin/Arabic alphabet, ISO 8859-6, 1987. Part 7: Latin/Greek alphabet, ISO 8859-7, 1987. Part 8 ...