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Ammonium bisulfate

Ammonium bisulfate, also known as ammonium hydrogen sulfate, is an inorganic salt with the chemical formula NH₄HSO₄, consisting of ammonium cations (NH₄⁺) and bisulfate anions (HSO₄^-).^[1] It is a white, crystalline solid that is hygroscopic and highly soluble in water, forming acidic solutions due to the partial dissociation of the bisulfate ion.^[2] The compound melts at 147 °C and has a density of 1.79 g/mL, and it is toxic if ingested, requiring careful handling in laboratory and industrial settings.^[2] Ammonium bisulfate is typically produced by the half-neutralization of sulfuric acid with ammonia, resulting in a colorless to white powder that is stable under normal conditions but decomposes upon heating to release ammonia, sulfur trioxide, and water.^[3] Its acidic nature and solubility make it valuable in various applications, including as a catalyst for organic reactions and in hair-waving preparations to facilitate protein modification.^[4] Additionally, it serves as a component in fertilizers to provide nitrogen and sulfur nutrients to plants, and in water treatment processes to adjust pH and remove impurities.^[4]

Physical and chemical properties

Appearance and basic characteristics

Ammonium bisulfate, chemically denoted as NH₄HSO₄, is a white to colorless crystalline solid or powder commonly observed in its pure form.^[5] This compound exhibits no discernible odor, consistent with its ionic salt nature.^[6] It possesses a molar mass of 115.11 g/mol, reflecting the combined atomic weights of its constituent elements.^[5] The density of ammonium bisulfate is 1.78 g/cm³ at 20 °C, indicating its compact crystalline structure.^[7] Key identifiers for the compound include the CAS number 7803-63-6, the EC number 232-265-5, and the PubChem CID 24655, which facilitate its recognition in chemical databases and regulatory contexts.^[5]

Solubility and thermal behavior

Ammonium bisulfate is highly soluble in water, with a solubility of approximately 100 g per 100 mL at 20°C, forming acidic solutions due to partial dissociation. It exhibits moderate solubility in methanol but is insoluble in acetone and diethyl ether. This solubility profile makes it useful in aqueous-based processes while limiting its compatibility with non-polar organic solvents.^[8]^[9]^[2] The compound is hygroscopic, readily absorbing atmospheric moisture to form deliquescent solutions that can lead to handling challenges in humid environments. Upon heating, ammonium bisulfate melts at 146–147°C, transitioning into a viscous liquid without significant vaporization at this stage.^[2]^[3] Thermal decomposition begins above 300°C, initially involving dehydration and condensation reactions that produce ammonium pyrosulfate, followed by further breakdown into ammonium sulfate, sulfur trioxide, and ammonia gases. A simplified representation of one pathway in this process is given by the equation:

$2 \ce{NH4HSO4} \rightarrow \ce{(NH4)2SO4 + H2SO4}

The sulfuric acid formed can subsequently decompose to sulfur trioxide and water at higher temperatures, contributing to the release of corrosive and toxic vapors.^[10]

Reactivity and stability

Ammonium bisulfate is an acidic salt that dissociates in water to form NH₄⁺ and HSO₄⁻ ions, resulting in solutions with moderate concentrations of hydrogen ions and a pH less than 7.0.^[1] The bisulfate ion (HSO₄⁻) acts as a moderately strong acid, further contributing to the overall acidity of the solution.^[11] In terms of reactivity, ammonium bisulfate neutralizes bases through acid-base reactions, generating heat in the process. For example, it reacts with sodium hydroxide according to the equation:

\ce{NH4HSO4 + NaOH -> NaHSO4 + NH3 + H2O}

With excess base, it forms sodium sulfate:

\ce{NH4HSO4 + 2 NaOH -> Na2SO4 + NH3 + 2 H2O}

^[11] Additionally, it is incompatible with strong oxidizing agents, potentially leading to vigorous reactions.^[2] Ammonium bisulfate exhibits good stability under normal ambient conditions but is hygroscopic and deliquescent, absorbing moisture from the air and undergoing hydrolysis to form sulfuric acid.^[11] It decomposes upon heating above approximately 300 °C, releasing toxic gases such as sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, ammonia, and sulfur dioxide.^[2] The compound is corrosive to certain metals, including aluminum, and may evolve flammable hydrogen gas upon contact.^[11]

Synthesis and production

Industrial production methods

Ammonium bisulfate is primarily produced on an industrial scale through the direct reaction of sulfuric acid with ammonia gas or aqueous ammonium hydroxide, which constitutes a half-neutralization process yielding the desired salt.^[3] This method involves controlled addition of ammonia to concentrated sulfuric acid in reactors, often under exothermic conditions managed by cooling systems to prevent excessive temperature rise. The reaction proceeds as follows:

\mathrm{H_2SO_4 + NH_3 \rightarrow NH_4HSO_4}

The resulting solution is then processed to isolate the product.^[3] A significant portion of industrial ammonium bisulfate arises as a byproduct in caprolactam production for nylon-6 synthesis, where the primary ammonium sulfate byproduct undergoes thermal decomposition at temperatures between 200–400 °C, releasing ammonia and forming ammonium bisulfate.^[12]^[13] This conversion step helps manage the large volumes of ammonium sulfate generated (approximately 4 tons per ton of caprolactam), with the bisulfate recovered for further use or sale.^[14] In ammonia-based flue gas desulfurization systems, ammonium bisulfate forms as a side product during the acidification of ammonium sulfite or bisulfite liquors with sulfuric acid, which evolves SO₂ for recovery while precipitating the bisulfate.^[15] These processes collectively contribute to global production on the order of thousands of tons annually, primarily for chemical and catalytic applications.^[16] Purification across these methods generally entails evaporation of the aqueous mixture to concentrate the salt, followed by cooling to promote crystallization, yielding a high-purity solid product suitable for commercial distribution.

Laboratory preparation

Ammonium bisulfate can be prepared in the laboratory by partial neutralization of sulfuric acid with ammonia, a process that yields the compound through controlled reaction stoichiometry. The reaction proceeds as follows:

\ce{NH3 + H2SO4 -> NH4HSO4}

Gaseous ammonia is typically introduced into concentrated sulfuric acid within a fume hood to facilitate precise addition and manage the exothermic nature of the reaction, preventing localized overheating or splashing. Acid-resistant borosilicate glassware is essential, and the pH is monitored throughout to halt the process at the bisulfate endpoint, avoiding over-neutralization to ammonium sulfate. This method allows for small-scale production suitable for research or educational purposes.^[3] An alternative synthesis route involves reacting ammonium sulfate with sulfuric acid, according to the balanced equation:

\ce{(NH4)2SO4 + H2SO4 -> 2 NH4HSO4}

The reactants are mixed in a 1:1 molar ratio, either as solids or in aqueous solution, with the product forming directly under mild heating if necessary to promote dissolution and reaction completion. This approach is advantageous when ammonium sulfate is readily available and leverages a simple acid-base adjustment to generate the bisulfate.^[17]^[18] Post-synthesis purification begins with filtration to remove any unreacted solids or impurities, followed by recrystallization from hot water, exploiting the compound's solubility characteristics (approximately 100 g/100 mL at 20°C).^[19] The resulting crystals are cooled, collected, and dried under vacuum to yield colorless, pure ammonium bisulfate suitable for analytical use. Laboratory safety protocols emphasize conducting all steps in a well-ventilated fume hood due to the release of ammonia vapor and acidic fumes; acid-resistant glassware prevents corrosion, while continuous pH monitoring ensures reaction control and minimizes hazards from excess acid or base. Protective gear, including gloves, safety goggles, and a lab coat, is mandatory, and any spills should be neutralized promptly with a sodium bicarbonate solution before cleanup.^[20]

Applications and uses

Industrial applications

Ammonium bisulfate serves as an intermediate in the production of ammonium sulfate fertilizers, where it is neutralized with ammonia to yield the final product, providing essential nitrogen and sulfur nutrients for agriculture. This process is particularly valuable in recycling by-products from other industrial operations, such as caprolactam synthesis, into useful fertilizers.^[21] In the textile and leather industries, ammonium bisulfate functions as a catalyst in dyeing processes to facilitate color fixation and as a deliming agent in leather tanning to adjust pH levels after lime treatment, enabling efficient protein swelling and hide preparation. Its acidic properties make it a milder alternative to sulfuric acid, reducing equipment corrosion while maintaining process efficiency.^[22] The compound is employed in the paper and pulp sector as a bleaching agent for mechanical pulp, helping to remove impurities and brighten fibers without excessive degradation, and in the purification of kaolin clay to enhance whiteness and remove iron contaminants through acidic leaching. These applications leverage its solubility and reactivity to improve product quality in large-scale manufacturing.^[23] In chemical manufacturing, ammonium bisulfate acts as a catalyst in organic synthesis reactions, including those for explosives and pharmaceuticals, due to its Brønsted acidity that promotes dehydration and rearrangement steps. It plays a specific role in the Beckmann rearrangement during caprolactam production, where it facilitates the conversion of cyclohexanone oxime to the lactam intermediate, often as part of the acid medium or recyclable by-product stream.^[24] For water treatment, ammonium bisulfate is utilized to remove excess chlorine residuals and heavy metals, such as copper and iron, through precipitation and reduction mechanisms in industrial purification processes, ensuring compliance with effluent standards. Its use as an oxygen scavenger further protects systems from corrosion in boilers and cooling towers.^[3]

Other uses

Ammonium bisulfate serves as a scrubbing agent in processes for removing hydrogen sulfide from natural gas streams, where it facilitates the absorption and neutralization of acidic gases in aqueous solutions. In analytical chemistry, it acts as a flux for dissolving metal samples during fusion prior to analysis, aiding in the determination of trace elements, and as a reagent in certain titrations for sulfate quantification by adjusting pH and forming soluble complexes. As a component in household cleaning agents, ammonium bisulfate leverages its acidic properties to remove rust stains from metal surfaces, often applied in diluted solutions for safe, effective descaling without excessive corrosion.^[25] Ammonium bisulfate is used in hair-waving preparations as a catalyst to facilitate protein modification in keratin for permanent waving.^[1] Recent research highlights its emerging role in sustainable chemistry, including post-2020 studies demonstrating improved efficiency in leaching and regenerating metals from spent lithium-ion batteries, such as LiFePO4 cathodes, to support circular economy practices (as of 2025).^[26]

Occurrence and environmental aspects

Natural occurrence

Ammonium bisulfate forms transiently in the atmosphere through the reaction of ammonia (NH₃) with sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), contributing to aerosol particle nucleation and growth, particularly in environments where both gases are present from natural sources such as volcanic emissions or biogenic processes.^[27] This process involves nearly barrierless reactions promoted by water molecules or additional ammonia, leading to stable clusters that play a role in cloud formation and atmospheric chemistry.^[28] Such formation is observed in various atmospheric conditions, including over continental and marine regions, where it helps explain the prevalence of sulfate aerosols. In natural geological settings, ammonium bisulfate itself is not recognized as a distinct mineral, but related acid sulfate compounds occur in trace amounts. For instance, letovicite [(NH₄)₃H(SO₄)₂], which incorporates the bisulfate ion (HSO₄⁻), is a rare secondary mineral found in combustion zones of coal waste heaps—analogous to volcanic fumaroles—and in deposits around hot springs.^[29] These occurrences result from reactions involving ammonia gases and sulfur-bearing vapors in high-temperature, oxidizing environments, often alongside other ammonium sulfates like mascagnite.^[30] Ammonium sulfates, including potential bisulfate variants, have also been noted in geothermal fumarole fields, such as those in the Salton Sea region, where ammonia emissions interact with sulfur oxides.^[30]

Environmental impact

Ammonium bisulfate, an ionic compound, readily dissociates in aqueous environments into ammonium (NH₄⁺) and bisulfate (HSO₄⁻) ions, which do not undergo traditional biodegradation but can undergo chemical and biological transformations.^[31] The ammonium ion is subject to nitrification by soil bacteria under aerobic conditions, converting it to nitrate (NO₃⁻) with a half-life typically ranging from days to weeks, depending on soil pH, temperature, and microbial activity; this process can contribute to soil acidification as hydrogen ions are released.^[32] The bisulfate ion persists as sulfate (SO₄²⁻) after proton dissociation, which is highly stable and accumulates in soils and sediments, potentially increasing salinity and lowering pH in water bodies.^[33] In aquatic systems, ammonium bisulfate exhibits potential toxicity primarily through its dissociated ions, with the bisulfate contributing acidity and the ammonium potentially forming un-ionized ammonia (NH₃), which is harmful to sensitive species. Specific ecotoxicity data for ammonium bisulfate are limited; for the related compound ammonium sulfate, acute toxicity values include an LC50 of 53 mg/L for fish (96 h) and an EC50 of 122 mg/L for daphnia (48 h).^[34] Fish and crustaceans may experience respiratory distress and reduced reproduction at elevated levels, exacerbated by the compound's water solubility (approximately 115 g/L at 20°C), facilitating rapid dispersion.^[1]^[2] Industrial releases of ammonium bisulfate, often from flue gas desulfurization or chemical manufacturing, contribute to atmospheric sulfate aerosols that deposit via wet and dry processes, intensifying acid rain. When ammonium bisulfate dissolves in precipitation, it hydrolyzes to release more hydrogen ions than ammonium sulfate, lowering rainwater pH by up to 1 unit in high-emission scenarios and expanding acidic deposition areas.^[35] This sulfate deposition exacerbates ecosystem acidification, particularly in forests and lakes, where it mobilizes toxic metals like aluminum from soils.^[36] Under U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations, ammonium bisulfate discharges are managed through Clean Water Act effluent limitations guidelines, which set ammonia-nitrogen limits (e.g., 10–30 mg/L monthly averages for certain industrial categories) to protect aquatic life and prevent eutrophication.^[37] Facilities must monitor and treat wastewater to comply with these standards, often using neutralization or biological treatment, while atmospheric emissions fall under Clean Air Act provisions targeting sulfur dioxide precursors to curb acid rain.

Safety and regulatory information

Health hazards

Ammonium bisulfate exhibits moderate acute oral toxicity, with an LD₅₀ value of 2140 mg/kg in rats, indicating it is harmful if swallowed. Ingestion can lead to severe burns in the mouth, throat, esophagus, and stomach, potentially causing pain, vomiting, and gastrointestinal perforation in severe cases.^[38]^[20] Inhalation of ammonium bisulfate dust irritates the respiratory tract, causing coughing, shortness of breath, and inflammation of the nose, throat, and lungs. Upon heating or thermal decomposition, it releases ammonia gas and sulfur trioxide, which are highly irritating and can result in pulmonary edema—a potentially life-threatening accumulation of fluid in the lungs—characterized by chest tightness, cyanosis, and rapid heartbeat.^[20]^[1] Direct contact with skin causes severe corrosion and burns, resulting in redness, pain, and tissue damage that may require medical attention. Eye exposure leads to serious damage, including intense pain, redness, swelling, and potential permanent vision impairment or blindness due to corneal ulceration. Under the Globally Harmonized System (GHS), ammonium bisulfate is classified as causing severe skin burns (H314) and serious eye damage (H318), as well as specific target organ toxicity from single exposure via respiratory irritation (H335).^[39]^[20] It is not classified as a carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).^[39]

Handling and storage precautions

When handling ammonium bisulfate, workers should use appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) to minimize exposure risks, including chemical-resistant gloves, safety goggles or face shields, and protective clothing such as lab coats or aprons.^[20] Respiratory protection, such as a dust mask or respirator, is recommended in poorly ventilated areas or when dust generation is possible to prevent inhalation of particulates.^[40] All handling should occur in well-ventilated areas or under local exhaust ventilation to avoid accumulation of dust or fumes.^[20] For storage, ammonium bisulfate should be kept in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area in tightly sealed containers made of compatible materials like glass, plastic, or lined steel to prevent moisture absorption and decomposition.^[20] It must be stored away from incompatible substances, including strong bases, oxidizing agents, and reactive metals such as aluminum or zinc, which can lead to hazardous reactions like the evolution of hydrogen gas.^[40] Containers should be labeled clearly and stored locked to restrict access, particularly out of reach of children and incompatible materials.^[20] In the event of a spill, evacuate the area and ensure adequate ventilation before response; personnel should wear full PPE including respirators if dust is present.^[40] Contain the spill to prevent spread, then neutralize the material with a base such as soda ash or agricultural lime before absorption using inert materials like sand, vermiculite, or spill pillows; avoid using water directly to prevent runoff into sewers or waterways.^[41] Collect the neutralized residue in labeled containers for proper disposal according to local regulations, and clean the area thoroughly afterward.^[20] Regulatory compliance is essential for safe management; ammonium bisulfate is classified as a corrosive material under DOT regulations with UN number 2506, Hazard Class 8, and Packing Group II, requiring specific packaging and labeling for transportation.^[1] Occupational exposure should be limited to the OSHA PEL of 15 mg/m³ for total dust (particulates not otherwise regulated) and 5 mg/m³ for the respirable fraction over an 8-hour time-weighted average.^[42] First aid measures include: for eye contact, immediately flush with water for at least 15 minutes while holding eyelids open and seek medical attention; for skin contact, wash affected area with soap and water, remove contaminated clothing, and consult a physician if irritation persists; for inhalation, move to fresh air and provide oxygen if breathing is difficult, followed by medical evaluation; for ingestion, rinse mouth, do not induce vomiting, and seek immediate medical help or contact poison control.^[20]

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