Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Aphididae

The Aphididae, commonly known as aphids or plant lice, form a large family of small, soft-bodied insects within the order Hemiptera and superfamily Aphidoidea, characterized by their sap-sucking mouthparts, pear-shaped bodies typically measuring 0.4–7.8 mm in length, and polymorphic forms that include wingless and winged individuals.^[1]^[2] This family encompasses over 5,000 species across approximately 510 genera and 24 subfamilies, representing about 90% of all aphid diversity, with species distributed worldwide except in extreme polar regions.^[1]^[2] Aphids exhibit a distinctive life cycle dominated by cyclical parthenogenesis, where asexual reproduction via live birth allows rapid population growth—up to 80 offspring per female per week and potentially 15 generations in a single year—alternating with sexual generations that produce overwintering eggs in cooler climates.^[1]^[3] Herbivorous by nature, they feed on phloem sap from a wide range of plants, often specializing in particular host families or species, and excrete a sugary byproduct called honeydew that attracts ants and other insects in mutualistic relationships.^[2]^[3] Many species are colonial and sedentary, forming dense aggregations on plant tissues, while others are heteroecious, migrating between primary (often woody) and secondary (herbaceous) hosts; some even induce galls or feed submerged in aquatic environments.^[1]^[2] Ecologically, aphids play dual roles as both pests and subjects of study, with around 250 species causing significant agricultural damage by direct feeding, distortion of plant growth, and transmission of over 200 plant viruses, leading to substantial crop losses worldwide.^[1] Their symbiotic bacteria, such as Buchnera aphidicola, enable nutrient supplementation from nutrient-poor sap, highlighting their evolutionary adaptations.^[2] In natural systems, aphids serve as prey for predators like ladybugs and parasitic wasps, contributing to biodiversity, though outbreaks can overwhelm these controls in managed ecosystems.^[3]

Taxonomy and Systematics

Classification History

The classification of the Aphididae family traces its origins to the work of Carl Linnaeus, who in 1758 established the genus Aphis in Systema Naturae to describe small, plant-sucking insects observed on various host plants. This genus initially encompassed a broad array of species now recognized as aphids and related groups, reflecting the limited morphological distinctions available at the time. In 1802, Pierre-André Latreille formalized the family Aphididae in his Histoire naturelle des crustacés et des insectes, distinguishing it from other hemipterans based on key features such as the piercing-sucking mouthparts and siphuncles, thereby elevating the group to familial rank within the order Hemiptera. Subsequent taxonomic revisions in the 19th and 20th centuries focused on refining internal divisions, particularly the delineation of subfamilies, which became a point of ongoing debate among entomologists. Early classifications, such as those by Amyot and Serville in 1843, emphasized host plant associations and life cycle variations, but inconsistencies arose as more species were described. By the late 20th century, proposals varied widely, with some authors, including Remaudière and Remaudière in 1997, recognizing up to 24 subfamilies based on morphological traits like alate wing venation and cauda shape, while others advocated fewer groupings to account for convergence in traits driven by similar ecological niches.^[2] These controversies highlighted the challenges of relying solely on external morphology in a group exhibiting high polymorphism and cryptic species. Modern taxonomic efforts have increasingly incorporated molecular data to address these ambiguities, with DNA barcoding using the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene proving particularly effective for species-level identification and resolving cryptic diversity.^[4] The Aphid Species File, a relational database maintained by the University of Illinois, provides a centralized resource for nomenclatural and bibliographic data; as of 2025, it catalogs more than 5,200 described species in Aphididae, facilitating phylogenetic analyses and reducing synonymies through integrated morphological and genetic evidence.^[2] Within the broader context of Sternorrhyncha, Aphididae is positioned in the superfamily Aphidoidea under the infraorder Aphidomorpha, with sister groups such as Adelgidae (woolly aphids on conifers) and Phylloxeridae (phylloxerans on grapes and oaks) sharing derived traits like viviparity and complex host-alternation cycles.^[5]

Subfamilies and Diversity

The family Aphididae encompasses approximately 5,100 described species distributed across more than 510 genera.^[1] The family is recognized for its cosmopolitan distribution, but subfamily diversity is notably higher in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, where ecological niches on herbaceous and woody plants support greater speciation compared to tropical areas.^[2] Taxonomically, Aphididae is divided into approximately 24 subfamilies, a classification largely following the framework established by Remaudière and Remaudière (1997), though some revisions propose up to 25 based on molecular and morphological updates.^[2]^[6] Among these, Aphidinae stands out as the most diverse, comprising over 2,500 species in about 256 genera and accounting for roughly half of the family's total described taxa; this subfamily includes key agricultural pests and is characterized by broad host plant associations.^[7] Calaphidinae represents another prominent group, with around 400 species in over 60 genera, often specialized on trees and shrubs in temperate forests.^[8] Subfamily delineations within Aphididae rely primarily on morphological traits of the adult alate (winged) form, including antennal structure and cauda configuration.^[9] Antennae typically feature 5–6 segments, with variations in the length of the terminal process serving as a diagnostic feature—longer in Aphidinae and shorter in groups like Lachninae.^[2] The cauda, a tail-like sclerite at the abdominal apex, varies in shape from triangular or elongate in Aphidinae to more rounded or reduced forms in other subfamilies, aiding in phylogenetic distinctions alongside siphunculi (cornicle) morphology and wing venation patterns.^[9] These criteria, combined with host plant specificity and life cycle traits, underpin the current taxonomic structure while accommodating ongoing phylogenomic refinements.^[6]

Selected Genera and Species

The family Aphididae encompasses over 5,000 described species, with key genera such as Aphis, Myzus, and Rhopalosiphum representing significant taxonomic and ecological diversity across subfamilies like Aphidinae and Macrosiphinae.^[10] These genera include both polyphagous species that exploit a broad range of host plants and more host-specific ones adapted to particular plant families, illustrating the family's adaptability in agricultural and natural ecosystems.^[11] Among economically significant species, Aphis gossypii (cotton aphid), in the subfamily Aphidinae, is highly polyphagous, feeding on over 700 plant species across more than 135 families, including cotton (Gossypium spp.), cucurbits like melon (Cucumis melo), and vegetables such as beans and beets; it is distinguished by its small size (1-2 mm), dark green to black coloration, and ability to form dense colonies that cause leaf curling and sooty mold.^[12]^[13] Myzus persicae (green peach aphid), also in Aphidinae, targets over 400 host plants in more than 40 families, notably peach (Prunus persica), potato (Solanum tuberosum), and brassicas; its distinguishing traits include a pale green body (1.5-3 mm long), variable wing forms, and efficient virus transmission capabilities, making it a cosmopolitan pest.^[14]^[15] Rhopalosiphum maidis (corn leaf aphid), from Aphidinae, primarily infests grasses in the Poaceae family, such as corn (Zea mays), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), and barley (Hordeum vulgare); it features a blue-green to olive body (1-2 mm), black antennae and legs, and a preference for the upper leaves of cereal crops, where it develops in smaller colonies compared to other aphids.^[16]^[17] Additional notable species include Aphis fabae (black bean aphid) in Aphidinae, which attacks over 200 hosts like beans (Vicia faba), beets (Beta vulgaris), and spinach (Spinacia oleracea), characterized by its shiny black body (1.5-3 mm) and tendency to aggregate on tender shoots, often alternating between primary woody hosts like Euonymus and secondary herbaceous ones.^[18]^[19] Acyrthosiphon pisum (pea aphid), in Macrosiphinae, specializes on legumes in the Fabaceae family, including peas (Pisum sativum), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), and clover (Trifolium spp.), with a pale green body (2-4 mm), long antennae, and biotypes adapted to specific hosts, leading to color polymorphism from green to pink.^[20]^[21] Macrosiphum euphorbiae (potato aphid), also in Macrosiphinae, is polyphagous on solanaceous crops like potato (Solanum tuberosum) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), as well as ornamentals such as rose (Rosa spp.) and lily (Lilium spp.); it is identifiable by its bright green to pink spindle-shaped body (2-4 mm) and long cornicles, forming loose colonies on stems and undersides of leaves.^[22]^[23] The diversity in host use within Aphididae is exemplified by polyphagous species like A. gossypii and M. persicae, which thrive on unrelated plant families due to broad behavioral and physiological adaptations, contrasting with more host-specific ones such as A. pisum, restricted largely to Fabaceae through specialized chemosensory mechanisms and endosymbiont associations that limit performance on non-legumes.^[24]^[25] In Eriosomatinae, species like Pemphigus spp. are highly specific to Populus (Salicaceae), where they induce galls, highlighting the family's spectrum from generalists to specialists.^[26] Recent taxonomic updates in catalogs like the Aphid Species File (version 5.0, as of 2025) document ongoing discoveries, including new species in genera such as Indomasonaphis and revisions expanding Drepanaphis to 18 species, primarily from regions like the Oriental and Palearctic, contributing to the known diversity of over 5,200 valid species.^[27]^[28]^[29]

Morphology and Anatomy

External Morphology

Aphids in the family Aphididae are small, soft-bodied insects characterized by a pear-shaped or oval body form, typically measuring 0.4–8 mm in length, with most species around 1–3 mm.^[30] The body is lightly sclerotized and often appears plump due to its sap-feeding lifestyle, with notable dimorphism between apterous (wingless) and alate (winged) morphs; alate forms possess functional wings held roof-like at rest, enabling dispersal, while apterous forms lack wings and are adapted for sedentary host colonization.^[2] This external structure facilitates their close association with plant surfaces, where they remain inconspicuous.^[1] Prominent external features include a pair of cornicles, also known as siphunculi, located on the fifth or sixth abdominal tergite, which serve as tubular appendages for ejecting defensive secretions such as alarm pheromones and sticky lipids to deter predators. These cornicles vary in shape from elongate cylinders to short cones or even pore-like openings across subfamilies, often terminating in a flanged structure in apterous individuals.^[2] Posterior to the cornicles is the cauda, a small tail-like projection on the ninth abdominal tergite, which is typically triangular, elongate, or rounded and bears hairs, aiding in the control of secreted droplets.^[30] The mouthparts consist of a piercing-sucking rostrum equipped with stylets, which is four- to five-segmented and extends ventrally to reach the hind coxae when at rest, enabling penetration of plant tissues for phloem feeding.^[2] The head bears a pair of antennae, usually composed of 5-6 segments (rarely 4), with the basal segments (scape and pedicel) being short and broad, and the flagellum featuring sensoria for detecting host plant volatiles and environmental cues.^[31] In alate morphs, antennae are longer and bear additional secondary rhinaria compared to apterous forms.^[30] Color variations are common, ranging from green and yellow to black or brown, often providing camouflage against host plant backgrounds—such as green hues on foliage or brownish tones on stems—to reduce visibility to predators.^[32] These external traits exhibit polymorphism influenced by environmental factors, though baseline morphology remains consistent across forms.^[1]

Internal Features

The digestive system of Aphididae is highly specialized for processing phloem sap, a nutrient-poor diet high in water and sugars. The foregut leads into a midgut featuring a prominent filter chamber, a convoluted structure formed by the apposition of the anterior midgut and the descending portion of the hindgut, which efficiently removes excess water and carbohydrates while allowing nutrient absorption.^[33] This adaptation enables aphids to ingest and excrete large volumes of sap rapidly, concentrating essential nutrients like amino acids for utilization.^[34] The circulatory system in Aphididae follows the typical open configuration of insects, with hemolymph bathing the organs directly within the hemocoel, the main body cavity. Circulation is primarily driven by a dorsal vessel, a tubular structure extending along the dorsal midline, divided into an anterior aorta in the thorax and a posterior heart in the abdomen that pumps hemolymph forward.^[35] Accessory pulsatile organs and body movements aid in distributing hemolymph to appendages and tissues, supporting nutrient transport and waste removal in the absence of a closed vascular network.^[36] Reproductive organs in Aphididae exhibit adaptations for both parthenogenetic and sexual reproduction, reflecting their complex life cycles. In parthenogenetic females, the ovaries consist of paired structures containing multiple telotrophic ovarioles, where nurse cells at the anterior end supply nutrients to developing oocytes, enabling the production of clonal female offspring without fertilization.^[37] Sexual forms, including oviparous females and males, possess distinct genitalia; females have paired ovaries merging into lateral oviducts and a common oviduct leading to a genital opening, while males feature paired testes connected to seminal vesicles for sperm production.^[38] Aphididae harbor the obligate endosymbiont Buchnera aphidicola within specialized mycetocytes, large cells forming the bacteriome organ primarily in the hemocoel. These bacteria synthesize essential amino acids, such as tryptophan and phenylalanine, that are scarce in phloem sap, providing them to the host via transporters on mycetocyte membranes.^[39] This symbiosis is vertically transmitted through the female germline, ensuring nutritional provisioning across generations.^[40]

Life Cycle and Reproduction

Reproductive Strategies

Aphididae, commonly known as aphids, primarily employ cyclical parthenogenesis as their reproductive strategy, alternating between asexual and sexual phases within an annual life cycle. During the asexual phase, which dominates in favorable spring and summer conditions, viviparous females reproduce parthenogenetically, giving birth to live female offspring that are genetic clones of the mother. This process allows for rapid population expansion without the need for mating, enabling aphids to exploit ephemeral plant resources efficiently.^[41]^[42] The sexual phase typically occurs in autumn, triggered by environmental cues such as shortening photoperiods and declining temperatures, which induce the production of winged males and oviparous females. These sexual forms mate, and the females lay dormant eggs that provide cold tolerance for overwintering in temperate regions, hatching in spring to initiate the next parthenogenetic generation. In milder climates or for certain species, overwintering can also occur through cold-hardy parthenogenetic females or nymphs, bypassing the sexual phase and maintaining asexual reproduction year-round.^[43]^[44]^[45] A key feature enhancing the efficiency of parthenogenetic reproduction is the telescoping of generations, where embryos develop within the mother while themselves containing developing embryos, effectively compressing multiple life cycles into a single season. This viviparity and generational overlap allow aphid populations to achieve 10 to 30 parthenogenetic generations per year under optimal conditions, facilitating exponential growth rates that can reach billions of individuals from a single founding female.^[42]^[46]

Developmental Stages and Polymorphism

Aphids in the family Aphididae undergo incomplete metamorphosis, progressing through four nymphal instars before reaching the adult stage, with molting occurring between each instar to allow for growth and morphological changes.^[47] Nymphs are born live from viviparous mothers and resemble miniature adults, feeding immediately on plant phloem sap while developing wing pads in alate-destined individuals during later instars.^[48] Under optimal warm conditions (around 20–25°C), the entire parthenogenetic lifecycle from birth to reproductive adulthood typically spans 7–10 days, enabling rapid population growth.^[49] A key feature of Aphididae development is polymorphism, particularly wing dimorphism, where individuals develop as either apterous (wingless) morphs adapted for sedentary reproduction on host plants or alate (winged) morphs suited for dispersal to new hosts.^[50] Apterous morphs lack functional wings and flight muscles, prioritizing energy allocation to high fecundity, while alates possess fully developed wings and muscles for flight, often at the cost of reduced reproductive output.^[51] This polyphenism arises from a single genotype, with morph determination occurring early in embryogenesis or the first nymphal instar, influenced by maternal and environmental factors.^[43] Sexual dimorphism becomes prominent in autumn generations, often producing smaller males compared to females, which may be apterous or alate and engage in mating; in some species, males are dwarfed and exhibit reduced feeding.^[43]^[52] Corresponding oviparous females develop larger ovaries for egg production, laying diapausing eggs after mating to overwinter.^[43] Males arise parthenogenetically via random loss of one X chromosome (XO sex-determination system), while females are XX. These sexual forms contrast with the parthenogenetic summer generations, marking a shift to amphimixis for genetic recombination. Environmental cues, particularly population crowding and declining host plant quality, trigger alate production through hormonal signals such as juvenile hormone (JH), which modulates gene expression in developing embryos via trans-generational effects in viviparous mothers.^[43] High density simulates resource limitation, prompting JH titer changes that favor winged morphs for escape and colonization, while low crowding maintains apterous forms for local exploitation.^[53] Photoperiod and temperature further influence sexual morph induction, with short days and cooler conditions promoting dwarf males and oviparae.^[54]

Evolution and Phylogeny

Fossil Record

The fossil record of Aphididae is predominantly preserved in amber inclusions, offering detailed glimpses into the family's origins and early diversification during the Mesozoic era. Late Cretaceous amber from sites like Canadian and Taimyr (Siberia) yields evidence of Aphididae diversification, with 20 and 17 species described, respectively, including early representatives of extant subfamilies such as Aphidinae and Neophyllaphidinae. These fossils indicate that the family had begun radiating by around 80–75 million years ago, coinciding with the proliferation of flowering plants. Post-Cretaceous, the family underwent significant radiation during the Paleogene, with most modern subfamilies appearing in the fossil record by the Eocene. The subfamily Aphidinae, which accounts for over half of all extant aphid species, is documented from Late Cretaceous amber but shows marked diversification in subsequent periods.^[55] Amber preservation frequently captures fine morphological details, including cornicles (siphunculi) and the stylet bundle of the proboscis, structures essential for phloem sap extraction and defense. Such features in Cretaceous and Paleogene specimens demonstrate that key sap-feeding adaptations were established early in the family's evolution, with cornicles often visible as paired tubular projections on the abdomen.^[56] Eocene amber deposits, particularly Baltic amber from northern Europe (dated 44–49 million years ago) and Dominican amber from the Caribbean (20–30 million years ago), host the richest assemblages, with over 100 fossil species of Aphididae described across these sites. These inclusions reveal a broad range of morphs and host associations, underscoring the family's ecological expansion in diverse forested environments.

Evolutionary Adaptations

One of the most significant evolutionary innovations in Aphididae is the origin of cyclical parthenogenesis, an ancient trait that emerged in the common ancestor of Aphidomorpha approximately 200 million years ago during the early Jurassic period.^[57] This reproductive strategy allows aphids to alternate between asexual parthenogenetic generations, which produce genetically identical offspring rapidly, and a single sexual generation that generates genetic diversity through recombination.^[58] The adaptive value lies in enabling swift colonization of new host plants and environments, particularly under favorable conditions, by maximizing reproductive output without the need for mates, while the sexual phase helps adapt to seasonal challenges like overwintering.^[57] A parallel evolutionary milestone is the development of obligate symbiosis with the bacterium Buchnera aphidicola, which co-speciated with aphids in a single ancient infection event dated to 150–200 million years ago based on fossil and molecular evidence.^[59] This endosymbiosis involves vertical transmission from mother to offspring via bacteriocytes, ensuring stable inheritance across generations.^[60] Buchnera compensates for the nutrient-poor phloem sap that aphids feed on by biosynthesizing essential amino acids, such as tryptophan and phenylalanine, which the aphids cannot produce independently; this mutualism has driven genome reduction in Buchnera while enhancing aphid survival on specialized diets.^[59] The tight co-evolutionary congruence between Buchnera phylogenies and aphid host lineages underscores its role as a foundational adaptation for the family's phytophagous lifestyle.^[60] Host alternation, or heteroecy—the seasonal migration between a primary woody host for sexual reproduction and secondary herbaceous hosts for parthenogenetic phases—evolved multiple times within Aphididae, likely originating from ancestral monoecy on woody plants during the Middle Tertiary around 30–50 million years ago.^[55] In lineages like Brachycaudus, heteroecy has been reacquired up to four or five times, indicating its lability as an evolutionary trait.^[61] This strategy serves as an adaptation to escape predators and parasitoids concentrated on primary hosts, allowing aphids to exploit ephemeral summer resources on secondary hosts where natural enemy pressure is lower, thereby optimizing survival and population dynamics.^[61] Aphididae's defense mechanisms have evolved prominently through cornicle secretions, paired abdominal structures that produce droplets serving dual roles: volatile alarm pheromones and non-volatile sticky adhesives. The primary alarm pheromone, (E)-β-farnesene, is secreted in response to threats like predation or parasitism, dispersing conspecifics and eliciting escape behaviors to protect the colony, a function maintained by kin selection in clonal groups. Simultaneously, the lipid-rich, fast-drying secretions act as physical deterrents, entangling and immobilizing attackers such as ladybird larvae or parasitoid wasps, reducing their foraging efficiency and oviposition success.^[62] This multifunctional evolution likely arose from an ancestral alarm signaling system, expanding to include tactile defense, enhancing indirect fitness benefits in social-like aphid colonies.

Ecology and Distribution

Habitats and Global Distribution

Aphididae, the largest family within Aphidoidea, primarily inhabit terrestrial environments across diverse ecosystems, including forests, scrublands, urban areas, suburban landscapes, and agricultural fields. These aphids favor regions with abundant vegetation that supports their phloem-feeding lifestyle, though they are absent from permanently ice-bound polar areas. Their presence is most pronounced in temperate zones where seasonal vegetation growth aligns with their reproductive cycles, but they also occur in tropical and subtropical areas with suitable microhabitats.^[1]^[2] The global distribution of Aphididae is cosmopolitan, encompassing all continents except Antarctica, with over 5,000 species recorded worldwide. Diversity is highest in the Holarctic realm, particularly in the Nearctic and Palearctic regions of North America and Eurasia, where temperate climates support a greater number of species compared to tropical zones. Human-mediated dispersal through international trade has facilitated the spread of many species into new regions, contributing to their near-universal presence in non-polar terrestrial habitats. Climate change is projected to expand suitable habitats for many aphid species, potentially altering their global distribution and increasing interactions in agricultural systems as of 2025.^[63] For instance, species like the pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) exhibit broad ranges across North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa, and the Middle East.^[1]^[2]^[64] Aphididae occupy a wide altitudinal range, from sea level to elevations exceeding 3,000 meters. For example, in mountainous regions such as southwest China, diversity of conifer-feeding aphids peaks at mid-altitudes around 2,500–3,000 meters. Climatically, many species thrive in temperate and subtropical conditions; for instance, the pea aphid is modeled as suitable in areas with mean temperatures between -10°C and 25°C and precipitation levels from 0 to 125 mm, but adaptations allow persistence in arid zones through mechanisms such as aestivation, where nymphs enter dormancy during hot, dry periods to conserve energy and avoid desiccation. In colder climates, they overwinter as eggs, resuming activity in spring.^[65]^[66]^[67]^[64] Migration in Aphididae is facilitated by alate (winged) morphs, which enable long-distance dispersal, often passively via wind currents. These forms develop in response to crowding or environmental cues, allowing aphids to colonize new areas; flights can reach altitudes of several hundred meters, with convective updrafts aiding ascent and enabling transoceanic travel in some cases. Such patterns contribute to rapid range expansions and genetic mixing across populations.^[1]^[68]^[69]

Plant Interactions and Host Specificity

Aphids in the family Aphididae primarily feed by inserting their needle-like stylets into plant tissues to access the phloem sieve elements, where they ingest nutrient-rich sap essential for their high reproductive rates.^[70] This feeding process involves both salivation and ingestion pathways within the stylets, allowing aphids to extract sugars and amino acids while injecting watery saliva that can alter plant cell membranes and block sieve plate pores to maintain flow.^[70] The mechanical and salivary effects of this phloem ingestion often lead to visible plant damage, including curled or distorted leaves due to loss of turgor and disrupted growth hormones, as well as overall stunted plant development from nutrient depletion.^[71] Host specificity among Aphididae species varies widely, from monophagous taxa restricted to a single plant species—such as the crapemyrtle aphid Tinocallis kahawaluokalani, which feeds exclusively on Lagerstroemia species—to polyphagous species like the cotton aphid Aphis gossypii, capable of utilizing hosts from over 200 plant species across multiple families.^[72]^[73] Approximately 10% of aphid species exhibit heteroecy, a life cycle strategy involving seasonal migration between a primary woody host (often for overwintering eggs) and secondary herbaceous hosts (for summer reproduction), as seen in the green peach aphid Myzus persicae, which alternates between peach trees (Prunus persica) and various crops like potatoes and beans.^[74] This alternation enhances survival by exploiting diverse nutritional resources and avoiding overcrowding, though it requires specialized behavioral adaptations for host location.^[74] Aphids serve as efficient vectors for more than 200 plant viruses, facilitating transmission during brief feeding probes or prolonged attachments.^[75] Transmission modes include non-persistent, where viruses adhere to the stylet exterior and are acquired or inoculated in seconds to minutes (e.g., many potyviruses), and persistent, involving virus circulation within the aphid's hemolymph for days or longer, as exemplified by the bird cherry-oat aphid Rhopalosiphum padi transmitting potato leafroll virus (Luteovirus), which leads to severe yield losses in solanaceous crops.^[76]^[77] These interactions underscore aphids' role in amplifying viral epidemics, with vector efficiency influenced by plant virus compatibility and aphid salivary proteins.^[76] In response to aphid feeding, plants deploy both structural and chemical defenses, including the induction of galls by certain gall-forming aphid species, which create enclosed, nutrient-rich chambers that paradoxically shelter the aphids while altering local plant physiology.^[78] Chemical defenses involve the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) like hydrogen peroxide at feeding sites, which can disrupt aphid stylet insertion and trigger systemic signaling for jasmonic acid or salicylic acid pathways, leading to volatile emissions that deter further colonization or attract natural enemies.^[79] These responses vary by host plant genotype and aphid species, often resulting in a dynamic arms race where aphid effectors in saliva suppress defenses to sustain feeding.^[79]

Interactions with Other Organisms

Aphids in the family Aphididae form mutualistic associations with numerous ant species through a process known as trophobiosis, in which ants defend aphids against predators and parasitoids while harvesting honeydew, the sugary exudate aphids produce from plant sap. This protection can enhance aphid survival rates by up to several-fold, as ants aggressively remove threats and may even transport aphids to safer or more productive host plants. Such interactions involve over 100 ant species across multiple genera, including common tenders like Lasius niger and Formica spp., demonstrating the widespread ecological integration of this symbiosis.^[80]^[81] Aphids face significant predation and parasitism from a diverse array of arthropods, which play a crucial role in regulating their populations in natural ecosystems. Predatory insects such as lady beetles (Coccinellidae, e.g., Hippodamia convergens) and lacewing larvae (Chrysopidae, e.g., Chrysoperla carnea) consume dozens to hundreds of aphids per individual during their development, often leading to rapid declines in aphid colonies. Parasitoid wasps, particularly in the genus Aphidius (e.g., Aphidius ervi), oviposit into aphid hosts, where their larvae develop internally and eventually kill the host, mummifying it and reducing local aphid densities by 50-90% in controlled studies. To counter these threats, aphids release alarm pheromones, primarily (E)-β-farnesene, which trigger defensive behaviors like dropping from plants or clustering in nearby aphids, thereby limiting the spread of attackers.^[82]^[83] In addition to biotic antagonists, aphids maintain complex microbial symbioses that extend beyond the primary endosymbiont Buchnera aphidicola, which supplies essential amino acids. Secondary symbionts like Hamiltonella defensa confer resistance to parasitoid wasps by encoding bacteriophages that produce toxins lethal to developing wasp larvae, increasing aphid survival rates against common parasitoids such as Aphidius ervi by 20-80% depending on strain virulence. These facultative bacteria are vertically transmitted and can modulate aphid fitness, sometimes enhancing reproduction or heat tolerance while occasionally imposing metabolic costs.^[84]^[85] Aphids also serve as vectors for fungal pathogens that infect their own populations, contributing to density-dependent regulation. Entomopathogenic fungi such as Pandora neoaphidis (formerly Erynia neoaphidis) spread via conidia that adhere to aphid cuticles during contact or alate dispersal flights, infecting up to 90% of aphids in high-density outbreaks under humid conditions. Transmission mechanisms include direct conidial discharge between crowded aphids, wind-aided spore dispersal during migratory flights, and indirect transfer via predators that consume infected individuals and mechanically spread spores. Factors influencing this pathogen spread encompass aphid mobility, environmental humidity above 90%, and fungal spore viability, which can persist for days on foliage.^[86]^[87]

Economic and Agricultural Importance

As Pests

Aphididae, commonly known as aphids, inflict significant damage on agricultural and horticultural crops worldwide, primarily through direct feeding and secondary effects, with North American estimates indicating annual control costs for aphid management ranging from $3.6 to $4.9 billion as of 2008.^[88] Globally, aphids contribute to substantial yield losses, with direct reductions of 5–16% in crops like wheat, potatoes, and peas in Europe, and up to 40% in unmanaged infestations in beans and tomatoes worldwide.^[89]^[90] Major affected crops include cereals such as wheat and barley, cotton, soybeans, and fruits like apples and citrus, where infestations can lead to substantial yield and quality reductions.^[91] For instance, in the United States, untreated soybean aphid (Aphis glycines) infestations alone are projected to cause annual losses of approximately $2.4 billion in soybean production value, as estimated in 2006.^[92] Direct damage from aphid feeding occurs as these insects pierce plant phloem to extract sap, depriving plants of essential nutrients and water, which results in stunted growth, curled leaves, and reduced photosynthesis. In severe infestations, yield losses can reach up to 50% in crops like soybeans, with even moderate populations causing detectable reductions when exceeding 400-500 aphids per plant.^[93] Similarly, in cereal crops, aphid sap depletion can lower yields by up to 10% and decrease seed size, compounding economic impacts during critical growth stages.^[94] Indirect damage arises from the honeydew excreted by aphids, a sugary secretion that promotes the growth of sooty mold fungi on plant surfaces, which interferes with photosynthesis by blocking sunlight and reducing plant vigor. This sooty mold can cover leaves extensively, leading to further growth inhibition and aesthetic damage that affects marketable quality in horticultural crops like fruits and ornamentals.^[95] Additionally, aphids serve as vectors for plant viruses, exacerbating losses beyond direct feeding effects.^[89] Invasive aphid species have amplified these impacts in North America since the 2010s, with the sugarcane aphid (Melanaphis sacchari), first detected in the U.S. in 2013, causing notable economic harm in southern regions. In South Texas, outbreaks of this species resulted in direct farmer losses of $78.57 million and broader economic output reductions of $169.83 million annually, as estimated for 2014-2016 in a 2017 study.^[96] The spiraea aphid (Aphis spiraecola), increasingly prevalent on tree fruits post-2010, has also emerged as a key pest of apples and citrus, contributing to curled foliage and reduced fruit quality in affected orchards.^[97]

Management and Control

Management and control of Aphididae species, commonly known as aphids, primarily focus on integrated pest management (IPM) strategies in agricultural and garden settings to minimize crop damage while reducing reliance on synthetic chemicals. These approaches combine biological, chemical, cultural, and emerging biotechnological methods tailored to the aphids' rapid reproduction and host-switching behaviors.^[98] Biological control involves the introduction and conservation of natural enemies, such as predators and parasitoids, which can significantly suppress aphid populations within IPM frameworks. Coccinellid beetles (ladybirds), including species like Hippodamia convergens, prey on aphids and have achieved over 50% reduction in aphid densities in greenhouse studies when released at appropriate ratios.^[99] Parasitoids, particularly from the genus Aphidius (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), lay eggs inside aphids, leading to mummification and host death; classical biological control programs using these agents have reported success rates of approximately 70% in establishing populations against invasive aphid species.^[100] In IPM, conserving these enemies through selective pesticide use and habitat provisioning enhances long-term efficacy, as demonstrated in field trials where combined predator and parasitoid releases reduced aphid outbreaks by 60-80% in cereal crops.^[98] Chemical control relies on insecticides, but resistance has become a major challenge, particularly in polyphagous species like the green peach aphid (Myzus persicae). Neonicotinoids, such as imidacloprid and thiamethoxam, target the aphids' nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and provide rapid knockdown, yet widespread resistance has evolved through mechanisms like target-site mutations and enhanced detoxification via cytochrome P450 enzymes.^[101] In M. persicae, resistance to neonicotinoids has been documented globally, with field populations showing up to 1000-fold tolerance compared to susceptible strains, necessitating rotation with alternative classes like pyrethroids or integration with synergists such as piperonyl butoxide to restore efficacy.^[102] Regulatory restrictions on neonicotinoids due to pollinator impacts have further shifted focus toward targeted applications, such as seed treatments, in high-value crops.^[103] Cultural practices offer non-chemical options to disrupt aphid life cycles and reduce infestation risks. Crop rotation prevents aphids from locating preferred hosts by alternating non-host plants, diluting regional pest pressure and lowering autumn migration in winter cereals by up to 40% in diversified rotations.^[104] Planting resistant crop varieties, such as those expressing antibiosis (e.g., reduced aphid fecundity) or antixenosis (e.g., deterrence of settling), has been effective; for instance, sorghum hybrids with the Rag1 gene confer tolerance to sugarcane aphids (Melanaphis sacchari), limiting population buildup without yield loss.^[105] Reflective mulches, like silver-aluminized plastic, repel winged aphids (alates) by altering light cues, reducing early-season colonization by 70-90% in vegetable crops such as tomatoes and cucurbits.^[106] Recent advances post-2020 emphasize targeted biotechnologies for sustainable control. RNA interference (RNAi)-based sprays deliver double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) to silence essential aphid genes, such as those for actin or vacuolar ATP synthase, inducing mortality rates of 50-80% in species like the cotton-melon aphid (Aphis gossypii) without affecting non-target organisms.^[107] Delivery via topical sprays or nanoparticle formulations enhances uptake through the aphids' stylets, with field trials showing prolonged protection in wheat against Sitobion avenae.^[108] Microbiome manipulation targeting the obligate endosymbiont Buchnera aphidicola disrupts nutrient provisioning; for example, plant-mediated antibiotic delivery selectively eliminates Buchnera, reducing aphid fecundity by 60% and survival under stress, offering a novel host-specific approach.^[109] These methods integrate with IPM to address resistance and environmental concerns.^[110]

References

[1]
Aphididae | INFORMATION | Animal Diversity Web
Within the family Aphididae, also known as aphids or plant lice, there are 24 subfamilies, 510 genera, and 5109 species. Aphids are very small insects that live ...
[2]
Family Aphididae: Aphid Biology, Morphology - InfluentialPoints
This page summarises the biology and external morphology of 'true' aphids: known colloquially as 'plant lice' in USA, or greenfly / blackfly in UK.
[3]
Aphids (Family Aphididae) – Field Station - UW-Milwaukee
Aug 12, 2008 · Aphids are picky eaters who are attracted to a particular plant species or family. Aphids stick their little beaks into a plant's soft tissues and start ...
[4]
DNA Barcoding and the Associated PhylAphidB@se Website for the ...
Jun 4, 2014 · We assessed the advantages and limits of DNA barcoding with the standard COI barcode fragment for the identification of European aphids.
[5]
(PDF) Aphid (Hemiptera: Aphididae) species in Burdur urban parks ...
Aug 9, 2025 · ... Aphid Species File. Version 5.0/5.0. (Web page: http://Aphid ... The family of Aphididae comprise the highest number of species (457) ...
[6]
Aphid families, subfamilies, biology, morphology. - InfluentialPoints
The family Aphididae (sensu Remaudière) currently has 25 living subfamilies (16 of which hold fewer than 5 genera apiece). A former 26th subfamily, the ...
[7]
(PDF) Aphids (Hemiptera, Aphididae). Chapter 9.2 - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · Th e 102 alien species of Aphididae established in Europe belong to 12 diff erent subfamilies, fi ve of them contributing by more than 5 species ...
[8]
Phylogenomics of the Aphididae: Deep relationships between ...
Mar 17, 2022 · Our results suggest that there are three main clades of Aphididae subfamilies, which are congruent with a previous Sanger sequencing-based ...Missing: debate | Show results with:debate
[9]
Subfamily Aphidinae: Aphid Biology, Morphology - InfluentialPoints
The Aphidinae is the largest subfamily in the Aphididae with at least 2483 species in 256 genera in 2 tribes: the Macrosiphini (with 3/4 of the species) and ...
[10]
Molecular phylogeny and evolution of Calaphidinae (Hemiptera ...
Aug 26, 2021 · Calaphidinae sensu Quednau (1999) is one of the most species-rich groups of aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) in the world, with ≈400 species of 59 ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[11]
Taxonomy - Encyclop'Aphid - INRAE
There are 4700 species of aphid in the world ... The Morphology section sets out the criteria used for description of the different subfamilies.
[12]
Aphid - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Aphids are the main insect pests of agricultural crops in temperate regions causing major economic losses. Although broad-spectrum insecticides are available ...
[13]
The most polyphagous aphids of the world - InfluentialPoints
Host alternation and polyphagous aphids All of the 52 most polyphagous species listed below are Aphididae. Just two species are from subfamilies (Greenideinae, ...
[14]
Aphis gossypii - AphidNet
It has one of the broadest host ranges of any aphid, having been recorded from species of over 135 plant families.
[15]
Aphis gossypii (cotton aphid) | CABI Compendium
Apr 29, 2024 · Aphis gossypii is a cosmopolitan species, highly adaptable and easily spread, with a rapid reproductive rate. It causes serious damage to host plants.
[16]
Green Peach Aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Insecta: Hemiptera
Host Plants. Green peach aphid feeds on hundreds of host plants in over 40 plant families. However, it is only the viviparous (giving birth to living young) ...
[17]
Myzus persicae (green peach aphid) | CABI Compendium
Dec 18, 2021 · It forms dense colonies on certain host plants, for example, Buddleja, Antirrhinum and Pittosporum, but it sometimes also occurs on field crops.
[18]
Rhopalosiphum maidis - AphidNet
Rhopalosiphum maidis is a cosmopolitan aphid species that feeds mostly on grasses and sedges. Common names. Corn leaf aphid.
[19]
Rhopalosiphum maidis - Corn leaf aphid - InfluentialPoints
The corn leaf aphid is mainly found on maize and sorghum, occasionally on barley, and sometimes on other crops such as sugar cane and tobacco.
[20]
Aphis fabae - AphidNet
It is particularly important on beans, peas, beets, crucifers, cucurbits, potato, tobacco, tomato, and tulip. Three recognized subspecies, in addition to the ...
[21]
Aphis fabae (black bean aphid) | CABI Compendium
Aphis fabae was first described by Scopoli in 1763 from broad bean (Vicia faba), a host plant on which it causes significant damage. This group of closely ...
[22]
Acyrthosiphon pisum (Pea aphid) - InfluentialPoints
The pea aphid can be found feeding on about 20 genera in the family Fabaceae, but especially on Medicago, Melilotus, Trifolium, Dorycnium and Lotus.Identification & Distribution · Pea aphid genome · Biotypes · Colour polymorphism
[23]
Acyrthosiphon pisum - AphidNet
It is particularly important on peas, beans, alfalfa and clover, but also attacks beets, cucurbits, various species of Brassicaceae. It has been implicated in ...
[24]
Macrosiphum euphorbiae (potato aphid) | CABI Compendium
Macrosiphum euphorbiae (potato aphid); infestation on lettuce (Lactuca sativa). Colony of mixed morphs present on lettuce buds, during early autumn. USA.Host Plants And Other Plants... · Natural Enemies · Prevention And Control
[25]
Macrosiphum (aphids) identification, images, ecology
Macrosiphum are large spindle-shaped pink or green aphids, with long legs and antennae, the latter usually longer than the body.
[26]
The host range of Aphis gossypii is dependent on aphid genetic ...
Sep 27, 2019 · The cotton-melon aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover, has a wide host range, perhaps 900 species belonging to 116 plant families, such as Cucurbitaceae ...
[27]
Host Selection Behavior of the Green Peach Aphid, Myzus persicae ...
Mar 11, 2019 · Our results indicate that the wingless M. persicae were efficient in their interspecific host selection with an ability to distinguish plant cultivar ...
[28]
Evolutionary history of aphid-plant associations and their role in ...
Current taxonomic and phylogenetic studies within subfamilies and genera reveal that divergence events typically involve shifts to new plant species that are ...Missing: revisions | Show results with:revisions
[29]
Four new species of aphids (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha - Biotaxa
Jul 6, 2023 · (2021) Apricot aphid, Myzus mumecola (Matsumura), a new and ... (2023) Aphid Species File. Version 5.0/5.0. Available from: http ...
[30]
Aphid Species File: Homepage
Aphid Species File is a taxonomic, nomenclatural, and bibliographic database of the aphids of the world, including all extant and fossil taxa.Missing: 2021 | Show results with:2021
[31]
Aphididae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Aphids are small (4–8 mm in length), pear-shaped, soft-bodied insects in the family Aphididae, one of the three families of the superfamily Aphidoidea.
[32]
Antennae - Encyclop'Aphid - INRAE
The antennae consist of 3-6 segments (notation I-VI). These are variable in length. The last segment is generally the longest. It is formed from a slightly ...Missing: aphididae | Show results with:aphididae
[33]
Issues in Aphid Biology: Cryptic aphid coloration4 - InfluentialPoints
And indeed, as Dixon (1997) points out, most of the aphids that live on leaves are green, whilst those that live on the woody parts of the plant are brownish.
[34]
Morphological description of the alimentary tract of Geoicautricularia ...
May 9, 2016 · In this part of the alimentary tract, often the so-called filter chamber develops (Ponsen 1987). It is an adaptation to feeding on the phloem ...
[35]
Order Hemiptera Suborder Homoptera - ENT 425 - NC State University
In most of the Homoptera, a portion of the digestive system is modified into a filter chamber. This structure allows the insects to ingest and process large ...
[36]
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-42504-3
[37]
Functional compartmentalization in the hemocoel of insects - Nature
Apr 15, 2019 · Both the dorsal vessel and accessory pulsatile organs are muscular pumps, which can produce relatively fast flows. Although these components ...
[38]
The ovaries of aphids (Hemiptera, Sternorrhyncha, Aphidoidea ...
Jul 18, 2013 · The ovaries of these aphids are composed of several telotrophic ovarioles. The individual ovariole is differentiated into a terminal filament, ...
[39]
The reproductive system of the male and oviparous female of a ...
Sep 2, 2019 · It is composed of paired ovaries and paired lateral oviducts that join to form a short common oviduct. Additionally, the unpaired spermatheca ...
[40]
Trading amino acids at the aphid–Buchnera symbiotic interface - PMC
Jul 23, 2019 · The small, highly reduced genome of Buchnera retains genes for the biosynthesis of 13 amino acids and some B vitamins, nutrients that are in ...
[41]
Amino acid transporters implicated in endocytosis of Buchnera ...
Nov 21, 2016 · Aphid bacteriomes, the organ of symbiosis, comprise two cell types: bacteriocytes that house Buchnera and intercalating sheath cells that do not ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[42]
THE EVOLUTION OF APHID LIFE CYCLES - Annual Reviews
The life cycles of aphids are among the most remarkable of any animal group. They include parthenogenetic and sexual generations, elaborate polyphen.
[43]
Aphid polyphenisms: trans-generational developmental regulation ...
The typical annual life cycle of aphids consists of cyclical parthenogenesis which consists of a succession of parthenogenetic generations (approximately 10–30 ...
[44]
Aphid polyphenisms: trans-generational developmental regulation ...
Parthenogenesis in aphids is classified as apomixes, i.e., parthenogenesis in which the eggs do not undergo meiosis (Blackman, 1987). Consequently, except for ...
[45]
Sexual acquisition of beneficial symbionts in aphids - PNAS
Sexual individuals mature and mate, and females deposit overwintering eggs, which hatch in spring to produce an all-female parthenogenetic generation, ...
[46]
[PDF] Aphids & Their Relatives - Plant Diagnostic Clinic
Melon or cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii) and green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) have extensive host ranges, covering dozens of species in dozens of plant families ...
[47]
Evolutionary and functional insights into reproductive strategies of ...
The typical aphid reproductive mode indeed involves a succession of usually numerous parthenogenetic generations, followed by a single sexual one within the ...Missing: organs | Show results with:organs
[48]
Developmental stages - Encyclop'Aphid
Their development consists of 4 larval stages and one adult stage, with a moult between each one (see the video). The 4 larval stages are distinguished ...Missing: Aphididae instars
[49]
Trees and Shrubs: Invertebrates: Woolly Aphids—UC IPM
Woolly aphids (family Aphididae) are species that cover themselves and plant parts with white waxy excrement. ... Woolly elm aphids are examples of host- ...
[50]
Aphids, in-depth - Wisconsin Horticulture
Overview of Aphids. Aphids are primarily northern temperate zone insects all in the family Aphididae of the order Hemiptera, with about 1,350 species in ...
[51]
[PDF] Wing Dimorphism in Aphids - UNL Digital Commons
Jul 5, 2006 · Wing dimorphism in aphids is the presence of winged morphs for dispersal and wingless morphs for reproduction, with differences in morphology ...
[52]
Gene duplication captures morph-specific promoter usage in ... - PNAS
Feb 18, 2025 · The first three nymphal instars are shown as developmental stages one through three for females and stages one and three for males. The bars ...
[53]
Giant females vs dwarfish males of the genus Stomaphis Walker ...
Apr 18, 2015 · The aim of the study is a review of the sexual generation of European species of the aphid genus Stomaphis Walker. Oviparous females and males ...
[54]
The role of crowding in the production of winged forms by two strains ...
Similar females of the green strain produced only apterous daughters. Larvae of both strains are irrevocably determined as alatae or apterae before their birth.<|separator|>
[55]
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0024749
[56]
New genera and species of aphids (Hemiptera, Aphidomorpha ...
The Burmese assemblage is the richest Cretaceous fossil resin arthropod assemblage known to date (Rasnitsyn et al., 2016). Only 7 aphid species have been ...Missing: Cretaphis | Show results with:Cretaphis
[57]
Macroevolutionary Patterns in the Aphidini Aphids (Hemiptera
Approximately 5,000 described species of aphids belong to the family Aphididae (Hemiptera) [17], which may have diverged from the common ancestor of Adelgidae ...
[58]
Systematics of Fossil Aphids From Canadian Amber (Homoptera
May 31, 2012 · Five Cretaceous fossil aphids from Canadian amber are described. All are new species and none is referable to an extant genus.
[59]
Cyclical Parthenogenesis and Viviparity in Aphids as Evolutionary ...
Aug 6, 2025 · ... Most aphids (Aphidoidea) typically reproduce by cyclical parthenogenesis, alternating one annual (sometimes biannual) bisexual generation ...
[60]
Phylloxera and Aphids Show Distinct Features of Genome Evolution ...
Cyclical parthenogenesis originated in the common ancestor of Aphidomorpha ... Aphid gene of bacterial origin encodes a protein transported to an obligate ...
[61]
New Insights on the Evolutionary History of Aphids and Their ... - NIH
The extraordinary diversity of aphids found today, affecting specially the subfamily Aphididae, started during the Tertiary (Miocene), as a consequence of the ...
[62]
Comparative genomics of the primary endosymbiont Buchnera ...
Jun 20, 2024 · The relationship between Buchnera and their host aphids is at least 150 million years old [18, 19] and has been considered one of the best- ...
[63]
Evolutionary lability of a complex life cycle in the aphid genus ...
Sep 28, 2010 · One widely accepted scenario is that heteroecy evolved from monoecy on woody host plants. Several shifts towards monoecy on herbaceous plants ...
[64]
Altruistic defence behaviours in aphids - BMC Ecology and Evolution
Jan 20, 2010 · Many aphids release cornicle secretions when attacked by natural enemies such as parasitoids. These secretions contain an alarm pheromone that ...
[65]
Evaluating climate change scenarios on global pea aphid habitat ...
Pea aphids have a cosmopolitan distribution and are an issue in the northern growing regions of North America [12], Europe [13], northern Africa [14], and ...
[66]
DNA barcoding reveals a mysterious high species diversity of ...
Feb 3, 2016 · The Cinara patterns of species richness, for all species and endemics, were highest at the middle elevations (2500–3000 m).
[67]
Tracing aphid infestations through wood anatomical markers
Our findings indicate that aphid activity was observed at elevations ranging from 3100 to 3400 m a.s.l., with a marked preference for younger trees (≤ 22 years) ...
[68]
SUMMER DIAPAUSE - Annual Reviews
Aestivation is generally believed to be a special adaptation to the hot and dry summer in Mediterranean or more arid climatic regions. However, the present ...
[69]
Cereal aphid movement: general principles and simulation modelling
Dec 23, 2013 · Migrant alate aphids ascend rapidly up into the atmosphere if they are carried by convective updrafts with rates of ascent measured at up to 3 ...
[70]
How aphids fly: Take‐off, free flight and implications for short and ...
Apr 18, 2024 · For higher altitude flight used for migration, aphids undoubtedly require convection and turbulence to lift them above the FBL; here wind speeds ...
[71]
How phloem-feeding insects face the challenge of phloem-located ...
(A) Aphids penetrate the plant with their stylet and move it through the apoplast toward the sieve tubes. The stylet contains a salivary (Sc) and nutrition ...
[72]
Aphids in home yards and gardens | UMN Extension
Signs of severe aphid feeding are twisted and curled leaves, yellowed leaves, stunted or dead shoots and poor plant growth. Treating aphids for the health ...
[73]
Crapemyrtle Aphid, Tinocallis kahawaluokalani (Kirkaldy) (Insecta ...
In the United States, crapemyrtle aphids are monophagous, feeding exclusively on crapemyrtle, and do not attack or damage other plant species.
[74]
The Bacterial Flora Associated with the Polyphagous Aphid Aphis ...
Dec 4, 2019 · The cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover, is a cosmopolitan insect pest causing serious economic losses in agriculture. It feeds on many ...
[75]
Seasonal Migration in the Aphid Genus Stomaphis (Hemiptera
Sep 30, 2020 · About 10% of aphid species show host alternation. These aphids migrate between primary and secondary host plant species in spring and autumn.
[76]
Combined Transcriptomic and Proteomic Analysis of Myzus ... - NIH
In addition to sucking phloem sap, aphids are also vectors for the transmission of more than 200 different plant viruses [1,3]. In general, aphids live on ...
[77]
A non-persistent aphid-transmitted Potyvirus differentially alters the ...
Feb 21, 2019 · A majority of plant viruses rely on insect vectors for plant-to-plant dispersal. Plant viruses transmitted in a persistent manner are known to ...
[78]
Molecular Mechanisms of Potato Plant–Virus–Vector Interactions
The most common potato viruses PVY and PLRV are characterized by non-persistent and persistent modes of transmission, respectively [105,109,110] (Figure 1). PVX ...
[79]
Gall-forming aphids are protected (and benefit) from defoliating ...
Jun 18, 2021 · Aphids benefit from the plant response to defoliation by the caterpillars. Galls can be induced only on young leaves [42]. Therefore, the ...
[80]
[PDF] Reactive Oxygen Species in Plant Interactions With Aphids
Feb 16, 2022 · Reactive oxygen species (ROS) like hydrogen peroxide and superoxide accumulate in plants when stressed by aphids, and can enhance stress ...
[81]
(PDF) Ecology and Evolution of Aphid-Ant Interactions - ResearchGate
In this review, we use aphid-ant interactions to illustrate the whole range of interactions from antagonistic to mutualistic as well as to identify the ...
[82]
Ant‐induced evolutionary patterns in aphids - Depa - 2020
Jul 12, 2020 · This review investigates ant–aphid mutualism (trophobiosis), in particular focusing on evolutionary processes in aphids resulting from this interaction.
[83]
[PDF] Aphid Natural Enemies and Biological Control
Predators kill their prey immediately and require many of them to complete their development. Parasitoids lay their eggs inside or on their prey, complete their ...
[84]
Natural enemies gallery, Listed by Common Name - UC IPM
Predators ; Euseius predatory mites, Euseius spp. ; Fungus-feeding lady beetles (ladybugs), Psyllobora vigintimaculata and other Psyllobora spp. ; Green lacewings ...
[85]
Hamiltonella defensa, genome evolution of protective bacterial ...
Hamiltonella defensa, an endosymbiont of aphids and other sap-feeding insects, protects its aphid host from attack by parasitoid wasps.
[86]
Effect of the Secondary Symbiont Hamiltonella defensa on Fitness ...
Mar 28, 2018 · These results indicate that H. defensa may indirectly improve the fitness of S. miscanthi by stimulating the proliferation of B. aphidicola.<|separator|>
[87]
Factors affecting transmission of fungal pathogens of aphids - PubMed
The transmission of aphid fungal pathogens is affected by many factors, including: host biology and structure, pathogen characteristics, host-plant ...
[88]
Aphid dispersal flight disseminates fungal pathogens and ...
Feb 5, 2007 · Other possible means of spreading fungal infection among aphids include activities of contaminated predators (Roy et al., 2001) or airborne ...
[89]
(PDF) Economic Impacts of the U.S. Soybean Aphid Infestation
Aug 9, 2025 · Producer benefits resulting from controlling soybean aphids would increase by between 949 m i l l i o n a n d 949 million and 1.623 billion in ...
[90]
Peanut and Small Grains Research Unit - Project : USDA ARS
The combined annual economic value of wheat, sorghum, and barley within the United States is over $16 billion. Cereal aphids are major pests of world ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[91]
Soybean aphid biotype 1 genome: Insights into the invasive biology ...
Damage estimates from the soybean aphid, if left untreated, are estimated at $2.4 billion annually (Song et al., 2006). Large aphid populations reduce soybean ...
[92]
Soybean Aphid and the Challenge of Integrating Recommendations ...
In Minnesota, we have documented yield losses that approach 50% caused by soybean aphid. During these aphid outbreaks it is imperative that controls are applied ...
[93]
[PDF] Aphid feeding damage and its management in cereal crops
Sep 1, 2024 · Aphid feeding can cause direct damage by reducing yields by up to 10% and by reducing seed size. Much larger yield and quality losses can be ...
[94]
Honeydew and Sooty Mold | University of Maryland Extension
Aug 16, 2022 · Indirectly, they can stress or stunt plants by blocking light from the leaves (interfering with photosynthesis), resulting in slowed growth or ...
[95]
The conflicting relationships between aphids and men: A review of ...
[8] indicate that direct damage by aphids is responsible for mean annual losses of 700,000 ... An estimate of the potential economic losses to some crops due to ...
[96]
[PDF] Economic Impact of the Sugarcane Aphid Outbreak in South Texas
Nov 20, 2017 · Farmers' decreased profits had a mixed effect at the regional level. Revenue losses removed money from both farmers and the overall economy.
[97]
Aphis spiraecola (spirea aphid) | CABI Compendium
Economic Impact. Aphis spiraecola could be a serious pest of citrus, apples and some ornamentals. The conspicuous curling caused by the aphids on the more ...
[98]
https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ento-121423-012130
[99]
Identification of Conditions for Successful Aphid Control by ... - NIH
Mar 28, 2017 · Aphid population reduction exceeded 50% in most studies and ladybird release rates usually did not correlate with aphid reduction. The ratio of ...
[100]
[PDF] Biological control of aphids - CABI Digital Library
parasitoids indicated 70 per cent success mainly through use of aphidiids, Aphidius being the most successful genus. Introduction, translocation and ...
[101]
Myzus persicae resistance to neonicotinoids—unravelling the ...
Jul 23, 2024 · Myzus persicae, the green peach-potato aphid, is a major pest that has evolved resistance to many insecticide classes, including neonicotinoids.
[102]
Neonicotinoid's resistance monitoring, diagnostic mechanisms ... - NIH
It is concluded that field-evolved resistance in green peach aphid could be managed by using appropriate synergists such as PBO.
[103]
First monitoring of resistance and corresponding mechanisms in the ...
Bass et al. Mutation of a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor β subunit is associated with resistance to neonicotinoid insecticides in the aphid Myzus persicae ...
[104]
Effects of regional crop rotations on autumn insect pests in winter ...
Crop rotation mostly fails to control insects due to their mobility; however, changing regional cropping densities can dilute or concentrate pest pressure.
[105]
Sorghum aphid/greenbug: current research and control strategies to ...
Jun 2, 2025 · Planting susceptible sorghum varieties around the edges of fields may help defend against aphids effectively (Harris-Shultz et al., 2022a). 4.2 ...
[106]
Reflective Mulches / Floriculture and Ornamental Nurseries ...
Reflective mulches have been effectively used to greatly reduce colonization of young crops by winged aphids, leafhoppers, thrips, and whiteflies.
[107]
Topical RNA Interference Induces Mortality in the Cotton–Melon ...
Mar 5, 2025 · The results indicate that topical dsRNA delivery successfully silenced the target genes, significantly impairing aphid development and fecundity ...
[108]
RNA-Interference-Mediated Aphid Control in Crop Plants: A Review
RNA interference (RNAi) technology is a versatile and environmentally friendly method for pest management in crop protection.
[109]
Targeted disruption of the cls gene in Buchnera aphidicola impairs ...
Jul 22, 2025 · Furthermore, treated aphids exhibited delayed parturition, reduced fecundity, and mislocalization of Buchnera cells to their gut. These findings ...Missing: 2020 | Show results with:2020
[110]
Insect‒microbe symbiosis-based strategies offer a new avenue for ...
Dec 12, 2024 · By modifying symbiotic bacteria to express anti-pathogen compounds or dsRNA, the RNA interference pathway can be activated in insects, ...