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Artificial silk

Artificial silk, also known as rayon or viscose, is a semi-synthetic fiber made by regenerating cellulose from natural sources such as wood pulp or cotton linters. It was developed to mimic the appearance, luster, and feel of natural silk while being more affordable and versatile.^[1] Unlike fully synthetic fibers like nylon or polyester, rayon retains some natural fiber traits, including high absorbency (up to 13% moisture regain) and breathability, making it suitable for clothing and textiles.^[2] Invented in the late 19th century amid silk shortages in Europe, the fiber's production revolutionized textiles by the mid-20th century, when rayon comprised a significant share of global fiber output.^[3] Pioneered by French inventor Count Hilaire de Chardonnet, who patented a nitrocellulose process in 1884 and began commercial production in 1891, early versions were flammable.^[4] The safer viscose process, developed by Charles Frederick Cross and Edward John Bevan in 1892, dominated thereafter and was first commercialized in 1905.^[5] The term "rayon" was standardized in 1924 by the U.S. Federal Trade Commission.^[3] Today, rayon variants like modal and lyocell offer enhanced properties and sustainability, with global production valued at approximately $20 billion as of 2024 and growing due to eco-friendly innovations.^[6] Widely used in apparel, home goods, and industrial applications, its production raises environmental concerns from chemical use, though modern methods mitigate impacts. Detailed history, processes, properties, and uses are covered in subsequent sections.

Definition and Overview

Definition

Artificial silk refers to a category of man-made fibers, specifically regenerated cellulose fibers produced from natural polymers such as wood pulp or other plant-based cellulose sources, engineered to mimic the luster, drape, smoothness, and overall tactile qualities of natural silk.^[7] These fibers are created by dissolving purified cellulose and extruding it through spinnerets to form filaments, resulting in a versatile material that combines the renewability of natural origins with industrial scalability.^[8] Unlike fully synthetic fibers, artificial silk is semi-synthetic in nature, as it derives from naturally occurring cellulose but undergoes chemical processing to achieve its fibrous form, making it an early example of bio-based innovation in textiles.^[7] Developed in the late 19th century, it emerged as an affordable alternative to scarce and expensive natural silk, enabling broader access to silk-like garments and fabrics during a period of growing textile demand.^[9] The term "artificial silk" originated in the 1880s to market the pioneering products of French inventor Hilaire de Chardonnet, whose nitrocellulose-based fibers—later refined into modern rayon—were the first commercially viable man-made silk substitutes, distinguishing them from sericulture-derived silk while highlighting their imitative properties.^[3] This nomenclature underscored the material's intent to replicate silk's aesthetic and functional appeal without relying on silkworm production.^[10]

Distinction from Natural and Synthetic Fibers

Artificial silk, commonly referred to as rayon, occupies a unique category in textile fibers as a regenerated material, distinct from both natural silk and fully synthetic options. Natural silk is a protein-based fiber, primarily composed of fibroin, secreted by the silkworm Bombyx mori to form cocoons.^[11] This natural fiber exhibits a triangular cross-section with rounded corners, which refracts light to produce its signature luster and sheen.^[12] In comparison, artificial silk is derived from cellulose, a carbohydrate polymer extracted from renewable plant sources like wood pulp or cotton linters, which is chemically dissolved and extruded to form fibers.^[5] Lacking the protein structure and triangular cross-section of natural silk, artificial silk's appearance is engineered through processing to imitate the drape and gloss of genuine silk, though it absorbs moisture differently and may feel cooler against the skin.^[13] Unlike fully synthetic fibers, artificial silk is classified as semi-synthetic due to its base in natural cellulose rather than purely chemical synthesis. Synthetic fibers such as nylon and polyester are polymerized from petrochemical feedstocks, forming long-chain polyamides or polyesters through reactions like condensation polymerization.^[14] For instance, nylon is produced from adipic acid and hexamethylenediamine, both derived from petroleum refining.^[15] This petroleum origin makes synthetics non-biodegradable and reliant on fossil fuels, whereas artificial silk's cellulose foundation allows for greater environmental renewability, though its production involves chemical solvents that require careful management.^[16] Consequently, artificial silk bridges the gap between the biodegradability of natural fibers and the engineered consistency of synthetics. Historically, artificial silk's development and naming reflected efforts to position it as an accessible alternative amid economic and regulatory pressures. In the early 20th century, it was promoted as a "silk substitute" to distinguish it from natural silk, enabling manufacturers to circumvent higher import duties and trade restrictions levied specifically on genuine silk products.^[17] This strategic differentiation allowed broader market access without competing directly under silk's protected status. However, the advent of true synthetics, such as nylon invented in 1935 by DuPont researchers, eventually eclipsed artificial silk in sectors demanding higher strength and elasticity, shifting perceptions from a premium mimic to a versatile but secondary option.^[18]

History

Early Inventions

The earliest documented attempt to produce artificial silk dates to 1855, when Swiss chemist Georges Audemars secured British Patent No. 283 for a method involving the dissolution of mulberry tree bark pulp in a viscous sugar solution mixed with gummy substances to form fibers.^[19] Audemars achieved this by dipping a needle into the solution and drawing out threads, creating a crude filament that mimicked silk's appearance.^[20] However, the process proved highly impractical, yielding fibers that lacked sufficient strength and uniformity for practical use, thus remaining an experimental curiosity rather than a viable invention.^[21] A major advancement came in 1884 with French engineer and count Hilaire Bernigaud de Chardonnet, who patented the first commercially feasible artificial silk, known as "Chardonnet silk," based on nitrocellulose derived from cellulose.^[22] His process began with treating cotton or wood pulp cellulose to form nitrocellulose, dissolving it in ether and alcohol to create collodion, and extruding the viscous solution through fine glass capillaries or early spinnerets to produce continuous filaments that solidified in warm air.^[23] The filaments were then subjected to denitration using chemical treatments, such as ammonium sulfide, to remove nitrate groups and restore a more silk-like composition.^[19] This breakthrough was showcased to great acclaim at the 1889 Paris Exposition, where samples of the shimmering, silk-resembling threads demonstrated its potential as an alternative to natural silk.^[22] Early artificial silk fibers, including Chardonnet's, encountered significant hurdles that curtailed their immediate success. The nitrocellulose remnants made the material highly flammable, earning it the derogatory nickname "mother-in-law silk" among factory workers due to its dangerous ignition properties.^[24] Additionally, the fibers degraded rapidly, becoming brittle and discolored from chemical instability and exposure to environmental factors, which compromised their longevity and usability. These limitations—rooted in the inherent volatility of nitrocellulose—restricted adoption until subsequent refinements addressed safety and durability concerns.^[25]

Commercial Development

The viscose process for artificial silk was invented in 1891 by British chemists Charles Frederick Cross, Edward John Bevan, and Clayton Beadle, who developed a method to dissolve cellulose using sodium hydroxide and carbon disulfide, forming a xanthate solution that could be extruded and regenerated into fibers.^[26] They patented this process in 1892, marking a pivotal advancement in producing silk-like filaments from abundant cellulose sources like wood pulp.^[27] Commercial production commenced in 1905 when the British firm Courtaulds established the world's first viscose rayon factory in Coventry, England, enabling scalable manufacturing of the fiber initially marketed as "artificial silk."^[28] In the United States, the American Viscose Company, a Courtaulds subsidiary, opened the first commercial plant in Marcus Hook, Pennsylvania, in 1910, producing about 1.4 million pounds annually by 1911 and spurring rapid industry growth.^[29] Global expansion accelerated in Europe, with viscose factories established in countries like Germany by the early 1910s, alongside earlier rayon production using alternative processes such as cuprammonium since 1899.^[30] The economic impact was profound, as artificial silk reduced dependence on expensive natural silk imports from Asia. By the 1920s, U.S. production surged from approximately 3 million pounds in 1919 to 123 million pounds in 1929, fostering a $100 million industry that employed thousands and diversified textile manufacturing.^[31] World War I further propelled development, as silk shortages prompted increased rayon output for applications like bandages, conserving natural silk for critical military needs such as parachutes.^[32]

Production Process

Raw Materials

The primary raw material for artificial silk, particularly in the production of viscose rayon, is cellulose derived from natural sources such as wood pulp or cotton linters. Wood pulp is typically sourced from softwood trees like spruce and pine, or hardwoods such as beech and eucalyptus, which provide high-quality cellulose fibers suitable for regeneration. Cotton linters, the short fibers adhering to cotton seeds after ginning, serve as an alternative source, offering a purer form of cellulose with minimal impurities. These materials are selected for their high cellulose content, typically around 40-50% in raw form, which is essential for efficient processing into fibers. Global demand for cellulose specifically used in rayon production has been significant, with viscose staple fiber output relying on approximately 5.8 million tonnes of dissolving pulp annually as of 2021, reflecting the scale of the industry in the 2020s. This demand underscores the reliance on sustainable forestry practices and agricultural byproducts to meet production needs without depleting resources excessively. Preparation of the cellulose begins with pulping the raw materials to isolate the fibers, followed by purification to achieve a high alpha-cellulose content of at least 95%, which ensures solubility and quality in the final fiber. This purification involves bleaching with chlorine-based or oxygen-based agents to remove lignin, the binding component in wood that imparts color and rigidity, and hydrolysis—often through acid or enzymatic treatment—to break down and eliminate hemicellulose, a polysaccharide that hinders dissolution. The resulting dissolving pulp is highly refined, with minimal residual carbohydrates, making it ideal for chemical conversion. In addition to cellulose, the production process requires several auxiliary chemicals to facilitate the transformation. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used for alkalization, swelling the cellulose sheets to prepare them for further reaction. Carbon disulfide (CS₂) is essential for the xanthation step in the viscose process, where it reacts with the alkali cellulose to form a soluble xanthate compound, though its high toxicity poses health risks to workers, including neurological and cardiovascular effects from prolonged exposure. Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) forms part of the spinning bath, where it coagulates the viscose solution into fibers during extrusion. These reagents are handled under strict controls due to their corrosive and hazardous nature.

Manufacturing Steps

The manufacturing of artificial silk, primarily through the viscose process, transforms purified cellulose into a viscous solution suitable for extrusion into fibers via a sequence of chemical treatments and mechanical operations. This method, which regenerates cellulose in filament form, relies on controlled reactions to achieve the desired fiber properties. The process assumes high-purity cellulose input, typically from wood pulp, and emphasizes precise control over concentrations, temperatures, and durations to ensure solution stability and fiber quality. The initial step involves steeping cellulose sheets in an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution to form alkali cellulose. The sheets are immersed in approximately 18% NaOH at around 45°C for about 20 minutes, with continuous stirring to facilitate swelling and reaction.^[33] Following steeping, the mixture is pressed to remove excess liquor, yielding alkali cellulose with 30-35% solids content by adjusting the press to 2.5-3.0 times the original pulp weight.^[34] The pressed alkali cellulose is then shredded into small crumbs to increase surface area for subsequent reactions. These crumbs are aged for 24-72 hours at controlled temperatures, typically around 23°C, allowing oxidative depolymerization that reduces the cellulose molecular weight by 2-3 times and develops the appropriate viscosity for further processing.^[34] Next, the aged crumbs undergo xanthation by reaction with carbon disulfide (CS₂) in a closed vessel for about 2.5-3 hours at 30-35°C, forming sodium cellulose xanthate, a soluble orange compound.^[33] This xanthate is then dissolved in a dilute NaOH solution (around 5-8%) with agitation for 3 hours at low temperature (e.g., 5°C), producing a viscose spinning solution containing 8-10% cellulose.^[34] The core reactions in viscose formation are as follows:

\text{Cellulose} + \text{NaOH} \rightarrow \text{Alkali cellulose}

\text{Alkali cellulose} + \text{CS}_2 \rightarrow \text{Cellulose xanthate}

These steps yield a stable xanthate derivative that enables dissolution. Finally, the ripened viscose solution is extruded through fine holes in a spinneret into a coagulating bath of sulfuric acid (typically 10-15% H₂SO₄), sodium sulfate, and zinc sulfate at 40-50°C, where the cellulose regenerates as continuous filaments through acid-induced decomposition of the xanthate. The emerging filaments are drawn to orient the structure, washed to remove residual chemicals, and dried to produce the finished artificial silk fibers.^[34]

Types

Viscose Rayon

Viscose rayon is a regenerated cellulose fiber produced through the viscose process, in which purified cellulose from wood pulp or other natural sources is chemically dissolved and extruded to form continuous filaments or staple fibers. This semi-synthetic material mimics the qualities of silk, offering a soft, smooth texture and high absorbency due to its cellulosic composition. It is commonly produced in filament form for woven fabrics or as staple fibers for spinning into yarns, with individual fiber fineness typically ranging from 1 to 5 denier to achieve a silk-like fineness and drape.^[26]^[34] The viscose process was patented in 1892 by British chemists Charles Frederick Cross and Edward John Bevan, marking the foundation of commercial artificial silk production. This innovation rapidly gained prominence, dominating the market for regenerated fibers until the 1950s, when the rise of fully synthetic alternatives like nylon began to shift industry preferences. Viscose rayon's distinctive luster, which contributes to its silk-like appearance, results from the extrusion process; however, delustering agents such as titanium dioxide can be incorporated into the spinning solution to produce a matte finish, reducing reflectivity while maintaining other properties.^[27]^[35]^[36] Key to viscose rayon's production is the aging step, where alkali cellulose sheets are stored under controlled temperature and humidity to depolymerize the cellulose chains, thereby regulating molecular weight and achieving the desired solution viscosity, typically 30-50 poise for standard textile-grade rayon. This step ensures the viscose dope flows appropriately during wet spinning, where it is extruded into an acid bath to regenerate the cellulose. Global production of viscose rayon reached approximately 6 million tonnes annually as of 2023, with over 70% concentrated in Asia—primarily China and India—driven by demand in apparel and textiles.^[37]

Cellulose Acetate and Other Variants

Cellulose acetate rayon, a derivative of cellulose, is produced by first acetylating purified cellulose—typically sourced from wood pulp or cotton linters—with acetic anhydride in the presence of acetic acid and a catalyst to form cellulose acetate flakes.^[38] These flakes are then dissolved in acetone to create a spinning solution, which is extruded through spinnerets and dry-spun in warm air to form continuous filaments that solidify upon evaporation of the solvent.^[38] This process, invented in 1904 by brothers Camille and Henri Dreyfus through their experiments on partially hydrolyzed cellulose acetate soluble in acetone, marked a significant advancement in semi-synthetic fibers.^[38] Commercial production began in the 1920s, with British Celanese starting fiber manufacturing in 1921 and the first U.S. acetate fiber produced by the Celanese Corporation in 1924.^[38] Unlike regenerated cellulose fibers, cellulose acetate exhibits thermoplastic properties and lower flammability, making it suitable for applications requiring heat-settable and less ignitable materials.^[39] A primary non-textile use is in cigarette filters, where its porous structure effectively traps tar and nicotine while comprising over 95% of global filter production due to its filtration efficiency and durability.^[40] Global production of cellulose acetate, including fibers, stands at approximately 850 kilotons annually as of 2024, reflecting its established role in both textiles and filtration.^[41] Cuprammonium rayon, another cellulose-based variant, involves dissolving cellulose in Schweizer's reagent—a complex of copper(II) hydroxide and ammonia—to form a viscous solution that is wet-spun through spinnerets into a coagulating bath of dilute sulfuric acid, regenerating the cellulose fibers while precipitating copper compounds.^[42] This process originated in the 1890s in Germany, where chemist Eduard Schweizer's 1857 discovery of cellulose solubility in cuprammonium solutions was commercialized through patents by Joseph Pauly in 1897, leading to factories by Glanzstoff-Fabriken in 1899.^[43] The method enables production of exceptionally fine filaments, down to 0.5 denier, yielding fibers with silk-like softness, subdued luster, and superior drapability for lightweight apparel.^[44] However, the process generates copper-laden wastewater, posing environmental challenges due to heavy metal effluent that requires treatment to mitigate aquatic toxicity.^[45] Among other variants, lyocell represents an eco-friendlier evolution, where cellulose is directly dissolved in N-methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMMO) solvent and dry-jet wet-spun to regenerate fibers in a closed-loop system that recovers over 99% of the solvent, reducing chemical waste compared to traditional methods.^[46] Introduced commercially in the 1990s by Courtaulds Fibres as Tencel, with initial production at a Mobile, Alabama plant in 1990 and expansion in Grimsby, England by 1998, lyocell offers enhanced tensile strength and breathability for sustainable textiles.^[47] Modal, a high-tenacity modification of viscose rayon, achieves greater wet strength through alkali treatment of cellulose before xanthation, resulting in fibers with improved durability and modulus for stretch-resistant fabrics.^[48] Developed initially in the 1930s and refined in Japan by the 1950s, modal is derived from beech tree pulp and used in intimate apparel for its softness and shape retention.^[48]

Properties

Physical Characteristics

Artificial silk, primarily referring to regenerated cellulose fibers such as viscose rayon, exhibits tensile strength ranging from 1.5 to 2.4 grams per denier in the dry state, though this value decreases to 0.7 to 1.2 grams per denier when wet due to fiber swelling and water absorption.^[49] Elongation at break typically measures 15 to 25 percent under dry conditions, providing moderate flexibility comparable to natural silk's 20 to 25 percent but with less overall resilience.^[50] In contrast to natural silk, which maintains higher dry tensile strength of 3.5 to 5.1 grams per denier, artificial silk's mechanical properties make it suitable for lightweight applications but more prone to weakening during laundering.^[51] The appearance of artificial silk fibers is characterized by high luster, derived from their multilobal or serrated cross-section that reflects light, though differing from natural silk's triangular prism structure, resulting in a silky sheen often enhanced during manufacturing.^[52] Texture-wise, these fibers have a moisture regain of 11 to 13 percent at standard conditions (65 percent relative humidity and 21°C), which contributes to excellent drape and breathability but also leads to wrinkling and reduced dimensional stability in humid environments.^[53] This moisture affinity exceeds that of many synthetics but aligns closely with natural silk's 10 to 11 percent regain, enhancing comfort in apparel while requiring careful handling to avoid creasing.^[53] Density for artificial silk fibers averages 1.5 grams per cubic centimeter, slightly higher than natural silk's 1.3 to 1.4 grams per cubic centimeter, influencing their weight and packing in fabrics.^[53] Thermally, viscose variants decompose at 180 to 200°C without melting, while cellulose acetate types soften around 180 to 200°C and fully melt near 230°C, differing from natural silk's decomposition above 250°C and providing distinct processing limitations for heat-sensitive uses.^[54]^[55]

Chemical Properties

Artificial silk, primarily composed of regenerated cellulose such as viscose rayon and cellulose acetate, exhibits limited chemical stability due to its polar hydroxyl groups, making it more vulnerable to degradation than fully synthetic fibers like polyester or nylon, which have stronger hydrophobic structures.^[51] Viscose rayon dissolves in cold concentrated sulfuric acid, such as 60% w/w solutions, and is disintegrated by hot dilute or cold concentrated mineral acids like HCl, though it remains stable in dilute acids for short exposures but weakens significantly with prolonged contact.^[56]^[57] Strong alkali solutions, particularly those above pH 10, cause swelling and substantial loss in strength, rendering the fiber unsuitable for harsh basic environments without protective treatments.^[49] In terms of flammability, viscose rayon burns readily similar to cotton, with a limiting oxygen index (LOI) of 17-19%, igniting easily in air and producing a steady flame, whereas natural silk chars rather than sustains burning due to its higher LOI of 22-23%. Cellulose acetate variants, while also flammable, often melt during combustion, which can lead to self-extinguishing behavior in certain configurations by reducing oxygen access to the fabric core.^[58]^[58]^[59] Degradation of artificial silk occurs primarily through hydrolysis under combined heat and moisture, leading to significant tensile strength loss under prolonged exposure to high humidity and temperature, far exceeding the stability of synthetics that retain over 80% strength in similar exposures. UV exposure further accelerates degradation by breaking cellulose chains, reducing strength by 20-30% without stabilizers, highlighting the need for additives in outdoor applications.^[49]^[60]

Applications

Textile Uses

Artificial silk, commonly known as rayon, plays a central role in apparel production, where it is valued for its silk-like sheen and breathability that mimic natural fibers while offering affordability.^[61]^[62] Approximately 33% of rayon fibers are directed toward apparel applications as of 2024, supporting a range of garments that prioritize comfort and aesthetic appeal.^[63] In clothing, rayon is frequently employed for dresses, blouses, and linings, providing a soft, drapable texture ideal for everyday and formal wear. Viscose crepe de chine, a lightweight variant, is particularly favored for its subtle crinkle and fluid movement in items like blouses, summer dresses, and scarves, enhancing their elegant yet breathable qualities.^[64]^[65] Its moisture-absorbing properties contribute to a natural drape that allows garments to flow gracefully without clinging.^[66] For home textiles, rayon is incorporated into curtains, upholstery, and bedding, where its softness and ability to regulate temperature promote everyday comfort and durability.^[67]^[68] Blends with cotton, such as 50/50 combinations, enhance wrinkle resistance while retaining breathability, making these fabrics practical for items like bedsheets and draperies that withstand frequent use.^[69]^[70] Historically, rayon's introduction as "artificial silk" in the 1920s revolutionized fashion by enabling the popularization of flapper dresses, which embodied the era's liberated style as an accessible luxury alternative to expensive natural silk.^[71]^[72] In contemporary applications, advanced rayon variants like modal are integrated into activewear, leveraging their stretch and moisture-wicking attributes for performance-oriented clothing such as tops and shorts.^[73]^[74]

Industrial and Other Uses

Artificial silk, particularly high-tenacity rayon, serves as a reinforcement material in industrial applications requiring strength and durability under stress. In the automotive sector, it is widely used for tire cords in heavy-duty tires, such as those for tractors, motorcycles, and off-road equipment, where its high tensile strength and heat resistance help maintain structural integrity during extreme conditions.^[75] Similarly, high-tenacity rayon yarns reinforce conveyor belts and hoses, providing flexibility and resistance to abrasion in manufacturing and material handling environments.^[51] Its fine fiber structure also makes rayon suitable for filtration media in air and water purification systems, where it forms porous cartridges that effectively trap particulates, oils, and chemicals while allowing fluid passage.^[76] In medical applications, rayon-based materials are valued for their absorbency and biocompatibility. Non-woven rayon pads are commonly used in surgical dressings and bandages, offering high fluid absorption to manage exudate while featuring a non-adherent surface that minimizes trauma to healing tissue during changes.^[77] Cellulose acetate, another variant of artificial silk, dominates the production of cigarette filters, utilizing its porous tow structure to reduce tar and nicotine inhalation; it is incorporated into the vast majority of the estimated 5.7 trillion cigarettes smoked annually worldwide as of 2022.^[78]^[79] Beyond these sectors, artificial silk finds utility in packaging and historical military contexts. Regenerated cellulose, known as cellophane, serves as edible or peelable casings for food products like sausages, providing a transparent, breathable barrier that maintains product freshness and shape during processing.^[80] Rayon fibers are also applied in paper coatings to enhance surface smoothness and printability in specialty packaging.^[81] During World War II, rayon emerged as a critical substitute for silk in parachute production amid global shortages, enabling large-scale manufacturing to support airborne operations across Allied forces.^[82]

Environmental Impact

Production Effects

The production of artificial silk, particularly viscose rayon, is highly resource-intensive, requiring substantial water and energy inputs. Blue water consumption, which accounts for direct freshwater use in processing, typically ranges from 80 to 370 liters per kilogram of fiber, depending on the production method such as batch or continuous washing.^[83] Energy demands are also significant, with pulping processes consuming approximately 12 MJ per kilogram on average, driven by steam generation, drying, and chemical reactions in the viscose process.^[84] These inputs contribute to broader environmental strain, as production sites are often located in water-scarce regions, exacerbating local resource depletion.^[83] Chemical pollution from viscose manufacturing poses severe risks due to the release of toxic substances like carbon disulfide (CS₂), a neurotoxic agent used in the xanthation step. Emissions of CS₂ vary by product type, averaging around 100 kg per ton for viscose staple fiber and up to 284 kg per ton for viscose filament yarn, leading to atmospheric and wastewater contamination.^[85] Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) accompanies these releases at 20-33 kg per ton, and together, CS₂ and H₂S account for 10-20% of air pollutants from rayon plants, contributing to acid rain and respiratory hazards in surrounding communities.^[85]^[86] CS₂'s volatility results in fugitive emissions during handling and recovery, with U.S. facilities reporting thousands of pounds discharged annually to air and water despite treatment efforts.^[87] Sourcing raw cellulose from wood plantations drives deforestation, with an estimated 300 million trees logged annually for global viscose production as of 2024, leading to habitat loss in biodiversity hotspots.^[88] In regions like Indonesia, pulp concessions supplying viscose have resulted in over 170,000 hectares of natural forest loss between 2015 and 2019 due to clearing and fires.^[89] This deforestation, often exceeding 100,000 hectares per year in high-production areas, releases stored carbon and disrupts ecosystems.^[86] Worker health is further compromised by CS₂ exposure, causing "viscose rayon disease," a condition involving peripheral neuropathy, cardiovascular abnormalities, and neurotoxic effects such as parkinsonism-like symptoms from chronic inhalation.^[90] Studies of rayon workers show elevated risks of coronary heart disease and nervous system damage at exposure levels above 10 ppm, with historical cases linking high CS₂ concentrations to irreversible health impairments.^[91]^[92]

Sustainability and Alternatives

Efforts to enhance the sustainability of artificial silk production focus on implementing closed-loop systems that recover and reuse chemicals, minimizing waste and emissions. For instance, Lenzing Group's production of lyocell fibers employs a closed-loop process that recovers over 99% of the N-methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMMO) solvent, a non-toxic alternative to the carbon disulfide used in traditional viscose rayon manufacturing. This approach significantly reduces chemical discharge into the environment compared to conventional viscose processes, which often rely on open-loop systems with lower recovery rates.^[93] In viscose production, companies like Lenzing are advancing closed-loop technologies for key chemicals such as carbon disulfide (CS₂) and sulfur compounds, achieving recovery rates of up to 95% for sulfur in member facilities of the Commonwealth Viscose (CV) initiative.^[94] The lyocell process, in particular, further contributes to sustainability by using amine oxide solvents that enable near-complete recycling, thereby lowering overall emissions and resource consumption relative to viscose.^[95] As of 2024, the Canopy Hot Button Report indicates that 53% of the global supply of viscose, rayon, lyocell, and other man-made cellulosic fibers comes from producers rated green or higher for sustainability practices.^[96] Regulatory measures play a crucial role in mitigating health and environmental risks associated with artificial silk production. The European Union's REACH regulation classifies CS₂ as a substance of very high concern due to its toxicity, with an indicative occupational exposure limit value of 10 mg/m³ as an 8-hour time-weighted average to protect workers from neurotoxic effects. Additionally, certifications such as OEKO-TEX Standard 100 verify that rayon and viscose textiles meet stringent criteria for harmful substance content, ensuring low-impact production and safe end products for consumers. These standards encourage manufacturers to adopt cleaner processes and traceable supply chains.^[97] Emerging alternatives to traditional artificial silk emphasize bio-based and recycled materials that offer similar aesthetic and functional properties with reduced environmental burdens. Polylactic acid (PLA) fibers, derived from corn starch, serve as a biodegradable option for textiles mimicking silk's drape and softness, with applications in apparel and nonwovens due to their renewability and lower carbon footprint during production.^[98] Recycled polyester variants engineered to replicate silk's sheen and texture provide another synthetic mimic, utilizing post-consumer waste to decrease reliance on virgin petroleum-based resources.^[99] There is also a growing shift toward natural and semi-natural fibers, such as ethically sourced silk or bamboo-derived lyocell and modal, which offer comparable breathability and luster while avoiding the chemical-intensive steps of rayon production. The market for sustainable cellulosic fibers, including eco-friendly rayon variants, has expanded notably since 2010, driven by consumer demand and supported by a compound annual growth rate of around 8% for the broader cellulose fiber sector through the 2020s.^[100]

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Hilaire, Comte de Chardonnet Biography (1839-1924)
He received the first patent for his work in 1884 and began manufacturing rayon in 1891. The material was displayed at the 1891 Paris Exposition where it won ...
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Viscose - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
... patent appearing in the year of the 1892 granted to Cross, Bevan and Beadle (Germgård, 2007; Wilkes, 2001). The conventional viscose manufacturing process ...
[24]
Cross and Bevan - The Plastics Historical Society
Dec 6, 2016 · In 1892, together with another partner, Clayton Beadle (who was also an authority on papermaking) they took out a patent for 'viscose' which ...
[25]
A Short History of Manufactured Fibers - Dharma Trading
The first commercial scale production of a manufactured fiber was achieved by French chemist Count Hilaire de Chardonnet. In 1889, his fabrics of “artificial ...
[26]
American Viscose Corp. - The Historical Marker Database
Jan 29, 2022 · The viscose artificial silk process was commercialized in England by Samuel Courtald & Company in 1905. In 1909, Courtaulds formed a new ...Missing: Lewiston | Show results with:Lewiston
[27]
AkzoNobel | Paints & Coatings, Chemicals & Polymers - Britannica
Akzo NV had its origins in the German chemical manufacturer Vereinigte Glanzstoff-Fabriken, which was formed in 1899 and made rayon and paints. Vereinigte ...
[28]
BIG GAIN REPORTED IN RAYON OUTPUT; 1929 American ...
May 9, 2025 · -The production of rayon in the United States registered a rapid increase in 1929 at 123,200,000 pounds, or 26 per cent greater than in 1928 ...Missing: value | Show results with:value
[29]
The Roaring Twenties Recession Boom Depression - Textile World
Oct 1, 2005 · Meanwhile, production of artificial silk, now called rayon, zoomed from three million pounds in 1919, to 33 million in 1929.The ice-box, the ...
[30]
Fashion Forward: Towards more eco-friendly Rayon
... rayon market is projected to be worth $28 billion. In 2019, rayon made up ... By the end of the 1930s, rayon was being produced in the United States ...
[31]
[PDF] bioresources.com
commercial viscose process can be reduced. The main steps of the traditional viscose process are given in Fig. 1. A dissolving pulp is treated with sodium ...
[32]
Viscose Rayon Manufacturing Process - Textile Learner
Mar 9, 2012 · The process of manufacturing viscose rayon consists of the following steps mentioned, in the order that they are carried out: (1) Steeping, (2) ...
[33]
New Rayon Clothing Ruffles Some Wearers - The New York Times
Jun 8, 1991 · Rayon, the first fabric produced synthetically, was made commercially starting in 1891 in France. It was widely used until the 1950's, when ...Missing: dominance | Show results with:dominance
[34]
US2227495A - Method for producing delustered rayon
Rayon having a subdued luster may be made by several methods. In one method, a pigment, usually titanium dioxide, is incorporated in the spinning solution.
[35]
Viscose Rayon Manufacturing Process - Tex Note
Jan 15, 2014 · Highly purified wood pulp consists of 95 – 99% cellulose. It is called 'chemical cellulose' & 'dissolving pulp'. Those chemical cellulose or ...
[36]
[PDF] Materials Market Report | Textile Exchange
Manmade cellulosic fibers (MMCFs) had a market share of around 6% in 2023, with a global production volume of around 7.9 million tonnes. Viscose (rayon) ...
[37]
Cellulose Acetate - AZoM
Jun 12, 2002 · In 1904 George Miles found that partially hydrolyse cellulose acetate would dissolve in acetone. Brothers Henri and Camille Dreyfus exploited ...Missing: commercialization 1920s
[38]
Acetate rayon - MFA Cameo
Sep 9, 2022 · Developed during the 1930s, acetate rayons are made by first producing cellulose acetate fibers from cellulose. Then the fibers are heated and ...Missing: process 1904 commercialization 1920s
[39]
Cigarette Filter Tow - Celanese
Celanese offers a wide range of cellulose acetate tow fibers used in cigarette filters for its vapor and smoke absorption properties.Missing: rayon non- flammable
[40]
Cellulose Acetate Market - Size, Share & Industry Analysis
May 30, 2025 · The Cellulose Acetate Market is expected to reach 852.58 kilotons in 2025 and grow at a CAGR of 1.99% to reach 940.85 kilotons by 2030.
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Cupro fiber - MFA Cameo
Oct 18, 2020 · Rayon produced from pure cellulose dissolved in an ammonium solution of copper oxide. The process for making cuprammonium fibers was discovered ...Missing: 0.5 waste
[42]
[PDF] Factors Varying Penetration of Dyes on Rayons and Kindred Fibres
In Belgium a plant was opened at Tubize. In 1899 Glanzstofffabriken opened more factor- ies in Germany on the improved patents of Pauly for cop- per silk ...
[43]
Regenerated Cellulosic Fibers and Their Implications on Sustainability
This chapter discusses the present scenario and market trend of regenerated cellulosic fibers, and the properties of principal fibers existing in the market.Missing: finer | Show results with:finer
[44]
[PDF] Water Requirements of the Rayon- and Acetate-Fiber Industry
The fibers produced by the cuprammonium process were the only ones that had what William Haynes (1953) described as "the sensuous feel and the soft, clinging ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[45]
Lyocell Fiber - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Lyocell fibers are defined as cellulose fibers obtained through an organic solvent spinning process that dissolves raw cellulose in an amine oxide solvent, ...
[46]
What is Lyocell Fabric: Properties, How its Made and Where - Sewport
Lyocell is a semi-synthetic fabric that is commonly used as a substitute for cotton or silk. This fabric is a form of rayon, and it is composed primarily of ...Missing: eco- friendly
[47]
Modal fiber - MFA Cameo
Sep 27, 2022 · A generic name for a modified rayon fiber that has high tenacity and high wet modulus. Modal fibers were initially developed in the 1930s.Missing: variant | Show results with:variant
[48]
Rayon - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
... patented by the British chemists Charles Cross, Edward Bevan, and Clayton Beadle in 1892 (Andrew, 2001). They discovered that cellulose xanthate could be ...Missing: UK | Show results with:UK
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Viscose rayon - MFA Cameo
Jun 25, 2022 · Physical and Chemical Properties. Insoluble in most organic solvents ... Moisture regain = 11-16.6%;; Elongation = 15-13%; (dry); 20-40 ...
[50]
Rayon Fabrics - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
'Artificial silk' called 'rayon', has a highly lustrous quality, giving it a bright shine. Modal is the second generation and is known for its softness. Lyocell ...Missing: regain | Show results with:regain
[51]
Properties of Viscose Rayon Fibres - Online Textile Academy
Jul 9, 2017 · A. Physical Properties ; Density. 1.53 gm/cm ; Moisture Content. 11-13% at 65 % RH ; Thermoset fibre: Does not soften and melt on heating.
[52]
Viscose Rayon Properties and Application of ... - zebustore.com
Sep 28, 2023 · After prolonged heating, it begins to decompose at 185-205oC. Flammability: Rayon burns readily with a characteristic odor of burnt paper. ...
[53]
Acetate fiber - MFA Cameo - Museum of Fine Arts Boston
Oct 19, 2020 · Although originally called rayon, cellulose acetate was separated from rayon ... Melting Point = 232; Density = 1.25-1.35; Refractive Index = 1.48.
[54]
Viscose - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Marketing of cuprammonium and viscose rayon started with continuous filament yarns as a cheap ''artificial silk.'' Waste yarn was chopped into short lengths for ...
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Viscose Rayon | Part 01 - Textile Study Center
Mar 6, 2018 · Application of heat at 300*F (150*C) causes viscose rayon to lose strength above 350*F (177*C) it begins to decompose. 10 . Effect of Light: ...
[56]
Physical, Chemical and Mechanical Properties of Viscose Rayon
Sep 28, 2021 · Viscose rayon fiber has a lower tensile strength under wet conditions (eg, during washing) than under dry conditions.
[57]
[PDF] Ballot for BP on Silk Petition - Consumer Product Safety Commission
Apr 6, 2016 · ... L.O.I.% value for some textile fibers available in literature. Cotton. Rayon. PET silk. Nylon wool. 16-17. 17-19. 20-22. 22-23. 22-24. 24-25.
[58]
[PDF] EC74-492 Fabric Flammability and Clothing - CORE
Cellulose Based Manmade Fibers. Rayon, acetate and triacetate are as highly flammable as cotton. In addition, the acetate and triacetate may melt and cause ...
[59]
[PDF] A biodegradable alternative for marine use? - Archimer
Apr 8, 2025 · Both material scales demonstrate rapid degradation rates under biotic conditions (90 % strength reduction after 2 weeks for yarns and 6 months ...
[60]
Viscose Fiber Manufacturing Process: Understanding Viscose Rayon
Oct 7, 2025 · ⚗️ Chemical Reactivity. It reacts with powerful acids and bases. Alkali treatment would weaken the fibers. Thus, in chemical environments, the ...
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Rayon Fabric Guide: Drive Consumer Preference And Sales 2025
Jul 4, 2025 · It gives a silk-like feel and a subtle sheen that screams high fashion. It's breathable and hypoallergenic. That's why it's often used in ...What Is Rayon Fabric? · Rayon Fabric Has A Premium... · Rayon Fabric Vs. Its...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage<|separator|>
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What Is Rayon Fabric Made Of? A Guide for Textile Manufacturers
Jul 21, 2025 · Viscose Rayon. Texture: Soft, breathable, silk-like; Strength: Low wet strength; Cost: Lowest among the four; Common Use: Fashion ...Missing: percentage sheen
[63]
Rayon Fibers Market Size, Share, Trends Analysis Report, 2032
The global rayon fibers market size was valued at $19.82 billion in 2024 is expected to grow from $21.00 billion in 2025 to $32.64 billion by 2032.
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Rayon Crepe de Chine Fabric by the Yard
4.8 4.7K · Free delivery over $150Rayon crepe de chine is ideal for drapey silhouettes that don't cling. Designers often turn to this fabric for elevated basics like button-down blouses, soft ...
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What Is Crepe de Chine Fabric - The Complete Guide - Sino Silk
Jun 19, 2025 · Viscose crepe de chine is a favorite for summer dresses, casual wear, and scarves. However, it is more sensitive to moisture and is prone to ...
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https://www.yardblox.com/blogs/fabric-guides/the-complete-guide-to-rayon-viscose-modal-lyocell-and-tencel-explained
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Buy Rayon Twill Fabric from Our Fabric Manufacturer & Factory
100% Rayon Twill Fabric · : Light garments, home textiles like curtains, and bedding. ; Poly Rayon Twill Fabric · : Heavy-duty applications such as upholstery, ...
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Rayon Fabric in Bedding: Soft, Breathable, and Eco-Friendly - Yintex
Jun 4, 2025 · Rayon absorbs more moisture than cotton, which helps regulate body temperature and reduces night sweats when used in sheets or pillowcases. 4.
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Cotton Blend Fabric Types: Their Benefits and Applications
Apr 1, 2025 · Improved Wrinkle Resistance. Cotton blended with fibers like polyester or rayon reduces the fabric's tendency to wrinkle. This results in ...
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https://yanmaotextile.com/rayon-fabric-a-complete-guide-to-rayon-textiles-properties-and-care/
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1920s Fashion, Fabrics & Colors | WardrobeShop.com
5.0 16 · Free delivery · 15-day returnsDuring the 1920s fashion, Rayon was commonly known as “artificial silk,” and was used in many of the same places that silk would have been traditionally used ...Missing: affordable | Show results with:affordable
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Flapper Fashion 1920s Fashion History
Mar 26, 2024 · A fashionable flapper had short sleek hair, a shorter than average shapeless shift dress, a chest as flat as a board, wore makeup and applied it in public.Missing: affordable luxury
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What Is Modal Fabric? Benefits, Uses, and Sustainability Explained
Jun 11, 2025 · Modal rayon provides extended-lasting comfort to your skin for both workout and lounging activities. Common Uses of Modal Fabric. The ...What Is Modal Fabric? · Modal Vs. Polyester · Why Modal Is Preferred For...
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A complete guide on benefits Modal Fabric | Virgio
Aug 30, 2024 · More benefits of modal fabric include its flexibility or stretch. Due to this, it is used in active sportswear like sustainable tops, shorts, ...
[75]
[PDF] High-Tenacity Rayon Filament Yarn from Germany and the ... - usitc
Oct 2, 1991 · Rayon tire cord continues to be used in tires that undergo extreme punishment such as heavy-duty equipment tires, tractor tires, motorcycle ...
[76]
Rayon Filter Cartridges - Johnson Filtration Products
Rayon filter cartridges are made of regenerated cellulose, used for chemical compatibility, dilute alkalis, mineral oils, organic solvents, petroleum oils, ...
[77]
Medline Sterile Surgical Adhesive Dressings
Free delivery over $50 90-day returnsNonadherent contact layer permits free flow of drainage, protects the wound site, and will not stick to granulating tissue; Soft, highly absorbent rayon ...
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[PDF] [July 2022] Tobacco's Toxic Plastics-A Global Outlook V4
Jan 18, 2023 · ... cigarettes consumed annually have filters. ... “We reported also the presence of cellulose acetate cigarette filter fibres in human lung tissue.
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https://tobaccocontrol.bmj.com/content/early/2025/08/05/tc-2025-059487
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Rayon Paper
It is air permeable, fabric-soft, translucent, and lustrous. It can be used for food grade packaging (can be printed, coated, and laminated), flyleaf, gift ...<|separator|>
[81]
Rayon Goes to War | Yale Scholarship Online | Oxford Academic - DOI
In Agent in Italy, the artificial silk company is named “Seta,” and its director, the man who helps S.K. at every turn, is named Luigi Venturi. The novel's ...Missing: avoid duties
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[PDF] Water footprint assessment of polyester and viscose.
Ten out of 15 polyester production locations studied in this report are in water sustainability hotspots, i.e. locations with high water scarcity and/or.
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Wood Pulp: The New Cotton for the Garment Industry? – Paper 360
Jul 22, 2019 · Compare that with the 12 MJ/kg global average of viscose pulp, with one company producing pulp at a low 2.5 MJ/kg.Missing: rayon | Show results with:rayon<|separator|>
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Carbon disulphide and hydrogen sulphide emissions from viscose ...
Annual emissions from Indian VSF sector in 2020 were estimated to be 78.32 Gg CS2 and 26.06 Gg H2S while from VFY sector, the same were 15.30 Gg and 1.13 Gg.
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[PDF] Viscose fibres production - Water Footprint Network
Aug 1, 2017 · Viscose production includes cellulose (from wood), pulp, and fiber production. Key sustainability issues include air, water, ecosystems, ...Missing: rayon | Show results with:rayon
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[PDF] Preliminary Study of Carbon Disulfide Discharges from Cellulose ...
EPA reviewed the information provided in Tables 1 and 2 and determined that the cellulose products manufacturers using the viscose process to manufacture ...
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Bringing a new level of transparency to Indonesia's pulp exports
Feb 16, 2021 · During 2015-2019, 170,000 ha of natural forests were lost either by land-clearing or by fires within concession areas that supply wood fibre to ...<|separator|>
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Cardiovascular effects in viscose rayon workers exposed to carbon ...
The findings suggest that the coronary risk is increased in workers previously exposed to high CS2 concentrations but not in those exposed to CS2 levels below ...
[89]
Carbon disulfide exposure and neurotoxic sequelae among viscose ...
Long-term, relatively moderate exposure to CS 2 in association with high peak exposures to CS 2 and H 2 S involves a substantial risk of developing neurotoxic ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[90]
Effects on the peripheral nervous system of workers' exposure to ...
The effects of chronic carbon-disulfide (75150) (CS2) exposure on the peripheral nervous system (PNS) were investigated in viscose rayon factory workers.
[91]
Fiber Technologies: Explore Lenzing's Production Processes
Notably, our closed-loop system recovers 99.8 percent of the NMMO solvent, with minimal water directed to treatment. Second stage. Process B: Viscose & modal.
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[PDF] Development of Viscose - CV Sustainability Report 2022
Jan 28, 2024 · In 2022, the total sulfur recovery rate of CV members reached about 94.9%. ... and established a closed-loop production system; in addition, in ...
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Viscose, Rayon, Modal, Lyocell, Cupro: Decoding Man-Made Textiles
Jan 22, 2025 · Toxic chemicals involved such as carbon disulfide, zinc, and sulfuric acid escape the process, contaminating the air, water, and local food ...
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OEKO-TEX® STANDARD 100
OEKO-TEX® STANDARD 100 is a label for textiles tested for harmful substances. It sets the benchmark for textile safety, from yarn to finished product.Label Check · Buying Guide · Downloads · FAQMissing: rayon | Show results with:rayon
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PLA Staple Fibers | Biodegradable & Sustainable Supplier
PLA staple fiber is a type of polylactic acid fiber derived from renewable resources such as corn starch and sugarcane. For this reason, it is often referred to ...
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Recycled Polyester Silk-like Fiber: The Perfect Blend of Eco ...
Apr 25, 2025 · With a fine, smooth texture that mimics natural silk, it offers a luxurious drape and comfort. At the same time, it retains polyester's ...
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An overview on global fiber and yarn market - Textile Today
Mar 12, 2022 · Cellulose Fiber Market was valued at US$ 26.04 Bn in 2019 and is expected to reach US$ 49.49 Bn by 2026, at a CAGR of 8.36% during a forecast ...