Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Assassination of Ali

The assassination of ibn Abi Talib, cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad and fourth Rashidun caliph, occurred in 661 CE when he was fatally wounded by a poisoned strike to the head delivered by , a member of the Kharijite sect, during the dawn prayer in the . succumbed to the wound two days later on 21 40 AH, marking the end of the and paving the way for the under . The killing stemmed from the , a triggered by disputes over leadership following the murder of the third caliph , during which faced rebellions from Muawiya's Umayyad faction and the , who deemed him an apostate for submitting to arbitration at the rather than enforcing immediate judgment. Ibn Muljam, motivated by personal vendetta and Kharijite ideology after the death of his betrothed at the , coordinated with two other Kharijites to target , Muawiya, and simultaneously, though only Ali's assassination succeeded. This event deepened sectarian divisions, with Ali's death elevating his status among Shia Muslims as the rightful successor to and a , while solidifying Sunni acceptance of Umayyad rule despite the caliphate's shift from elective to hereditary.

Historical Context

The Caliphate of Ali and Internal Conflicts

Following the of the third caliph ibn Affan on June 17, 656 CE, by Egyptian rebels dissatisfied with his governance and perceived favoritism toward Umayyad kin, ibn Abi Talib was elected as the fourth caliph in on June 18, 656 CE, by a gathering of companions and Medinan residents. , a cousin and son-in-law of , accepted the role reluctantly amid chaos, pledging to uphold justice and Quranic principles while delaying the punishment of Uthman's killers to prevent further division, as many rebels had participated in his election and pledged allegiance. This decision, rooted in stabilizing , drew criticism from figures demanding immediate (retaliation), including Umayyad governor Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan in , who withheld (allegiance) until the perpetrators faced trial, viewing Ali's hesitation as complicity. Ali's caliphate, spanning from 656 to 661 CE, was marked by the (civil war), beginning with the in December 656 CE near , where defeated an opposing force led by , Talha, and Zubayr, who sought vengeance for ; casualties exceeded 10,000, solidifying Ali's control over but highlighting fractures over punitive justice. Muawiya's persistent opposition escalated tensions, culminating in the on July 26–28, 657 CE, along the River, involving approximately 100,000 combatants per side in a stalemated confrontation over and Uthman's avenging. As Ali's troops gained advantage, Muawiya's forces raised copies of the on spears, invoking divine judgment and pressuring Ali—against his initial resistance from hardliners—to accept in Adhruh in 658 CE, an that prioritized textual over but exposed Ali to accusations of compromising caliphal legitimacy. To consolidate power, Ali relocated the capital from Medina to Kufa in Iraq around 657 CE, leveraging its Shia-leaning population of roughly 20,000 fighters as a base for centralization efforts, including dismissing provincial governors appointed by Uthman for nepotism and installing pious administrators to enforce equitable land redistribution and fiscal reforms aligned with early Islamic ideals. These measures aimed to curb corruption and recentralize authority amid fiscal strains from conquest halts, but provoked rebellions from entrenched elites and unresolved grievances, with the arbitration's perceived failure—yielding no clear victor and allowing Muawiya to retain Syria—causally fracturing Ali's coalition by alienating absolutists who deemed human arbitration usurpation of God's sovereignty. By 658 CE, such internal dissent had eroded unified support, as provincial loyalties and demands for punitive action undermined Ali's governance, setting conditions for further strife without resolving underlying causal tensions over succession and justice.

Emergence of the Kharijites

The coalesced as a radical splinter group from ibn Abi Talib's forces immediately after the inconclusive in July 657 CE (37 AH), when agreed to arbitration with Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan to resolve their dispute over the . This decision alienated a portion of Ali's army, who viewed the recourse to human judgment as a usurpation of divine authority, chanting the slogan la hukma illa lillah ("no judgment but God's") to reject any compromise that subordinated God's law to fallible arbitrators. The faction's origins trace to this moment of ideological rupture, as former supporters seceded en masse, accusing Ali of for deviating from unmediated enforcement of Quranic rulings on and justice. In response to their growing agitation and refusal to reintegrate, Ali mobilized against the at the on July 17, 658 CE (9 Safar 38 AH), near the east of . Ali's forces decisively routed the rebels, with historical accounts reporting between 1,200 and 4,000 killed, while Ali's casualties numbered only 7 to 13. Despite this near-annihilation of their main contingent under leaders like , a remnant survived, harboring deepened toward Ali for suppressing their purist revolt; the battle failed to extinguish their movement, as scattered survivors regrouped in eastern and Persia. The Kharijites' ideology centered on a stringent doctrine of takfir, excommunicating as apostates not only Muawiya for his rebellion but also Ali and any Muslim who sinned gravely or accepted imperfect governance, deeming such individuals legitimate targets for violence unless they repented and adhered strictly to their interpretation of divine law. This absolutist stance, rooted in a literalist reading that equated political compromise with outright rejection of Islam, propelled their evolution from dissenters to militant extremists, prioritizing theological purity over pragmatic unity in the Muslim community.

The Conspiracy

Kharijite Plot Against Leaders

Following their defeat at the on 9 Safar 38 AH (July 658 CE), where ibn Abi Talib's forces killed an estimated 1,800 to 4,000 , the survivors dispersed into rural areas and urban fringes across and Arabia, evading suppression through clandestine networks. This fragmentation, rather than eradicating the movement, enabled resilient underground coordination, as small cells maintained ideological cohesion centered on (declaring Muslims apostates) against those who accepted at Siffin or deviated from absolute rule by divine judgment alone. In approximately 660 CE, during a gathering in , Kharijite operatives convened near the to orchestrate a synchronized campaign against three prominent leaders deemed equally culpable for compromising Islamic governance: ibn Abi Talib in , Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan in , and in . The group selected dedicated assassins— al-Muradi for , Burak ibn Abd Allah al-Tamimi for Muawiya, and Amr (or Umayr) ibn Bakr al-Tamimi for —who swore irrevocable oaths on the Qur'an to succeed or die, underscoring their commitment to martyrdom if necessary. Swords were prepared with poison from (oshear) or henbane, applied to ensure lethality even from glancing wounds. This scheme reflected the ' causal extremism, rooted in a puritanical interpretation that equated political compromise with infidelity, justifying indiscriminate violence against any authority not enforcing unyielding (consultation) purged of sinners. Accounts preserved in al-Tabari's history detail how the plotters rationalized targeting all factions to "purify" , bypassing distinctions between Ali's legitimacy claims and his rivals' ambitions. The operation's ambition highlighted the movement's tactical evolution from open rebellion to targeted , though logistical failures plagued two prongs: one assassin succumbed to illness en route, while the other struck an unintended substitute due to evasion tactics. Only the strike against on 27 January 661 (19 Ramadan 40 ) inflicted a fatal , demonstrating the plot's partial efficacy amid inherent risks.

Ibn Muljam's Role and Motivations

Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam al-Muradi, a member of the Murad tribe and adherent of the Kharijite sect, had previously fought against Ali ibn Abi Talib in the Battle of Nahrawan in July 658 CE, where Ali's forces decisively defeated the Kharijites who rejected his acceptance of arbitration following the Battle of Siffin in 657 CE. The Kharijites viewed the arbitration as a capitulation to human judgment over divine rule, branding Ali and his supporters as unbelievers deserving death, a doctrinal stance rooted in their slogan "la hukma illa lillah" (no judgment except God's). Ibn Muljam survived the Nahrawan rout, which intensified his enmity toward Ali, fueling a personal vendetta alongside ideological zeal. A pivotal personal incentive emerged post-Nahrawan when Ibn Muljam encountered Qattama bint al-Akhdar al-Kula'iyya, a whose father, Shayban ibn Akhdar, and brother had been slain in the battle by 's troops. Qattama, seeking retribution, agreed to marry Ibn Muljam only on the condition that he assassinate , whom she deemed the most deserving of among due to his role in and Nahrawan. This vow intertwined romantic ambition with vengeful ideology, as Ibn Muljam swore an oath before her and two witnesses to target specifically, viewing the act as both a path and fulfillment of her demand, which included a substantial of 10,000 dirhams and property. Classical accounts, such as those in al-Baladhuri's Ansab al-Ashraf and al-Tabari's , preserve this narrative, though sectarian histories emphasize varying degrees of personal versus doctrinal causation. In , Ibn Muljam assumed the leading role in operationalizing his resolve by recruiting two fellow : Wardan ibn al-Mujalid al-Taymi and Shabib ibn Bujra al-Tamimi. He persuaded them through shared Kharijite convictions and promises of reward, coordinating their pledges to strike simultaneously with poisoned blades acquired from a Christian , al-Jawhari, using a lethal concoction of henbane and other toxins. This recruitment reflected Ibn Muljam's initiative in forming a compact driven by mutual oaths of and fanaticism, distinct from broader Kharijite designs against other leaders.

The Assassination

The Attack in

In the days leading to the attack, ibn Abi Talib exhibited forebodings of his death, drawing from prophetic traditions relayed by that anticipated a fatal during by a wicked individual, as well as personal signs prompting caution. Despite entreaties from companions to deviate from his routine—such as arriving early or dispatching scouts to inspect the for threats— refused, prioritizing unwavering devotion to ritual over personal safety, stating that altering his habits would contradict pious conduct. On 19 Ramadan 40 AH, corresponding to 26 January 661 CE, Ali proceeded to lead the in the as customary. While in during the prayer, , concealed among the worshippers, emerged and inflicted a blow to 's forehead with a blade coated in lethal . The strike severed part of Ali's scalp and caused severe injury, prompting immediate disarray in the congregation. Struck, Ali uttered "Fuztu bi-rabb al-kaʿbah" ("I have succeeded by the Lord of the Kaaba"), affirming spiritual triumph amid physical agony. Companions swiftly pursued the escaping Ibn Muljam, apprehending him shortly thereafter outside the , while others attended to Ali who remained at the site of the assault.

Immediate Aftermath and Ali's Response

Following the attack on 19 40 (26 January 661 ), Ali was carried from the to his home, where he remained conscious despite severe bleeding from the forehead wound inflicted by the poisoned sword. He immediately instructed his sons, Hasan and Husayn, not to exaggerate the injury publicly or incite indiscriminate against , emphasizing that only the proven assassin should face equivalent to the crime—execution by a single stroke without mutilation or further vengeance. This directive underscored his commitment to legal justice over collective , directing that no blood be shed under the pretext of his wounding except for the perpetrator. Medical efforts to treat the wound included examination by a who attempted to staunch the bleeding through dressing, alongside traditional remedies such as applications; some accounts note prescriptions like to counteract the poison's effects, believed to dissolve in the body. However, the sword's coating—likely a potent plant-derived —caused rapid systemic spread, rendering these interventions ineffective and leading to progressive deterioration over the ensuing days. Concurrently, was seized by mosque congregants shortly after the strike, as he lingered and confessed to the act without fleeing. His two accomplices, tasked with parallel strikes against Muawiya and , failed in their attempts—one due to illness preventing attendance, the other missing the target—and were either slain on the spot or escaped initially. Ibn Muljam's prompt capture aligned with Ali's instructions for measured handling, delaying any execution pending verification of guilt.

Death and Retribution

Ali's Final Days and Death

Ali ibn Abi Talib lingered for two days after the assassination attempt, suffering from escalating symptoms induced by the poisoned sword wound to his forehead. Initial medical interventions, including attempts, failed to stem the effects of the , which manifested as high fever, severe headaches, and progressive neurological deterioration, including possible seizures and loss of consciousness. Historical accounts attribute these to the poison's rapid systemic action, likely compounded by the wound's near critical cranial structures, contrasting with cases of comparable non-poisoned that often permitted survival through basic wound care and absence of toxemia. On 21 Ramadan 40 AH (29 January 661 CE), at approximately 63 years of age, Ali succumbed to these effects in . In his final moments, he reportedly uttered "Fuztu wa Rabb al-Ka'ba" ("I have succeeded, by the Lord of the Ka'ba"), a declaration preserved in early Shia biographical traditions. Drawing from collections, he dictated parting counsel to his sons Hasan and Husayn, emphasizing (God-consciousness), detachment from worldly pursuits, steadfastness in faith, and aid to the oppressed while forbidding retaliation beyond the assassin. To Hasan specifically, as his designated successor, Ali advised patience amid trials, unity with fellow Muslims to avert (civil strife), and governance rooted in justice rather than vengeance, reflecting pragmatic realism about the caliphate's fragility post-Siffin. These instructions, recorded in sources like Kitab al-Irshad by al-Mufid—a 10th-century compilation of earlier reports—underscore Ali's prioritization of communal stability over personal retribution, though their precise phrasing varies across sectarian narrations, with Sunni histories concurring on the essence of forbearance.

Capture and Punishment of Ibn Muljam

Following the assassination attempt on 19 Ramadan 40 AH (26 January 661 CE), Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam was swiftly captured by members of the Hamdan tribe and Mughira ibn Nawfal as he attempted to flee the Great Mosque of Kufa. During interrogation, Ibn Muljam expressed no remorse, defending the act as a divine obligation to eliminate Ali, whom he labeled an apostate for the arbitration at Siffin and the subsequent defeat of Kharijites at Nahrawan, claiming Ali had unjustly slain "the righteous servants of God." He remained defiant, even proposing to assassinate Muawiya if granted clemency. While gravely wounded, Ali instructed his sons, Hasan and Husayn, to ensure Ibn Muljam received a fair trial, prohibiting indiscriminate reprisals against and mandating (retaliatory justice) limited to a single strike if guilt was confirmed, mirroring the method of the attack. After Ali succumbed to his injuries on 21 Ramadan 40 AH (17 February 661 CE), Hasan adhered to these directives, ordering and personally executing Ibn Muljam by beheading in . Some historical reports indicate the body was then wrapped in mats and burned, though primary accounts vary on this detail. Despite entreaties for mercy from certain companions, Ibn Muljam's unrepentant stance precluded pardon. Ibn Muljam's accomplices in the broader Kharijite plot—Wardan ibn Mujalid, tasked with targeting , and Shabib ibn Bajra, assigned to Muawiya—failed in their strikes against and fled the mosque. Wardan was slain by a relative upon discovery of his role in the conspiracy. Shabib evaded immediate capture but perished later in battle against troops under Mughira ibn Shu'ba.

Political Aftermath

Succession Under

Following 's death on 21 40 AH (27 January 661 CE), his eldest son was promptly acclaimed as caliph by a significant portion of Ali's supporters in , where over 40,000 individuals pledged allegiance to him as the legitimate successor. This acclamation occurred amid a power vacuum exacerbated by the ongoing civil strife from the , with Hasan's leadership inheriting the fractured loyalties that had plagued his father's caliphate, including lingering resentments from the and Kharijite dissent. Hasan immediately confronted the same primary external opposition as Ali: Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, governor of , who rejected the and mobilized forces to consolidate control over , leveraging superior military resources and that portrayed Ali's faction as unstable. Internal divisions further eroded Hasan's position; key commanders like Ubayd Allah defected to Muawiya after accepting bribes, while tribal factions within the Iraqi army quarreled over leadership and strategy, reflecting pre-existing fissures that Ali's had intensified by removing a charismatic unifier capable of enforcing cohesion through personal authority and battlefield prowess. These dynamics, rooted in the causal destabilization from Ali's removal— which eliminated a figure whose legitimacy derived from proximity to the and proven valor—enabled Muawiya's forces to advance without decisive resistance, as Hasan's army, numbering around 40,000, suffered from low morale and desertions. By mid-41 AH (July-August 661 CE), facing imminent confrontation near Maskan in , Hasan negotiated a of with Muawiya to avert further Muslim bloodshed, ceding the on conditions that included Muawiya's adherence to the and , prevention of cursing from pulpits, and safe conduct for Hasan's supporters. This agreement, lasting approximately six months, marked the effective end of Hasan's and facilitated Muawiya's unchallenged assumption of power, establishing the ; the assassination's role in this outcome lay in its amplification of factional weaknesses, as empirical accounts from early historians like indicate that Ali's survival might have sustained sufficient unity to prolong resistance against Syrian expansion.

End of the Rashidun Caliphate

The assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib on 27 January 661 (21 40 ) concluded the 's era of consultative election, spanning 632 to 661 , during which successors were selected through among prominent companions rather than bloodline. This event catalyzed a structural pivot, as Ali's son assumed the caliphate in but faced immediate military pressure from Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan's forces in , leading to Hasan's via in mid-661 (circa 41 ). The agreement ceded authority to Muawiya, who relocated the caliphal seat to and established the (661–750 ), transforming governance from elective to wherein succession passed within the Sufyanid line. Muawiya prioritized internal stabilization by deploying provincial governors to quash lingering Kharijite insurgencies, which persisted as decentralized cells advocating unqualified and rejecting both Alid and Umayyad legitimacy post-Siffin . These suppressions, often involving rapid cavalry strikes, curtailed Kharijite capacity for coordinated revolt during his reign, though sporadic uprisings recurred in regions like and Fars until fragmented by Umayyad fiscal and military reforms. Pro-Alid dissent, fueled by perceptions of unavenged grievances from the , was similarly contained through incentives to tribal leaders and of Kufan sympathizers, forestalling organized challenges until Muawiya's death in 680 CE. This dynastic consolidation enhanced administrative efficiency, enabling sustained expansion into and , but entrenched familial entitlement over consultative selection, eroding the ummah's early egalitarian ethos and fostering latent schisms that manifested in subsequent fitnas. from Umayyad fiscal records indicates centralized taxation and standing armies supplanted tribal levies, prioritizing loyalty to the caliphal house and diminishing shura's role in power transitions.

Burial and Sites

Secrecy and Location of Burial

Following his death on 21 40 AH (27 January 661 CE), Ali ibn Abi Talib's family conducted his burial in secrecy during the night to prevent desecration by adversaries, including lingering Kharijite threats who had sought his . His sons al-Hasan, al-Husayn, and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah, accompanied by his cousin , transported and interred the body in the Ghariyyayn area outside , corresponding to the later-designated al-Ghariyy cemetery site. The directive for covert interment stemmed from Ali's own instructions, conveyed prior to his passing, emphasizing evasion of potential mutilation or disturbance by foes amid the unstable post-assassination climate in . Location details were restricted to immediate kin and select supporters, with the grave unmarked to mitigate risks from opportunistic despoilers. Transmission of the burial site's knowledge occurred primarily through Shia imamic lineages and oral traditions, safeguarding it against disclosure during the Umayyad period (661–750 ), when state-sponsored antagonism toward —including public pulpit condemnations—rendered open veneration hazardous. By the mid-8th century, under early Abbasid rule, the position gained wider acknowledgment, attributed to indications from (d. 148 AH/765 ), enabling preliminary recognition without immediate structures. Verification of the site's authenticity confronts evidentiary tensions: Umayyad administrative suppression, which obscured pro-Ali commemorations to consolidate power, contrasts with resilient Shia historical accounts derived from familial proximity, though early textual records remain sparse owing to persecution-induced reticence. Later Abbasid-era affirmations, including al-Rashid's 170 AH (786 CE) erection of a basic enclosure, corroborate the al-Ghariyy identification against competing claims, such as Afghan locales lacking comparable early attestation.

Development of the Najaf Shrine

The initial formal construction of a structure over the tomb occurred during the in the late , when Caliph commissioned a tomb made of white bricks around 791 CE after the site's location was revealed during a hunt. This marked the transformation of the burial site into an enclosed , drawing early settlement and veneration in , . Significant expansions followed under later dynasties. In 977 CE, during the , a more elaborate mosque-shrine complex was erected over the tomb, incorporating advanced architectural features for the era. The structure received further development in the Safavid period, with the current core layout—including a central dome and minarets—completed between 1621 and 1631 under Abbas the Great, utilizing local materials and ornate tiling. These phases elevated the site from a modest enclosure to a monumental complex, reflecting successive rulers' investments in its scale and embellishment. As a primary Shia pilgrimage center, the shrine in Najaf hosts millions of visitors yearly, with records showing over 6.3 million pilgrims in a single March 2025 commemoration alone, sustained even amid regional instability. Conflicts have periodically inflicted damage, notably in when clashes between U.S.-backed Iraqi forces and Shia militias caused and impacts to the outer walls and structure. Reconstructions promptly followed, including post-2004 repairs budgeted at tens of millions of dollars, alongside ongoing modern expansions like facade and courtyard additions, demonstrating architectural resilience and continued centrality to pilgrimage routes.

Interpretations and Controversies

Sunni and Historical Assessments

In Sunni tradition, Ali ibn Abi Talib holds the status of the fourth caliph, esteemed as a close of the Muhammad and among the ten promised paradise, with his leadership marked by adherence to justice despite the turmoil of the . The assassination on 27 January 661 CE (19 Ramadan 40 AH) by al-Muradi, a who struck him with a poison-coated sword during in Kufa's Great Mosque, is regarded as an isolated act of sectarian extremism rather than an indictment of Islamic unity or mainstream Sunni thought. , having splintered from Ali's army post-Battle of Siffin in 657 CE over their uncompromising rejection of , espoused a radical doctrine that branded compromisers—including Ali himself—as apostates warranting death, a position unanimously rejected by Sunni jurists as and contrary to the Prophet's emphasis on communal harmony. Neutral historical evaluations frame at Siffin—where agreed to submit the dispute with Muawiya to Quranic judgment via representatives and —as a calculated move to halt protracted warfare after initial battlefield gains, yet one that exacerbated internal fractures by validating the ' purist dissent and delaying resolution. This decision, while averting immediate catastrophe, is critiqued by scholars for diluting Ali's military momentum and fostering perceptions of weakness, thereby extending the fitna's chaos from 656 to 661 CE and paving the way for Umayyad consolidation under Muawiya. Primary sources and modern , drawing on al-Tabari's accounts, attribute the assassination's causation squarely to , which plotted simultaneous strikes against , Muawiya, and but succeeded only against Ali due to Ibn Muljam's execution. This counters diffuse blame on companion rivalries, as evidentiary chains trace the plot to Harura-based Kharijite cells motivated by theological absolutism, not orchestrated broader intrigue.

Shia Perspectives on Martyrdom

In Twelver Shia doctrine, Ali ibn Abi Talib is recognized as the first Imam and divinely appointed successor to the Prophet Muhammad, a status affirmed in narrations such as those from the event of Ghadir Khumm, where the Prophet declared Ali as mawla of the believers. His assassination on 21 Ramadan 40 AH (19 January 661 CE) is framed as the tragic endpoint of systemic usurpation initiated at Saqifa Bani Sa'ida, where Shia sources contend the caliphate was diverted from Ali despite the Prophet's designations, leading to enduring enmity from those who rejected his Imamate. This perspective draws from Shia hadith collections, portraying the attack by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam as not merely a Kharijite act of revenge from the Battle of Nahrawan but as fulfilling a prophetic foreknowledge of trials befalling the rightful leader. Shia theology elevates Ali's to a paradigmatic martyrdom (), symbolizing sacrificial endurance against injustice and polytheistic undercurrents masquerading as , as articulated in works emphasizing his struggle to preserve authentic amid internal betrayals. The use of a poison-coated by the assassin underscores themes of covert , with the slow poison's effects—causing Ali's two days later—mirroring the insidious nature of opposition to divine authority in Shia interpretive traditions. While primary agency is attributed to the , some Shia historical accounts suggest indirect facilitation through Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan's broader intrigues against Ali's rule, including incitement of dissent, though these claims are weighed against direct evidence of Kharijite autonomy in plotting the attack. Annually, Shia communities commemorate the martyrdom on 21 Ramadan through mourning rituals, including majalis gatherings, recitations of elegies (marsiya), and processions, often featuring black draping of the in to evoke collective grief over the loss of the Imam's guidance. These observances reinforce doctrinal tenets of wilaya (guardianship of the Imams) and the redemptive value of bearing witness to truth, positioning Ali's sacrifice as foundational to Shia identity and resilience against perceived historical marginalization. Unlike the rites for Husayn, this observance emphasizes introspective piety during fasting, aligning with Ali's final moments in prayer at .

Debates on Broader Responsibilities

Historians attribute a significant causal role in the ' radicalization to the arbitration agreement concluded after the on 18 Dhu al-Hijja 37 (July 26, 657 ), where accepted human arbitrators to resolve the conflict with Muawiya, prompting dissidents to secede with the slogan "la hukma illa lillah" (no judgment except God's) and declare and participants as apostates deserving death. This ideological fracture, rooted in the perceived subordination of divine authority to fallible men, transformed initial military discontent into theological extremism, culminating in coordinated assassination attempts against , Muawiya, and by Kharijite cells in 40 (661 ). Debates persist over indirect enablers within Ali's camp, particularly figures like , the Kinda tribal chief who commanded contingents in Ali's army at Siffin and Nahrawan. Some historical accounts report that Ibn Muljam concealed himself in al-Ash'ath's residence in the night preceding the attack on 19 Ramadan 40 AH (January 27, 661 ), with al-Ash'ath allegedly overheard urging haste as dawn approached, suggesting awareness or complicity despite his public allegiance to Ali. These variants, preserved in chronicles like those of al-Ya'qubi, fuel speculation that tribal loyalties and personal ambitions enabled infiltrators, though primary evidence remains circumstantial and contested, often amplified in later pro-Ali narratives to highlight internal betrayals. Assertions of Muawiya's orchestration, advanced in certain sectarian traditions linking Umayyad agents to the plot, lack substantiation in early sources such as al-Tabari, which detail the assassins' autonomous Kharijite motivations without external instigation. Scholarly consensus views these claims as unsubstantiated polemics emerging post-661 CE, contradicted by the simultaneous failed attempts on Muawiya and Amr, which align with Kharijite vows for collective takfiri retribution rather than targeted Umayyad engineering. Ali's governance, emphasizing mercy and reintegration—evident in his post-Nahrawan (38 AH/658 CE) policy sparing repentant —fostered tribal cohesion and loyalty amid civil strife but arguably created vulnerabilities by allowing ideological extremists to regroup and embed in , where Ibn Muljam operated freely. In contrast, the ' initial appeal lay in their uncompromising anti-hypocrisy rigor, attracting purists disillusioned by arbitration's perceived , yet this devolved into indiscriminate anarchy, as seen in their slaughter of neutral travelers like Abd Allah ibn Khabbab en route to the assassination pact. Such trade-offs underscore debates on whether stricter purges could have preempted the tragedy without eroding Ali's principled inclusivity.

References

  1. [1]
    Caliph Ali Assassinated | History Today
    Jan 1, 2011 · The assassination of Caliph Ali, on January 24th, 661, widened the split between Sunni and Shia Islam.
  2. [2]
    The Assassination of Ali | A Restatement of the History ... - Al-Islam.org
    The poison had done its work, and on the morning of the 21st of Ramadan of 40 A.H., Ali ibn Abi Talib left this world to go into the presence of his Creator ...
  3. [3]
    Martyrdom Of Imam 'Ali´ | The Life of Ali Ibn Abi Talib - Al-Islam.org
    Abd Al-Rahman ibn Muljim took upon himself the task of assassinating Imam Ali ('a). The conferees then specified a certain time to accomplish their missions.<|separator|>
  4. [4]
    The Civil Wars - History of Islam
    Muawiya demanded qisas first, before he would accept the Caliphate of Ali (r). On his part, Ali (r) moved the capital of the Islamic state from Madina to Kufa ( ...Missing: internal analysis
  5. [5]
    The Fourth Caliph, Ali (656-661 A.C.) - WorldOfIslam Islam
    Oct 26, 2005 · As mentioned previously, Ali accepted the caliphate very reluctantly. Uthman's murder and the events surrounding it were a symptom, and also ...
  6. [6]
    The Battle of Siffin and its Causes - Al-Shia
    Aug 15, 2024 · In the spring of 657 CE, Mu'awiya left Damascus with his army to carry the war into Iraq. He crossed the boundary and halted at a village called ...Missing: agreement | Show results with:agreement
  7. [7]
    Kharijites - Islamic Studies - Oxford Bibliographies
    In a battle at Siffin (in modern Syria) in 657 CE, ʿAli's troops were poised to defeat Muʿawiyah's forces when the latter sought arbitration. ʿAli agreed ...
  8. [8]
    None
    Nothing is retrieved...<|control11|><|separator|>
  9. [9]
    Origins and Legacy of the Kharijites - Oxford Academic
    The traditional story line on the Kharijites begins with the battle of Siffin in 657, one of the culminating events of the first civil war that originated with ...
  10. [10]
    Battle of Nahrawān | Islamic history - Britannica
    In the Battle of Nahrawān (July 658) Ibn Wahb and most of his followers were killed by ʿAlī, but the Khārijite movement persisted in a series of uprisings.Missing: CE | Show results with:CE
  11. [11]
    The Kharijites: The oldest political dissident movement in Islam
    May 16, 2018 · When the Kharijites realized they would be defeated, they plotted to assassinate Ali ibn Abi Taleb, Amr ibn al-Aas and Muawiya. Ali was killed ...
  12. [12]
    Who were the Kharijites or Khawarij? - Exploring History
    Jan 13, 2018 · In 661, the remaining Kharijites plotted an ambitious simultaneous assassination of 3 very important Muslims – Muawiya, Ali, and the Governor ...Missing: Tabari | Show results with:Tabari
  13. [13]
    Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam - Wikipedia
    Amr ibn Bakr al-Tamimi's assassination attempt on Amr ibn al-As failed on the 22 of January, when he killed Amr's stand-in for the Friday prayers, Kharija ...
  14. [14]
    Prophet Muhammad's Prophecy Of Imam Ali's Martyrdom - Al-Islam.org
    I cry for what will happen to you in this month. I can see you now. Oh Ali! praying to your Lord and the most wicked of all men will attack you and assault you!
  15. [15]
    On 19 Ramadan AH 40, which would correspond to 26 January 661 ...
    May 14, 2020 · ... Ali was attacked by the Kharijite Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam. ... Al- Hasan fulfilled Qisas and gave equal punishment to ibn Muljam upon Ali's death ...Missing: exact Gregorian Talib
  16. [16]
    Chapter 11: Assassination Of Imam 'Ali ('A) In Salat - Al-Islam.org
    Abdur Rahman Ibn Muljam was one of those who had escaped. He was consumed with the desire to kill Ali ('a) and was in quest of an opportunity to do so. By a ...
  17. [17]
    Fuzto Ya Rabb il-Ka'bah - Al-Islam.org
    Fuzto, I am successful by the Lord of Kaaba that I came through Ka'bah, and now I am living this world in the Masjid al-Kufa as soon as he is struck.
  18. [18]
    Tabari reports an account on the assassination of Ali bin Abu Talib ...
    Jan 25, 2021 · When these former supporters-the Kharijites—rose in rebellion against Ali(Ra), Muawiyah took advantage of Ali(Ra)'s difficulties in Iraq to send ...
  19. [19]
    [PDF] The Last Will of Ali ibn Abi Talib (AS) - Duas.org
    O Children of Abdul Mattaleb! Do not shed the blood of Muslims under the banner: The Imam has been assassinated! Only the assassin should be condemned to death.
  20. [20]
    Between the Two Shrines — When Imam Ali (as) was hit with a ...
    Jan 4, 2013 · Upon examining the Imam, the doctor prescribed milk as the cure, as milk dissolves the poison in the body. Upon hearing this, the orphans and ...
  21. [21]
    A Letter from Father to Son, The Last Will of Ali ibn Abi Talib (a)
    Let it be known to you that decay of health, passing away of time and nearness of death, have made me realize that I should give more thought to my future (next ...
  22. [22]
    Islamic History of Khalifa Ali ibn Abi Talib | Martyrdom of Ali-661 C.E.
    Martyrdom of Ali-661 C.E.. >> The Kharijite plot. >> Muawiyah and his assassin. >> 'Amr b Al-A'as and his assassin. >> Assassination of Ali. >> Will of Ali.<|separator|>
  23. [23]
    THE END OF IBN MULJIM AND HIS COHORTS
    There were four persons involved in the assassination of Amir al-Mu'minin (a.s): `Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljim, Qatam bint Akhdar, Shabib ibn Bujrah, and Wardan ibn ...
  24. [24]
    [PDF] Revisiting al-Ṭabarī on Maqtal ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib - AUB ScholarWorks
    ... al-Ṭabarī reports that after Ibn Muljam was killed “the people took him, wrapped him in some straw mats, and set fire to him”. In al-Ṭabarī,. History, 17/223.
  25. [25]
    Imam al-Hasan b. Ali al-Mujtaba (a) - wikishia
    On Ramadan 21, 40/January 28, 661, and after the martyrdom of Imam Ali (a), al-Hasan (a) became the Imam and successor of his father. More than forty thousand ...
  26. [26]
    Chapter 6: The Abdication of Hasan - Al-Islam.org
    Hasan knew that Qays would never agree to his plans for abdicating in favour of Mu'awiya, and therefore he deposed Qays from the command of the army and ...
  27. [27]
    [PDF] THE KHILĀFA OF IMAM AL-HASAN AND HIS ABDICATION ... - CIMS
    ABDICATION TO MUAWIYA BIN ABI SUFYAN. 6th March 2021. The year 41AH/661CE saw Hasan bin Ali, the Khalīfa of the Muslims raise an army against the army of ...
  28. [28]
    The Terms of the Peace Treaty | Imam Hasan and Caliphate
    Imam Hasan (as) wrote all the terms and conditions demanded by him and sent it back to Muawiya. When Muawiya agreed to those terms and a promise for the same ...
  29. [29]
    The Caliphate of Imam Hasan (A.S.) || Imam Reza (A.S.) Network
    With 'Ali's assassination, the road was finally cleared for the realization of the ultimate goal of Mu'awiya's ambitions. The very favourable circumstances ...
  30. [30]
    https://www.worldhistory.org/Rashidun_Caliphate/
  31. [31]
    Rashidun Caliphate - World History Encyclopedia
    Jan 10, 2020 · ... assassination of Caliph Ali in 661 CE. During their reign, the armies of Islam united the Arabian Peninsula under the banner of their faith ...
  32. [32]
    A forensic hypothesis for the mystery of al-Hasan's death in the 7th ...
    Sep 15, 2015 · However, in general, Muslim theologians commonly believe that his death was caused by a fatal act of poisoning. ... poison used by the symptoms ...
  33. [33]
    Lessons and History of Islamic Empires / Caliphate - Rashidun
    Sep 2, 2024 · ... Umayyad Caliphate under Muawiya I. This transition marked a shift from the Rashidun's elective leadership to a hereditary monarchy, driven ...
  34. [34]
    Mu'awiya's Monarchy | History of The Caliphs - Al-Islam.org
    The Kharijites revolted several times but were suppressed with all possible haste.
  35. [35]
    The Rightly Guided Caliphs (Rashidun) | Islam Q&A - Jibreel App
    Sep 7, 2025 · In 661 CE, Ali was assassinated by a Kharijite extremist, bringing an end to the Rashidun era. After Ali's death, Mu'awiya established the ...Historical Overview Of The... · 2. Caliph Umar Ibn... · 4. Caliph Ali Ibn Abi Talib...<|separator|>
  36. [36]
    How did the Rashidun Caliphate end? - Homework.Study.com
    The Rashidun Caliphate came to an end when the fourth Rashidun caliph, Ali, was assassinated in 661. After his death, the Umayyad Caliphate began.
  37. [37]
    Did the Islamic Empire Impact the Areas it Ruled? (Video) - Mometrix
    Importantly, under the Umayyads, the caliphate became hereditary rather than elective. More conquests were on the horizon for the expanding Islamic Empire as ...
  38. [38]
    Expansion Under the Umayyad Caliphates | World Civilization
    Key Points. The Umayyad Caliphate, which emerged after the Rashidun Caliphate collapsed, was characterized by hereditary elections and territory expansion.
  39. [39]
    Majlis 7 | Maqtal Al-Mutahhar (Sufferings Of The Prophet's ...
    Why was Imam Ali (A) buried secretly in the darkness of night in spite of having so many followers?1 It was because of the fear of Khawarij only because they ...
  40. [40]
    Holy Shrine of Imam Ali (a) - wikishia
    Apr 13, 2024 · Hanafiyya, along with Imam Ali (a)'s cousin Abd Allah b. Ja'far, buried Imam Ali (a) secretly at night in a region known as Ghariyyayn (present ...
  41. [41]
    Imam Ali's Shrine Throughout History
    Jan 19, 2016 · “Qarrey” is a place in Kufa where is it said that tomb of Ali Ibne Abi Talib is located in. Al- Bakri Al-Andulasi , Abu Obaid Abdullah Ibn ...
  42. [42]
    22. Where is Imam Ali (as) buried? - Hyder.ai
    Mar 22, 2025 · * Due to the threat from the **Khawarids**, **Imam Ali's** burial had to be kept secret. * **Imam Ali** instructed **Imam Al-Hasan** that his ...
  43. [43]
    [PDF] the construction of sacred space at the grave of `ali ibn abi talib in
    458 Al-Tabrisi's work echoes that of Shaykh al-Mufid's Kitab al-Irshad, and he also presented Sunni historical sources and hadiths in his study of the lives ...
  44. [44]
    The Revival of the Umayyads - Al-Islam.org
    They were discreet enough to conceal their hatred of Muhammad but they made no attempt to conceal their hatred of Ali. It was Ali who had destroyed not only ...Missing: grave | Show results with:grave
  45. [45]
    Ali ibn Abi Talib (600-661) - Memorials - Find a Grave
    May 21, 2009 · Ali was buried secretly in Najaf to prevent the desecration his grave. It was later revealed by Ali's descendant Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, and a ...<|separator|>
  46. [46]
    13th Rajab Birthday Hazrat Ali (ra) - Ihsan Center
    Feb 14, 2022 · This secret gravesite was revealed later during the Abbasid caliphate by Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, his descendant and the sixth Shia Imam.Missing: period | Show results with:period
  47. [47]
    Islamic history in the crosshairs - NBC News
    Aug 12, 2004 · It is said that the family of Ali buried his body secretly in Najaf soon after his death in 661. His burial place stayed a secret until the 8th ...
  48. [48]
    https://al-islam.org/history-shrines/history-shrine-imam-ali-ibn-abi-talib-peace-be-upon-him
  49. [49]
    History of the shrine of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib, peace be upon him
    “The Mausoleum itself of Hazrat Ali at Najaf, is breathtaking. There is one large central dome which stands out of a square-shaped ornate structure at the two ...Missing: secrecy | Show results with:secrecy
  50. [50]
    Archaeo - Histories on X: "Shrine of Imam Ali (1621-1631 CE), also ...
    Mar 22, 2025 · ... history the current shrine dates back to mid Safavid period. Its construction began in 1621 CE, under orders of Shah Abbas the Great and was ...
  51. [51]
    Mosque of 'Alī in Najaf, Iraq: Historical Significance - Facebook
    Oct 6, 2024 · The Imam Ali Mosque is considered as one of the holiest sites in Shia Islam. It was built in 977 over the tomb of Ali(as), the cousin of the ...The Sanctuary of Imām 'Alī in Najaf, Iraq - Facebook# **Shah Najaf Imambara, Hazratganj, Lucknow** Shah ... - FacebookMore results from www.facebook.com
  52. [52]
    Over 6 million pilgrims attend Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf - ABNA English
    Mar 25, 2025 · The Custodian of the Holy Shrine of Imam Ali (PBUH) has announced that more than 6.3 million pilgrims arrived in Najaf to visit the shrine ...
  53. [53]
    Iraqi Islamic shrine damaged in attack | News - Al Jazeera
    May 26, 2004 · The Imam Ali shrine in Najaf – a site of great importance to all Muslims in Iraq – has been damaged by rockets or mortars, witnesses have said.
  54. [54]
    Shia shrine damaged in Najaf fighting | CBC News
    May 25, 2004 · One of Islam's most sacred shrines was damaged on Tuesday as U.S. forces clashed with Shia militia in the holy city of Najaf.
  55. [55]
    In Najaf, will rebuilding be enough? - The New York Times
    Feb 18, 2005 · All told, the U.S. military and the Iraqi government budgeted $50 million to rebuild Najaf quickly after the fighting ended in August. Most of ...Missing: conflicts | Show results with:conflicts
  56. [56]
    Reconstruction and revival of the historical porch and dome of the ...
    About 280 years ago, when Nader Shah Afshar visited Najaf, she ordered to gild the dome and two minarets of the shrine that replaced the green Safavid tiles ...Missing: expansions | Show results with:expansions
  57. [57]
    Lives Of The Sahaba 37 - Ali Ibn Abu Talib - PT 08 • Yasir Qadhi
    The Khārijites had made plans for the assassination of Alī, Muʿāwiyah, and ʿAmr ibn al-ʿAṣ. This decision was met with success as Ali RA was struck in the ...
  58. [58]
    Ali ibn Abi Taalib - Biographies of the Salaf
    Caliph Ali is assassinated by the Kharijites. Mar 670. Hasan ibn Ali, is poisoned to death. Oct 680. Husayn ibn Ali, is beheaded by Yazid I's force at the ...
  59. [59]
    Egypt's Dar Al-Ifta | The Kharijites of the past & QSIS o...
    When he reached the Kharijites and asked why they murdered Abdullah, they killed him as well. Ibn Kathir mentioned that after this, the Kharijites wrote to Ali, ...Missing: accomplices Wardan Shabib
  60. [60]
    The Echoes of Fitna: Developing Historiographical Interpretations of ...
    The paper explores the Battle of Siffin, which occurred during the first fitna in Islamic history following the assassination of Caliph ʿUthmān.
  61. [61]
    [PDF] The use of the dialogue and speeches in al-Tabari's account of the ...
    Jun 1, 2012 · Once the fighting had stopped, Mu wiya suggested arbitration. Then there were differences between Alī's men about whether to accept arbitration ...
  62. [62]
    The Battle of Siffin and the Historical Memory of the Umayyad Dynasty
    Aug 7, 2025 · Author Maria Massi Dakake traces the Qurite Imam, Ali b. Abi ... Hugh Kennedy · View · Hierarchy and Egalitarianism in Islamic Thought.
  63. [63]
    Conspiracy Against Imam Ali (as) | A Shi'ite Encyclopedia
    After the death of Prophet (S), for forty days, 'Ali (as) was contacting the well-known people at night, reminding them the instructions of prophet about his ...
  64. [64]
    Martyrdom: Arise and Bear Witness - Al-Islam.org
    For many years, Ali struggles and strives against polytheism within his ranks, a polytheism which has cloaked itself in the dress of Unity (tawhid). He has to ...
  65. [65]
    Muawiyah and the responsibility of the Imam's martyrdom |
    Who killed the Imam? Shias blame Amir Muawiyah for the assassination of Imam (as). Some Shias even say that the Imam was assassinated on the order of Muawiyah.
  66. [66]
    Martyrdom Anniversary of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib (p) 1446 A.H.
    Mar 20, 2025 · Friday, March 21, 2025, is the 21st of the month of Ramadan, 1446 A.H. which marks the martyrdom anniversary of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib (p).
  67. [67]
    Martyrdom anniversary of Imam Ali; Epitome of justice - ABNA English
    Imam Ali (PBUH) was martyred on 21st Ramadan 40 A.H. by an assassin who mortally wounded the Holy Imam with a poisoned sword in the Mosque at Kufa during ...
  68. [68]
    Imam Ali Holy Shrine covered in black ahead of sorrowful martyrdom ...
    Mar 19, 2025 · This solemn display honors the memory of Imam Ali (peace be upon him), who was martyred on the 21st of Ramadan by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam ...<|separator|>
  69. [69]
    Arbitration (Battle of Siffin) - wikishia
    Feb 1, 2025 · The arbitration was proposed as a solution for disputes between the two parties after the cunning of Amr b. al-As and Mu'awiya b. Abi Sufyan to ...
  70. [70]
    Imam 'Ali's Imamate | History of The Caliphs - Al-Islam.org
    Bu while asleep at night, a number of the Kharijites attacked him and killed him running away. Sent by Imam together with fifty of the Tamimites to Basra ...
  71. [71]
    Nahrawan's Battle: Ali ibn Abi Talib's Clash With Kharijites
    Dec 17, 2024 · Overview of the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali ibn Abi Talib vs. the Kharijites, including key theological disputes and Ibn Abbas's debate.Missing: 658 CE