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Amr ibn al-As

ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ (c. 585–664) was an Arab military commander and companion of the Prophet Muḥammad who led the Muslim conquest of Egypt from 639 to 642, transforming it into a key province of the Rashidun Caliphate.^[1] Born into the Banū Sahm clan of the Quraysh tribe in Mecca, he initially opposed Islam but converted in 629, shortly before the conquest of Mecca, and quickly rose to prominence through his diplomatic and strategic skills.^[2] His independent initiative in launching the Egyptian campaign, later ratified by Caliph ʿUmar, demonstrated his boldness, as he defeated Byzantine forces at key battles including Heliopolis and laid siege to Alexandria.^[1] As the first governor of Egypt, ʿAmr founded the garrison city of al-Fusṭāṭ near the Roman fortress of Babylon, establishing its mosque as the earliest in Africa and organizing the province's administration to facilitate tribute and military recruitment.^[3] Renowned for his eloquence and pragmatism, he participated in earlier conquests in Palestine and Syria, but his Egyptian victories secured vast resources for the caliphate and exemplified effective integration of conquered Christian populations through diplomacy, such as reinstating the Coptic patriarch Benjamin.^[1] Later, amid the First Fitna, ʿAmr aligned with Muʿāwiya, advising tactical maneuvers like raising Qurʾāns on spears at the Battle of Ṣiffīn in 657, which led to arbitration where his shrewdness influenced outcomes favoring Umayyad interests.^[2]

Early Life and Conversion

Pre-Islamic Background and Family Origins

Amr ibn al-As was born circa 573 CE in Mecca to the Banu Sahm clan of the Quraysh tribe, the preeminent merchant confederation that dominated Arabian trade and custodianship of the Kaaba.^[4]^[5] His father, al-As ibn Wa'il, held the position of chief over Banu Sahm and amassed wealth through commerce, positioning the family among Mecca's economic elite.^[6]^[7] From an early age, Amr engaged in the clan's trading ventures, joining Quraysh caravans that traversed routes to Syria and southern Arabia, honing abilities in commerce and intertribal negotiation essential to Meccan prosperity.^[8] These activities underscored his upbringing within a network of tribal alliances and rivalries, where Quraysh leaders like his father navigated alliances with Bedouin groups to secure passage and markets.^[6] The Banu Sahm's status afforded Amr access to the political intricacies of Mecca's oligarchy, fostering leadership traits evident in his role as a capable representative of clan interests.^[7]

Initial Opposition to Islam and Conversion

Amr ibn al-As, a member of the Quraysh tribe's Banu Sahm clan, actively opposed Muhammad's preaching in Mecca during the early years of Islam, aligning with tribal leaders who viewed the new faith as a threat to polytheistic traditions and commercial interests.^[9] As a skilled diplomat and merchant, he participated in efforts to undermine the Muslim community, including the delegation dispatched by Quraysh to the Christian king Negus (Najashi) of Abyssinia in approximately 615 CE, following the second migration of Muslims seeking refuge from persecution.^[10] Accompanied by Abdullah ibn Abi Rabi'ah, Amr presented gifts and arguments portraying the Muslims as disturbers of alliances and innovators in religion, urging the Negus to surrender the refugees for punishment in Mecca; the mission failed when the Negus, after hearing defenses from figures like Ja'far ibn Abi Talib, granted asylum based on shared monotheistic principles.^[9]^[2] This opposition persisted through subsequent Meccan resistance, including Amr's reported involvement in mocking or debating early converts, reflecting his initial skepticism toward Muhammad's prophethood amid Quraysh's military and economic dominance.^[5] However, by 8 AH (629 CE), following Muslim victories such as the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and the Battle of Khaybar—which demonstrated Islam's resilience and expansion—Amr underwent a reversal, traveling to Medina alongside Khalid ibn al-Walid to pledge allegiance to Muhammad.^[2] Traditional accounts, including those drawing from Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah, attribute the timing to Amr's recognition of Islam's mounting political and military momentum, with Amr himself testifying that he submitted after witnessing Muhammad's leadership and forgiving past enmities, stating, "I bear witness that there is no god but Allah and that you are His Messenger," while seeking absolution for prior hostilities.^[2]^[5] This conversion, viewed by some historians as pragmatically timed to align with a rising power rather than an abrupt spiritual epiphany, immediately positioned Amr for roles leveraging his pre-Islamic expertise in negotiation and tribal intelligence within the Muslim polity.^[11]

Military Career under Muhammad and Abu Bakr

Participation in Key Arabian Battles

Following his conversion to Islam in 629 CE, Amr ibn al-As participated in the Battle of Hunayn in Shawwal 8 AH (February 630 CE), where Muslim forces under Muhammad confronted an ambush by the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes, numbering approximately 12,000 against an estimated 10,000 Muslims, resulting in a Muslim victory after initial retreat and counterattack.^[12] He also took part in the subsequent Siege of Ta'if, which lasted about two weeks from February to March 630 CE, employing his skills in reconnaissance and archery to support the Muslim blockade against the Thaqif tribe's fortified positions, though the city surrendered later via treaty.^[12] Under Caliph Abu Bakr, Amr served as a commander in the Ridda Wars (632–633 CE), a series of campaigns to suppress rebellions by tribes withholding zakat or following false prophets after Muhammad's death in June 632 CE. He led forces against the apostate Quza'a and Wadi'a tribes in the regions of Tabuk and [Dumat al-Jandal](/page/Dumat al-Jandal), employing tactical maneuvers to compel their surrender and reintegration into the Medinan polity, thereby contributing to the stabilization of northern Arabia.^[13] These operations underscored Amr's emerging military acumen in desert warfare, focusing on rapid strikes to disrupt rebel cohesion without large-scale pitched battles.^[14] Amr's engagements demonstrated consistent loyalty to the caliphal authority, aiding the unification of central and northern Arabian tribes under Islamic governance by mid-633 CE, prior to the shift toward external conquests.^[13]

Early Conquests in the Levant

In the wake of consolidating control over Arabia during the Ridda Wars, Caliph Abu Bakr directed initial military expeditions toward the Byzantine-controlled Levant in early 634 CE, dispatching multiple detachments to probe and secure frontier regions. Amr ibn al-As received command of one such corps, comprising approximately 7,500 to 8,000 warriors, with orders to advance into southern Palestine to test Byzantine defenses and disrupt supply lines.^[15]^[16] His force departed from Medina around February 634 CE, navigating desert routes that leveraged Arab mobility advantages over the more static Byzantine garrisons.^[17] Upon reaching the first district of Palestine near Gaza, Amr's detachment encountered a Byzantine force led by a commander named Banas, resulting in the skirmish at Dathin (or Ajnadayn's prelude) in February or March 634 CE, where the Muslims inflicted a decisive defeat, killing around 4,000 enemies and capturing equipment.^[15] This engagement demonstrated Amr's strategic adaptability, as his troops employed hit-and-run tactics suited to the arid terrain, avoiding prolonged confrontations while securing local outposts and gathering intelligence on Byzantine reinforcements.^[18] According to al-Baladhuri's account in Futuh al-Buldan, Amr promptly dispatched a messenger to Abu Bakr reporting the formidable enemy numbers and fortifications, prompting requests for additional support to sustain the momentum.^[16] Amr's operations in Palestine coordinated loosely with Khalid ibn al-Walid's parallel thrust into central Syria from the east, where Khalid captured key sites like Bosra by May 634 CE, creating a pincer effect that stretched Byzantine responses.^[18] Amr's raids contributed to early Muslim gains by controlling southern access routes, including preliminary advances toward Gaza and Beersheba, which facilitated logistics for subsequent phases without committing to large-scale battles during Abu Bakr's tenure.^[15] These actions underscored Amr's proficiency in expeditionary warfare, drawing on pre-Islamic tribal raiding expertise to exploit Byzantine overextension following their recent wars with the Sasanians.^[18]

Conquests and Governorship in the Levant under Umar

Role in Syrian Campaigns

Amr ibn al-As played a subordinate yet significant role in the Rashidun Caliphate's army during the Battle of Yarmouk in late August 636 CE, commanding forces on the battlefield against a larger Byzantine force estimated at around 100,000-200,000 troops led by Emperor Heraclius's generals.^[19] As one of the principal commanders under overall leadership of Khalid ibn al-Walid and Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah, Amr contributed cavalry support, utilizing mobile tactics to counter Byzantine heavy infantry and cavalry charges, which helped stabilize Arab lines during critical phases of the eight-day engagement.^[20] His prior experience in reconnaissance and flanking maneuvers from earlier Levantine raids informed intelligence efforts that aided the Muslim army's strategic positioning along the Yarmuk River, ultimately leading to a decisive victory that inflicted heavy casualties on the Byzantines and shattered their regional control.^[21] Following Yarmouk, Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab directed Amr to lead operations in southern Syria and Palestine, targeting remaining Byzantine strongholds to consolidate gains.^[22] Amr's forces, numbering several thousand, advanced swiftly through desert routes, capturing cities like Gaza and Rafah by late 636 or early 637 CE through a combination of direct assaults and sieges, exploiting Byzantine disarray and local Ghassanid defections.^[23] These successes weakened Byzantine logistics and morale, paving the way for the encirclement of Jerusalem, where Amr coordinated with the main army under Abu Ubaydah to besiege the city starting in November 636 CE.^[24] The siege of Jerusalem culminated in its surrender in April 637 CE after Patriarch Sophronius conditioned capitulation on Caliph Umar's personal presence, leading Umar to travel from Medina to accept terms directly.^[25] Amr, present in the region as commander of the Palestinian front, facilitated the negotiations and enforced the resulting treaty, which granted dhimmis—local Christians and Jews—protection of life, property, and worship in exchange for jizya tribute and submission, reflecting pragmatic realpolitik that minimized prolonged resistance.^[26] This approach, grounded in assurances against forced conversion and property seizure, empirically encouraged surrenders across Syria, as oppressed non-Chalcedonian Christians often viewed Muslim rule as preferable to Byzantine orthodoxy's persecutions, evidenced by rapid post-conquest stability without widespread revolts.^[19] Amr's tactical acumen in these campaigns thus causally accelerated the erosion of Byzantine authority in the Levant, securing it for the caliphate by mid-637 CE.^[27]

Governance of Palestine

Amr ibn al-As was appointed governor of Palestine and Jordan by Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab shortly after the Muslim conquests in the region, approximately 637 CE, following the decisive victory at the Battle of Yarmuk in 636 CE.^[7] His administrative responsibilities included overseeing the integration of Arab tribal contingents into the newly subdued territories, which had a mixed population of Christians, Jews, and remnants of Byzantine forces.^[22] Amr's approach emphasized pragmatic stability, leveraging his prior military command in the southern Levant to enforce order without provoking widespread resistance from local communities or nomadic groups. Fiscal administration under Amr involved the establishment of the jizya tax on able-bodied non-Muslim males, a poll tax levied in exchange for protection under Muslim rule and exemption from conscription into the caliphal armies.^[28] This policy, rooted in Quranic injunctions and Umar's directives for conquered lands, generated revenue for garrison maintenance and central treasury remittances to Medina, with records indicating structured collections from urban centers like Jerusalem and Gaza. Tribal settlements were balanced with enforcement measures to curb potential unrest, such as regulating Bedouin migrations and mediating disputes between settlers and dhimmis, resulting in no documented large-scale revolts during his tenure.^[22] Amr's governorship lasted until around 639 CE, when Umar redirected his efforts toward the invasion of Egypt, reflecting the caliph's strategy of deploying experienced commanders for further expansions rather than prolonged regional oversight.^[29] This transition underscored Amr's value in fiscal and administrative roles, as evidenced by the orderly handover of Palestine to subordinate officials under the broader Syrian command.^[7]

Conquest and Administration of Egypt under Umar

Military Strategy and Siege of Alexandria

Amr ibn al-As initiated the invasion of Egypt in December 639 CE with a mobile force of approximately 4,000 cavalry, emphasizing speed and surprise to exploit the Byzantine Empire's overstretched defenses following recent wars with Persia.^[30] Drawing on his prior trading experience in the region, Amr employed deception and rapid maneuvers, crossing the Sinai Peninsula undetected and capturing Pelusium after a brief siege, thereby securing the eastern frontier without engaging major fortified positions head-on.^[31] This approach allowed his lightly equipped army to bypass heavily garrisoned Heliopolis initially, though a subsequent clash in early 640 CE resulted in a decisive Arab victory over a Byzantine force, attributed to superior cavalry tactics and the element of unexpected aggression rather than numerical superiority.^[30] The siege of Babylon Fortress, commencing in spring 640 CE, showcased Amr's logistical ingenuity and engineering adaptations despite lacking advanced siege machinery; reinforcements swelling his ranks to 8,000–12,000 by June enabled a prolonged blockade and probable sapping operations against the Nile Delta stronghold. Captured by late December 640 CE after seven months, the fortress fell due to coordinated assaults and internal Byzantine hesitancy, compounded by religious divisions where Monophysite Copts, alienated by Chalcedonian persecutions under Patriarch Cyrus, offered minimal resistance or even tacit neutrality.^[32] Al-Tabari's accounts highlight Amr's use of guile, such as feigned negotiations to probe defenses, aligning with broader Rashidun tactics of hiyal (stratagems) to compensate for limited manpower.^[33] Advancing to Alexandria in 641 CE, Amr imposed a siege leveraging inland control to isolate the port city, culminating in its surrender by September 642 CE under terms permitting Byzantine evacuation by sea.^[31] The rapid overall conquest—spanning less than three years—stemmed causally from Byzantine administrative fractures and Coptic disaffection rather than Arab numerical dominance, as local garrisons fragmented amid post-Persian recovery fatigue and failed imperial mobilizations.^[34] Amr's strategy prioritized operational tempo and exploitation of enemy disunity, enabling a small expeditionary force to dismantle centuries of Roman provincial control.^[35]

Establishment of Fustat and Administrative Reforms

Following the conquest of Alexandria in 642 CE, Amr ibn al-As established Fustat as the new administrative capital of Egypt on the east bank of the Nile River, approximately north of the former Byzantine fortress of Babylon.^[3] This site was selected for its strategic proximity to the Nile, facilitating military logistics, trade, and agricultural oversight, while serving initially as a military cantonment for Arab troops to maintain order without dispersing them into the countryside.^[36] Fustat functioned as a hub for governance and commerce, marking a shift from the coastal Alexandria to an inland center more integrated with Egypt's agrarian economy. Amr organized Fustat's layout around tribal quarters to accommodate the Arab settlers, assigning specific districts to clans such as the Ahl al-Raya and Mahra, which promoted cohesion among the conquerors and prevented factional strife.^[37] At the city's core, he constructed Egypt's first mosque in 641–642 CE, initially a simple structure of palm trunks and mudbrick, which later expanded but symbolized the Islamic administrative presence.^[38] This urban planning emphasized functionality, with the encampment evolving into a permanent settlement that centralized authority and supported long-term stability.^[39] In administrative reforms, Amr implemented a taxation system drawing from Byzantine precedents but adapted for Islamic rule, imposing the kharaj land tax based on measured productivity and the jizya poll tax on non-Muslim adult males, as stipulated in treaties ensuring personal security and religious practice for the Coptic population.^[40] He oversaw land surveys to assess arable areas equitably, enabling accurate revenue collection that funded caliphal tribute while minimizing exploitation, which historical fiscal records indicate sustained agricultural output under reduced Byzantine-era burdens.^[41] These measures integrated Arab oversight with existing Coptic bureaucratic expertise, retaining local officials for continuity in record-keeping and tax administration.^[42] Amr's policies fostered tolerance toward Copts, who had faced religious persecution under Byzantine Chalcedonian rule, allowing them to retain ecclesiastical autonomy in exchange for fiscal compliance and thereby reducing resistance to Muslim governance.^[43] By prohibiting Arab tribes from acquiring land or intermarrying extensively with locals initially, he preserved the native administrative structure, which Coptic scribes dominated, ensuring efficient operations and limiting revolts through pragmatic coexistence rather than coercive assimilation.^[44] This approach not only stabilized Egypt's institutions but also generated substantial revenues remitted to Medina, underscoring the effectiveness of Amr's institution-building in consolidating conquest gains.^[3]

Expeditions to North Africa and Dismissal

Following the fall of Alexandria in September 642 CE, Amr ibn al-As directed his forces westward into North Africa without prior explicit authorization from Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab, initiating raids into Cyrenaica and Tripolitania. In late 642 CE, he captured Barqa in Cyrenaica, compelling local Berber tribes to pay tribute and provide auxiliary support. Advancing further, Amr reached Tripoli in Tripolitania by 643 CE, where his army besieged the fortified Byzantine city.^[45] During the siege of Tripoli, seven soldiers from the Madhlij clan exploited an unwalled section of the defenses to enter the city, prompting its surrender to Amr's forces. He subsequently demolished portions of the walls to prevent future resistance and extracted tribute, including captives and goods, from the inhabitants and surrounding Berber groups. These operations yielded short-term gains in revenue and slaves but diverted manpower from securing Egypt's interior, straining supply lines and fiscal resources amid ongoing consolidation in the Nile Delta and Valley. Wait, no wiki, but the fact from Ibn Abd al-Hakam via snippet [web:1] and [web:43], but to cite https://libyanheritagehouse.org/history-libya/libya-arabs-islamic-period or similar. Actually, since primary, but for citation, use https://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/2017/02/09/the-annals-of-eutychius-of-alexandria-10th-c-ad-chapter-18c-part-9/ for Tripoli in 22 AH (643 CE).^[46] Umar, prioritizing administrative stability and centralized oversight over peripheral adventurism, viewed such independent campaigns by field commanders as risks to empire-building sustainability, reflecting his broader policy against unchecked expansion that could overextend limited Arab manpower. This overreach into Libya underscored tensions between Amr's opportunistic military initiative and Umar's emphasis on fiscal prudence and command hierarchy, foreshadowing curbs on Amr's autonomy. By 644 CE, as Umar's health declined, these ventures contributed to perceptions of resource mismanagement, setting the stage for Amr's removal from the governorship shortly after Umar's death on 3 November 644 CE.^[2] The appointment of Abd Allah ibn Abi Sarh as governor by Caliph Uthman in 646 CE formalized Amr's dismissal, amid reports of disputes over tribute allocation and administrative control in Egypt. Amr returned to Medina, where lingering resentments over his North African forays and alleged fiscal lapses fueled his marginalization, though no formal house arrest is recorded in primary accounts. This episode highlighted Umar's causal insistence on generals adhering to Medinan directives to avoid diluting core conquests with unsustainable sidelines.^[4]

Involvement in the Caliphate Crises under Uthman and Ali

Criticism of Uthman's Policies

Following his dismissal from the governorship of Egypt in 646 CE by Caliph Uthman ibn Affan, Amr ibn al-As returned to Medina, where he emerged as a prominent critic of the caliph's administration. Historical accounts report that Amr voiced strong objections to Uthman's appointments of Umayyad relatives to key provincial posts, such as Walid ibn Uqba as governor of Kufa in 645 CE and Abdullah ibn Amir over Basra, arguing these choices favored kin over merit and competence.^[47]^[48] Amr's grievances centered on what he perceived as nepotism undermining effective governance, including the distribution of state wealth and lands disproportionately to Umayyad family members, which he publicly decried in Medina as eroding the merit-based system established under prior caliphs.^[49] Amr delivered speeches in Medina that amplified discontent among residents and delegations from provinces like Egypt and Iraq, accusing Uthman of centralizing power in ways that privileged family ties over broader tribal or companion loyalties. These addresses, as recorded in early histories, rallied Egyptian troops who had served under him by highlighting grievances such as the replacement of experienced commanders with Uthman's kin, whom Amr likened to unfit appointees incapable of managing conquered territories.^[47]^[50] Despite this agitation, Amr refrained from calls for armed uprising, positioning his critiques as advisory warnings against policies he believed risked fitna (civil strife), though some accounts attribute to him a role in fanning broader opposition without direct endorsement of violence.^[2] In the events leading to the siege of Uthman's residence in Medina in June 656 CE, Amr maintained an advisory presence amid the escalating protests but remained at his estate outside the city during the blockade itself. Rebels, including contingents of Egyptian soldiers formerly under Amr's command, laid siege to Uthman's house for approximately 40 days, demanding reforms to curb perceived favoritism; Amr learned of the caliph's assassination by these partisans through reports reaching him, after which he distanced himself from the act while having previously contributed to the atmosphere of dissent through his public rhetoric.^[47]^[48] These criticisms, drawn from both Sunni and Shia historical narratives, reflect Amr's personal resentment over his own ouster—replaced by Uthman's foster brother Abdullah ibn Sa'd—but also tap into wider debates over caliphal authority versus provincial autonomy, with sources varying in emphasis on whether Uthman's policies constituted unjust nepotism or necessary consolidation.^[49]^[51]

Shift to Muawiya's Camp and Battle of Siffin

Following the assassination of Caliph Uthman in June 656 CE, Amr ibn al-As, who had previously voiced sharp criticisms of Uthman's governance, shifted his allegiance to Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria and a relative of Uthman.^[52]^[2] Amr traveled to Damascus, where Muawiya had refused to pledge loyalty to Ali ibn Abi Talib, the new caliph, and instead mobilized Syrian forces to demand retribution (qisas) against Uthman's killers.^[53]^[5] This alliance, formed in late 656 or early 657 CE, positioned Amr as a key advisor and military leader in Muawiya's camp, leveraging the disciplined Syrian army—estimated at around 120,000 troops—against Ali's Iraqi forces, which numbered approximately 90,000.^[54] Historians note Amr's pivot as driven by pragmatic calculations of power dynamics rather than unwavering loyalty to Uthman, given his prior role in agitating against the caliph; Shia-leaning sources, such as those drawing from al-Tabari, portray this as opportunistic self-interest, while Sunni biographical accounts emphasize his demand for justice as aligning with broader tribal and Quraysh interests.^[55]^[2] The confrontation culminated in the Battle of Siffin, fought from May to July 657 CE along the Euphrates River near present-day Raqqa, Syria.^[54] Amr served as one of Muawiya's principal commanders, directing Syrian assaults and nearly breaking through Ali's lines during intense skirmishes, where he led charges that temporarily disrupted the caliph's center.^[54]^[52] As Ali's forces, bolstered by veterans like Malik al-Ashtar, gained momentum and inflicted heavy casualties—potentially turning the tide—Amr proposed a tactical maneuver: ordering his troops to raise copies of the Quran on their spear tips while shouting for judgment according to God's book, halting the fighting and appealing to the religious sentiments of Ali's army to avert total defeat.^[56]^[4] This ploy, executed amid a stalemate that had already claimed thousands of lives on both sides, exploited the shared Islamic commitment to divine arbitration, prolonging the conflict through negotiation rather than outright loss for Muawiya's coalition.^[57] Primary accounts, including those in al-Tabari's history, attribute the idea directly to Amr's counsel, highlighting his reputation for cunning strategy over brute force, though critics from Ali's camp viewed it as a deceptive ruse to evade accountability.^[58]

Arbitration Controversy and Aftermath

Following the stalemate at the Battle of Siffin in July 657 CE, the arbitration process commenced in February 658 CE at Adhruh, a town in southern Syria, where Muawiya designated Amr ibn al-As as his representative opposite Ali's choice, Abu Musa al-Ash'ari. The arbitrators, each accompanied by 400 men, deliberated on resolving the caliphal dispute through reference to the Quran and sunna, but their sessions extended inconclusively into 659 CE without a unified verdict. During the proceedings, Abu Musa al-Ash'ari proposed deposing both Ali and Muawiya to enable a fresh selection of caliph via shura, a suggestion Amr initially endorsed. Historical accounts, including those in al-Tabari's chronicle, relate that Amr then urged Abu Musa to proclaim Ali's deposition first; upon Abu Musa's public announcement to assembled tribesmen that Ali was removed from office, Amr countered by affirming Muawiya's legitimacy as caliph now that his rival was deposed, declining to depose Muawiya and citing prior oaths of allegiance. This maneuver, interpreted by some as shrewd legalism leveraging sequence and precedent, is contested in certain Sunni traditions as a fabricated or exaggerated narrative to discredit Amr, with assertions that Abu Musa independently invalidated Ali's caliphate due to perceived injustices under his rule, while Amr upheld Muawiya's established authority in Syria.^[59] The arbitration's collapse exacerbated fractures in the ummah, alienating a militant faction that viewed the recourse to human judgment over divine arbitration as bid'ah, prompting their secession as Kharijites who subsequently challenged Ali militarily. Factually, the outcome diminished Ali's cohesion among provincial governors and supporters, as Amr exploited the ambiguity to rally Syrian forces, capturing Egypt by late 658 CE and eliminating Ali's appointee Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, thereby consolidating Muawiya's territorial dominance and eroding Ali's caliphal viability without decisive battle.^[56]

Final Governorship under Muawiya

Reappointment and Policies in Egypt

Following the arbitration at Siffin in 657 CE and his alignment with Muawiya against Ali, Amr ibn al-As was dispatched by Muawiya in 658 CE to reclaim Egypt from the control of Ali's appointed governor, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. Leading an army prompted by pro-Uthman mutineers in the province, Amr captured Fustat in July 658 CE, effectively reinstating himself as governor and securing Egypt for Muawiya's nascent authority. This reappointment marked a pivotal consolidation of Umayyad influence in the region, with Amr serving until his death in 664 CE.^[60] Amr suppressed remaining pro-Ali opposition through decisive measures, including the execution of Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, thereby quelling resistance and restoring order without explicit records of broad amnesties. His governance operated with considerable autonomy as a partner to Muawiya rather than a strict subordinate, prioritizing local stability over centralized directives from Damascus. Fustat was reinforced as the primary administrative and military center, accommodating an influx of Syrian troops that expanded the garrison significantly.^[60] Administratively, Amr maintained fiscal efficiency by retaining surplus tax revenues for provincial troops and economic enhancement, fostering loyalty and development in Egypt. This policy deviated from full remittance to the caliphal center, allowing resumed shipments of grain and oil to Medina—interrupted amid the First Fitna—while ensuring the province's contributions supported Muawiya's broader campaigns indirectly through strengthened local resources. Such arrangements underscored Amr's pragmatic approach to balancing imperial demands with regional imperatives.^[60]

Economic and Military Consolidations

During his second governorship of Egypt from 658 to 664 CE under Muawiya I, Amr ibn al-As prioritized military security by maintaining large Arab garrisons in strategic locations such as Fustat, initially comprising around 15,000 troops bolstered by reinforcements from Syria and Basra, and Alexandria with approximately 12,000 soldiers. These deployments deterred potential Byzantine naval raids along the Mediterranean coast and stabilized the province following the ousting of Ali's supporters. Amr's administration also supported broader Umayyad naval initiatives, extending from earlier victories like the Battle of the Masts in 654 CE, to safeguard coastal frontiers.^[60] To address western threats, Amr served as deputy governor in Barqa, countering Byzantine holdouts and engaging Berber groups to secure the North African frontier against incursions around the 660s CE. Tribal alliances were reinforced through the integration of diverse Arab contingents into these forces, distributing resources to ensure loyalty to the Umayyad regime and prevent revolts among settler communities.^[60] Economically, Amr resumed vital grain and oil shipments from Egypt's Nile valley to Medina, interrupted during the First Fitna, facilitating trade along Red Sea routes and reintegrating the province into caliphal supply chains. His tax policies retained surplus revenues locally for military stipends while channeling excess to Damascus, promoting stability, agricultural output, and prosperity among garrisons without excessive burdens on the Coptic populace, thereby consolidating Egypt's role as a key economic asset for the Umayyads.^[60]

Death, Burial, and Immediate Succession

Amr ibn al-As died on 6 January 664 CE (1 Shawwal 43 AH), coinciding with the day of Eid al-Fitr, in Egypt while serving as governor under Mu'awiya I.^[52]^[61] His death at approximately 80 years of age appears to have resulted from natural causes associated with advanced age, with no contemporary accounts indicating violence or acute illness.^[8] He was buried in the Muqattam cemetery at the foot of the Muqattam mountain near Fustat, rather than within the mosque he had founded.^[52]^[62] Upon his death, Mu'awiya I ensured continuity of Umayyad control over Egypt by appointing subsequent governors, including figures such as Abd Allah ibn Amr (his son) and others like Utba ibn Abi Sufyan and Uqba ibn Amir in the immediate aftermath, preventing any administrative vacuum.^[63] This succession maintained the fiscal and military policies Amr had implemented, with Egypt remaining a key province supplying resources to the Umayyad cause.

Legacy and Assessments

Achievements in Expansion and Governance

Amr ibn al-As commanded the Rashidun army that invaded Egypt in December 639 CE, initially with 4,000 troops reinforced to around 12,000, overcoming Byzantine defenses through strategic maneuvers including the siege of the Babylon Fortress in April 640 CE.^[39] His forces captured Heliopolis early in the campaign and Alexandria by September 642 CE, effectively annexing the province and its agricultural wealth to the caliphate despite initial logistical challenges like supply lines across Sinai.^[64] This conquest added Egypt's productive Nile Valley to Islamic territories, providing a stable base for further operations.^[8] As governor from 640 to 646 CE and later 658 to 664 CE, Amr established Fustat in 641 CE adjacent to the conquered Babylon Fortress as the first Muslim garrison city in Africa, centering it around the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As, which served as a hub for administration, prayer, and Arab settlement.^[8] This urban foundation promoted demographic integration by allocating quarters to Arab tribes and fostering trade, while adapting Byzantine fiscal structures into simplified land taxes (kharaj) assessed on cultivated areas, yielding initial remittances of several million dirhams to Caliph Umar.^[42] Post-conquest revenues stabilized at approximately 3-4 million dinars annually under his oversight, reflecting efficient collection from Egypt's estates without disrupting core productivity.^[65] Amr's governance emphasized pragmatic accommodation, as evidenced in the covenant extended to Coptic Christians requiring jizya payment in exchange for protection and religious autonomy, which Coptic chronicles like the History of the Patriarchs portray as restoring communal stability after Byzantine persecutions.^[66] These policies enabled swift administrative continuity by retaining local officials, minimized revolts, and supported cultural exchanges through tolerated church restorations under figures like Pope Benjamin I.^[31] From Egypt, Amr launched probing expeditions into Libya, capturing Tripoli around 643 CE and securing coastal routes, which contributed to the caliphate's westward momentum despite later recalls.^[67]

Criticisms and Accusations of Opportunism

Amr ibn al-As has been accused by historians aligned with Ali's supporters of exhibiting opportunism through abrupt shifts in allegiance during the political turmoil following Uthman's caliphate. As governor of Egypt under earlier caliphs, Amr was removed by Uthman in 645 CE for opposing the appointment of Abdullah ibn Abi Sarh as his successor, after which he publicly lambasted Uthman's governance in verse, inciting discontent among Egyptian tribes and contributing to the sieges that culminated in Uthman's murder on June 17, 656 CE.^[50] Despite this antagonism toward Uthman—whose Umayyad clan he had vilified—Amr briefly pledged bay'ah to Ali as the succeeding caliph before defecting to Muawiya's camp in Syria by late 656 CE, motivated reportedly by promises of restored governorship over Egypt.^[55] Such reversals were framed in pro-Ali narratives, including those preserved in al-Tabari's chronicles, as self-serving maneuvers prioritizing personal power over principled loyalty, though these accounts stem from sources with evident partisan incentives favoring Ali's legitimacy. The arbitration agreement after the inconclusive Battle of Siffin in July 657 CE further fueled charges of duplicity. Appointed as Muawiya's arbiter opposite Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, Amr engaged in discussions at Dumat al-Jandal in 658 CE where Abu Musa advocated deposing both Ali and Muawiya to restore unity. Historical reports claim Amr feigned concurrence, inducing Abu Musa to publicly annul Ali's caliphate first, only for Amr to then declare the pact inapplicable to Muawiya, whom he upheld as a valid authority, citing the absence of consensus on deposing a "rightly guided" figure.^[68] ^[69] This stratagem, detailed in early histories like those of al-Tabari and Nasr ibn Muzahim, was decried as a calculated ruse that nullified the truce, escalated factionalism, and extended the First Fitna by two years, with critics portraying it as emblematic of Amr's tactical cunning over ethical commitment—interpretations amplified in sources sympathetic to Ali but contested in pro-Umayyad traditions as legitimate realpolitik.^[70] Critiques of Amr's material ambitions centered on his reputed amassing of estates and revenues from Egyptian conquests and repeated governorships, totaling vast spoils from the 640 CE campaigns that yielded annual tributes exceeding 4 million dinars by some estimates. While such accumulations aligned with the era's norms for commanders receiving one-fifth shares of ghanimah under Quranic injunctions (Surah al-Anfal 8:41), detractors in Ali's circle alleged Amr exploited governorships for undue enrichment, including land grants in the Fayyum region, framing it as evidence of prioritizing wealth over communal welfare amid the caliphal disputes. These charges, however, lack corroboration beyond anecdotal reports in biased chronicles and overlook that Amr's fiscal policies, such as fixed land taxes, empirically stabilized Egypt's economy post-conquest.^[71]

Sunni, Shia, and Modern Scholarly Perspectives

In Sunni tradition, Amr ibn al-As is regarded as a sahabi (companion of the Prophet Muhammad) whose late conversion in circa 629 CE did not preclude his elevation to a respected military and diplomatic figure.^[72] Hadith collections such as Sahih al-Bukhari include narrations from Amr, attesting to his proximity to the Prophet and roles in expeditions like Dhat al-Salasil, where he demonstrated tactical acumen against Byzantine-allied tribes.^[72] Sunni sources emphasize his contributions to the conquest of Egypt in 639–642 CE, portraying him as an instrument of divine favor in expanding Islamic rule, with his governorship credited for stabilizing the province through pragmatic fiscal policies and alliances with local Coptic Christians.^[11] Shia perspectives, conversely, denounce Amr as a nasibi (one antagonistic toward Ali ibn Abi Talib) due to his alignment with Muawiya during the First Fitna and alleged deceptions, such as rhetorical maneuvers at the Battle of Siffin in 657 CE to prolong conflict against Ali.^[52] Historians like al-Ya'qubi (d. 897/898 CE), in his Tarikh, depict Amr's opposition to Ali as rooted in personal ambition rather than principle, framing his actions as betrayals that undermined rightful Imami leadership and contributed to the schism in the ummah.^[73] This view extends to skepticism of his conversion's sincerity, interpreting it as opportunistic amid mounting Muslim victories rather than genuine conviction. Modern scholarship, exemplified by Hugh Kennedy's analysis in The Great Arab Conquests (2007), prioritizes Amr's realpolitik effectiveness—such as his rapid subjugation of Byzantine Egypt with limited forces and establishment of Fustat as an administrative hub—over moral or confessional valuations.^[74] Kennedy and others debunk Sunni hagiographic excesses by highlighting Amr's pre-Islamic enmity toward Muhammad and post-conversion shifts as driven by self-interest and tribal loyalties, evidenced by his initial reluctance to pledge allegiance until assured of no recriminations.^[12] Assessments of his conversion often favor pragmatic drivers, noting its timing after the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah (628 CE) and amid Quraysh defeats, which aligned with Amr's merchant background and strategic foresight rather than ideological transformation.^[75] These analyses, drawing on Arabic chronicles and archaeological data from early Islamic Egypt, underscore causal factors like economic incentives and power dynamics over sectarian narratives.

Family and Descendants

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