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Atargatis

Atargatis, known to the Greeks and Romans as the Syrian Goddess or Dea Syria, was a major fertility and mother goddess of ancient northern Syria, whose central cult site was the grand temple at Hierapolis (modern Manbij) on the Euphrates River. Her worship, vividly described by the 2nd-century CE satirist Lucian in his treatise De Dea Syria, centered on themes of creation, abundance, and divine kingship, with the goddess equated to the Assyrian counterpart of Hera.^[1] The name Atargatis derives from the Aramaic ʿAtar-ʿAta, reflecting her roots in Bronze Age Near Eastern traditions and possible connections to earlier deities like the Canaanite Astarte, blending astral (ʿAtar, meaning "morning star") and maternal (ʿAta, "lady" or "ancestor") elements.^[2] Primarily revered as the baalat (mistress) of her city and people, she embodied fertility, protection, and the earth's bounty, often paired with her consort Hadad (the storm god) in reliefs and inscriptions.^[3] Iconographically, Atargatis was typically portrayed as an enthroned queen wearing a cylindrical headdress or turreted crown symbolizing fortification and sovereignty, holding a scepter in one hand and a distaff (spindle) in the other to signify her dominion over fate and weaving, frequently flanked by lions denoting power and sometimes accompanied by a cult ensign (semeion).^[3] At her primary sanctuary in Hierapolis, the temple complex—enclosed by massive walls and featuring colossal phalli erected in honor of Dionysus, whom myth held founded the site—included a golden statue of the goddess adorned with gems, supported by tritonesses, and sacred doves that were fed by priests.^[1] Her cult practices were distinctive and ecstatic, involving annual festivals with phallic processions, tree sacrifices, and ritual mourning for her consort's death, akin to Adonis cults; male priests called Galli underwent voluntary castration, dressed in women's attire, and performed frenzied dances, while female participants engaged in sacred prostitution to ensure communal fertility.^[1] Myths surrounding Atargatis included a deluge narrative blending local and Greek traditions, in which Deucalion survived the flood in an ark and founded her temple at Hierapolis.^[4] She was sometimes identified with Derketo, a half-woman, half-fish form in Greek accounts born from a myth where the goddess, ashamed of an illicit love, immersed herself in a lake and transformed, rendering fish sacred and prohibiting their consumption in her temples, though her worship at Ascalon lacks direct evidence. The cult of Atargatis spread widely under Hellenistic and Roman influence, evidenced by coins, inscriptions, and terracottas from sites like Palmyra, Edessa, and the Decapolis, where she was syncretized with Cybele, Aphrodite, Artemis, and local goddesses such as Allat.^[5]^[6] Roman legions and merchants carried her worship to Gaul, Britain, and the Rhine frontier, while emigrants established shrines on Delos and in Italy, attesting to her enduring appeal among diverse populations from the 3rd century BCE through late antiquity.

Etymology and Origins

Name and Linguistic Evolution

The Aramaic name of the goddess Atargatis is attested as ʿtrʿth (or ˀtrˁth), an early form appearing on coins from Hierapolis-Bambyke (modern Manbij, Syria) dating to the fourth century BCE, reflecting her core Semitic identity.^[7] This compound likely derives from ʿAttar, a variant of the Semitic goddess ʿAṯtart (Astarte), evoking fertility motifs, combined with ʿAttā, the Aramaic rendering of ʿAnat, which incorporates protective attributes in the Syrian pantheon. The form ʿAttarʿattā further emphasizes this dual structure, where the repetitive elements underscore her role as a multifaceted deity blending generative and safeguarding qualities. Scholarly debate persists on whether this etymology reflects a direct Astarte-Anat compound or broader astral-maternal roots, such as ʿAtar denoting the morning star (Venus).^[8] In Greek sources, the name underwent phonetic adaptation to Atargatis (Ἀταργάτις), with the Semitic gutturals shifting to gamma and tau sounds for ease in Hellenic pronunciation, as seen in texts from the Hellenistic period. Alternative transliterations include Derketo (Δερκετώ), derived from an apocopated Aramaic Tarʿatta, a shortened version of ʿAttarʿattā, highlighting regional dialectical variations in northern Syria. Romans referred to her descriptively as Dea Syria ("Syrian Goddess"), a title emphasizing her foreign origins while integrating her into broader imperial religious discourse, as detailed in Lucian's second-century CE account. Scholars trace possible Semitic roots to Bronze Age deities, including linguistic derivations from ʾAṯirat (Asherah), the Ugaritic "mother of the gods" and "Lady of the Sea," whose epithets parallel Atargatis' aquatic and maternal aspects. Elements from ʿAnat, a warrior figure with protective connotations, also contribute to the name's evolution, suggesting syncretism across Canaanite and Levantine traditions.^[9] Regional variants reflect local linguistic adaptations: in Phoenician contexts, the name aligns with ʿAthtart, a direct cognate of Astarte emphasizing fertility cults along the coast. Palmyrene Aramaic inscriptions preserve forms like ʿtrʿth, integrating her into oasis-based worship with theophoric elements.^[7] In Nabataean territories, such as Petra and Khirbet et-Tannur, Atargatis shows cultic associations through effigies and syncretism with local deities, underscoring her spread through trade routes in arid zones, though direct name attestations are limited.^[6]^[7]

Historical and Cultural Roots

Atargatis, as a composite deity in northern Syrian religious traditions, drew heavily from earlier Near Eastern goddesses, particularly the Bronze Age figures ʿAnat and ʿAṯtart, with additional influences from the Mesopotamian Ishtar. These connections are evident in Ugaritic texts from the Late Bronze Age (c. 1400–1200 BCE), where ʿAnat appears as a fierce warrior goddess associated with protection and fertility, often depicted in mythic narratives as a defender of divine order, while ʿAṯtart embodies aspects of love, war, and fecundity, mirroring Ishtar's multifaceted role in Akkadian literature.^[10]^[11] The syncretic blending of these attributes in Atargatis highlights her evolution as a protective maternal figure overseeing agricultural prosperity and communal welfare within fertility cults centered in northern Syria.^[12] Archaeological evidence from early urban centers supports the proto-forms of her worship. At Ebla (c. 2500–2300 BCE), cuneiform texts and artifacts, including dove motifs linked to fertility rites, attest to the veneration of Ishtar as a central goddess, whose cult practices prefigure the maternal and protective elements later attributed to Atargatis.^[13] Similarly, texts from Mari (c. 1800 BCE) reference Ḫanat, an early form of ʿAnat, in rituals emphasizing her role in safeguarding the kingdom and ensuring bountiful harvests, indicating widespread Syrian goddess worship that contributed to Atargatis' foundational iconography.^[10] During the Iron Age (c. 1200–500 BCE) in the Levant, Atargatis' cult synthesized diverse influences from Mesopotamian elements transmitted through trade and migration, fostering her prominence in northern Syrian fertility practices.^[12] This cultural convergence, documented in regional inscriptions and temple remains, underscored her dual role as a nurturing earth mother and guardian against adversity, embedding her deeply in the socio-religious fabric of the region.

Historical Development

Bronze Age and Early Influences

The precursors to Atargatis in Late Bronze Age Syrian religion are evident in the worship of goddesses such as Astarte (ʽAthtart) and Anat, who served as consorts to storm gods like Hadad (Baal), as documented in ritual texts from Ugarit (Ras Shamra) and the nearby site of Emar. At Emar, cuneiform tablets describe a sacred marriage rite pairing the goddess ʽAshtart with the storm god IŠKUR (a local form of Hadad), emphasizing fertility and cosmic order through offerings and processions.^[14] Similarly, Ugaritic texts like KTU 1.114 and RIH 98/02 invoke Astarte alongside Anat in contexts linked to Baal-Hadad's cult, portraying them as protective partners in battles against chaos.^[14] These figures initially appeared as independent warrior-fertility deities in Canaanite traditions, with Anat embodying violent protection and Astarte focusing on sensual abundance, but by the late second millennium BCE, they began transitioning toward a synthesized maternal role, absorbing nurturing attributes from Asherah (Athirat), the consort of El and "mother of the gods" in Ugaritic mythology. This evolution is reflected in Ugaritic texts showing suckling imagery signaling a shift from combative independence to a holistic maternal archetype that would characterize Atargatis.^[14] Hurrian influences, via deities like Shaushga (a counterpart to Mesopotamian Ishtar), further contributed to this synthesis, introducing eastern motifs of divine queenship into Syrian pantheons at sites like Ugarit.^[14] Shared symbols from these Bronze Age traditions, including lions as emblems of ferocity and royal authority (prominent in Astarte's depictions) and doves as markers of affection and prophetic inspiration (tied to Anat and Astarte), prefigure Atargatis' iconography and underscore the blending of Canaanite and Hurrian elements.^[14] Archaeological evidence includes cylinder seals from Syrian and Levantine sites, such as those showing winged or bird-associated female figures flanked by lions, and rare motifs of aquatic or fish-tailed forms that hint at emerging fertility symbolism linked to sea and river cults.^[14] These artifacts, often from elite contexts at Ugarit and Emar, illustrate the goddesses' multifaceted roles in ensuring agricultural prosperity and martial victory.^[14]

Classical and Hellenistic Periods

During the Classical period, the worship of Atargatis, often syncretized with Greek Aphrodite and local Semitic deities, centered primarily on key sites in northern Syria and the Levant, reflecting her role as a fertility and protective goddess. Hierapolis Bambyce (modern Manbij) emerged as a major cult center by the 5th century BCE, featuring a grand temple complex that drew pilgrims from across the region, with rituals emphasizing her dominion over water and abundance.^[4] Similarly, Ashkelon served as an important coastal hub for her veneration from the 5th century BCE onward, where she was honored as Derceto, the city's patroness, in a sanctuary linked to maritime prosperity. These sites facilitated the goddess's integration into broader Near Eastern religious networks during the Achaemenid and early Hellenistic eras. Greek historians provided early ethnographic accounts of Atargatis's iconography and rituals, highlighting her distinctive forms. Herodotus, in the 5th century BCE, described a prominent temple to Ourania (identified as Aphrodite, equated with Atargatis/Derceto) at Ashkelon, noting its sanctity and the curse afflicting Scythian raiders who plundered it, underscoring the site's enduring religious prestige.^[15] Diodorus Siculus, drawing on earlier sources like Ctesias in the 5th century BCE, detailed her mermaid-like representation at Ashkelon, portraying Derceto as a woman who transformed into a fish after death, with sacred fish revered in temple pools as embodiments of her aquatic essence. These descriptions, preserved in Hellenistic compilations, emphasized the taboo against eating fish in her cult, symbolizing purity and fertility ties to water sources.^[16] In the Hellenistic period (ca. 323–64 BCE), Seleucid rulers actively patronized Atargatis's cult to legitimize their dynasty in Syria, blending it with royal ideology. Queen Stratonice, wife of Antiochus I, is credited with enhancing the Hierapolis sanctuary, including expansions that aligned it with Greek architectural styles while preserving local rites, thereby linking the goddess to Seleucid fertility and protection motifs.^[4] Coins minted under kings like Demetrius III (r. 96–87 BCE) at Damascus depicted Atargatis enthroned, signaling royal endorsement and cultural syncretism to appeal to indigenous populations.^[17] Such numismatic representations, often paired with Greek legends, reinforced dynastic claims by associating the rulers with the goddess's protective powers over Syrian lands. The cult's expansion during this era owed much to Phoenician merchants, who disseminated Atargatis worship along Mediterranean trade routes to coastal cities like Delos and Cyprus during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. Inscriptions and votive offerings at Delos attest to Phoenician traders establishing shrines for Atargatis as a guardian of commerce and seafaring, adapting her rituals to multicultural ports while maintaining core elements like fish taboos.^[18] This mercantile diffusion integrated her into Hellenistic diaspora communities, fostering hybrid practices that extended her influence beyond core Levantine centers by the 1st century BCE.

Iconography

Numismatic Representations

One of the earliest numismatic depictions of Atargatis appears on silver tetradrachms minted during the reign of Seleucid king Demetrius III (96–87 BCE) at the Damascus mint. These coins show her on the reverse as a half-fish, half-woman figure, veiled and wearing a mural crown, holding an egg in one hand and flanked by ears of barley, underscoring her attributes as a fertility and aquatic deity.^[19] This iconography draws from her mythological origins and served as a tool for the ruler to align with local Syrian religious traditions, legitimizing his authority in the region amid civil strife.^[20] In the 1st century BCE to 1st century CE, coins issued at Hierapolis (Bambyce) in northern Syria frequently portrayed Atargatis enthroned or seated, often with a turreted headdress signifying her civic protection role, holding a scepter, and accompanied by lions symbolizing power and fertility.^[3] Silver tridrachms and didrachms from Trajan's reign (AD 98–99), for instance, feature her half-length bust with a cylindrical headdress, scepter, and distaff, while later bronze civic issues under Commodus (AD 180–192) and Severus Alexander (AD 222–235) depict her riding a lion or flanked by sphinxes, reflecting the prominence of her cult at this major sanctuary site.^[3] These representations blended indigenous Syrian elements with Roman imperial motifs, functioning as civic propaganda to assert local identity within the empire.^[21] Nabataean and Palmyrene coinage from the 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE incorporated variants emphasizing Atargatis's fertility aspects through symbols rather than direct portraits, such as ears of corn, fish, or cornucopias, often in association with syncretized figures like Tyche or Allat.^[22] In Palmyra, bronze coins from the 2nd–3rd centuries AD frequently show her turreted bust with crescent and star, or riding a lion, highlighting doves and fish as sacred emblems of love and aquatic life.^[23] These motifs promoted the goddess's protective role, using her imagery to bolster Palmyrene autonomy and cultural ties to broader Syrian traditions during Roman provincial rule.^[21] Overall, such numismatic choices by Syrian rulers and civic authorities functioned as ideological tools, propagating Atargatis's cult to foster loyalty and regional cohesion.^[20]

Sculptural and Relief Depictions

Sculptural and relief depictions of Atargatis, the Syrian fertility goddess, reveal a blend of local and Hellenistic artistic traditions, often portraying her in monumental forms that emphasize her role in abundance and protection. One prominent example is a third-century CE limestone relief from the Temple of Atargatis at Dura-Europos, Syria, where she is shown seated alongside her consort Hadad, holding a sheaf of grain as a symbol of fertility, with doves flanking the composition to evoke her associations with love and renewal.^[24] This low-relief panel, measuring approximately 41 cm in height, exemplifies Parthian-influenced provincial Roman art, characterized by stylized drapery and frontal poses that convey divine authority.^[25] At the Nabataean temple of Khirbet et-Tannûr in Jordan, dated to the first century CE, Atargatis appears in high-relief and round sculptures carved from limestone, depicting her as a mature goddess seated on a throne, often flanked by lion motifs that underscore her protective and regal aspects.^[26] These works, excavated in 1937–1938, feature her with elaborate headdress and flowing robes in an Oriental Syrian style, integrating local Nabataean carving techniques with Hellenistic proportions for a dynamic sense of volume and depth.^[27] The throne's lion elements, including carved lion heads used as waterspouts, highlight her connection to wild power and fertility, with the sculptures originally positioned in the temple's upper story for ritual viewing.^[28] In Ashkelon, Hellenistic-period depictions of Atargatis, known locally as Derketo, emphasize her mermaid-like form with a fish tail, reflecting Greco-Roman influences on earlier Levantine iconography, though surviving statues are fragmentary and primarily in limestone or basalt.^[29] Archaeological evidence from the site includes temple remains from the Persian and Hellenistic eras, where her hybrid aquatic imagery symbolized life's generative waters, with material analyses indicating local limestone for durability in coastal environments and imported basalt for select cult images.^[30] Across Syrian sites, Atargatis' sculptural representations vary in posture and attributes to adapt to regional contexts, with seated forms dominating temple reliefs for stability and enthroned majesty, while standing figures appear in smaller votive bronzes or panels to convey approachability.^[31] Common attributes include the spindle, symbolizing weaving and domestic fertility, and the pomegranate, representing abundance and seasonal cycles, as seen in Dura-Europos and Palmyrene carvings where she holds these items in her left hand.^[32] These variations, often in limestone for accessibility, illustrate her syncretic evolution, blending indigenous Syrian motifs with Hellenistic realism without altering her core symbolic profile.^[33]

Mythology

Core Legends and Narratives

One of the primary legends surrounding Atargatis, known to the Greeks as Derceto, originates from the account provided by the historian Diodorus Siculus in his Library of History. In this narrative, set near the city of Ascalon in Syria, Derceto, a goddess, falls under the influence of Aphrodite and develops a passionate attachment to a handsome young votary named Simios. Consumed by her desire, she consorts with him and gives birth to a daughter, but overwhelmed by shame, she murders the youth, abandons the infant in a desolate rocky area, and drowns herself in a nearby lake teeming with fish. Upon her death, her body transforms into that of a fish from the waist down, while retaining a woman's head, explaining the Syrians' veneration of fish as sacred and their prohibition against consuming them.^[34] This tale of transformation and maternal ordeal is closely linked to the birth of Semiramis, the legendary Assyrian queen, who serves as a bridge between divine and human realms in ancient Near Eastern mythology. According to fragments of Ctesias of Cnidus' Persica, preserved through later authors like Diodorus, the exposed infant Semiramis is miraculously sustained by a flock of doves that nest nearby; these birds shield her with their wings for warmth and deliver milk drop by drop into her mouth until she is discovered by shepherds. This divine intervention underscores Semiramis' destined rise to power, as she grows to marry an Assyrian general, aids in conquests, and eventually rules as queen, founding cities like Babylon and embodying Assyrian royal myths of heroic ascent and imperial expansion.^[35] Lucian of Samosata offers another key narrative in his De Dea Syria, describing Atargatis as the central deity worshipped at the temple in Hierapolis (modern Manbij), where her cult emphasizes her hybrid form and connection to water. Lucian recounts witnessing in Phoenicia a statue of Derceto—Atargatis' Greek name—depicted as half-woman and half-fish, a form symbolizing her dominion over fertility and aquatic life. At Hierapolis, the goddess is portrayed fully as a woman, but the temple features a vast lake stocked with sacred fish of various species, some reaching enormous sizes and responding to calls by name; these fish are tended by priests and revered as embodiments of the goddess's life-giving essence, with the lake's depths exceeding 200 fathoms and an altar at its center for offerings.^[36] Variants of these legends appear in Philistine and Phoenician traditions, particularly tied to water-based ordeals and fertility themes, reflecting Atargatis' role in local cults around Ashkelon and coastal regions. In Philistine lore associated with Ashkelon—Derceto's purported drowning site—the goddess's submersion and transformation into a fish-like being represents a fertility ordeal, where her union with water ensures the renewal of land and life, mirroring rituals of immersion for purification and abundance in Semitic water cults. Phoenician accounts, as echoed in Lucian's observations, emphasize her mermaid iconography in maritime settings, where her trials of love and shame culminate in a watery rebirth, symbolizing the cyclical fertility of sea and earth without direct transformation but through sacred fish guardians.^[34]^[36]

Interpretations and Symbolic Analysis

The fish-tailed form of Atargatis, often depicted in ancient Syrian iconography, symbolizes fertility and the generative powers of water, embodying the life-sustaining cycles of renewal, birth, and abundance associated with aquatic environments.^[37] This motif draws from Near Eastern beliefs where fish represent the primordial source of life emerging from chaotic waters, as evidenced in cult practices prohibiting the consumption of fish to honor her sacred domain. Furthermore, her piscine lower body evokes chthonic powers, linking the underworld's regenerative forces to earthly fertility and the eternal water cycles that govern agricultural prosperity in arid regions.^[37] Scholars connect this symbolism to the Pisces constellation, interpreting it as a celestial placement of her fish emblem, requested by Atargatis herself in legend to commemorate her origins from an egg delivered by a fish and hatched by a dove.^[38] Contrasting with these aquatic themes, Atargatis' associations with doves and lions highlight dual aspects of her divine persona. Doves, sacred to her cult as described in ancient accounts, serve as emblems of love and the soul's ethereal journey, evoking the nurturing, romantic dimensions of the goddess while symbolizing spiritual elevation and divine inspiration.^[39] In opposition, lion motifs flanking her throne or accompanying her in reliefs denote protection, royal authority, and fierce guardianship, reflecting Mesopotamian traditions where the lion embodied kingship and warded off chaos to safeguard communal order and fertility rites.^[40] This juxtaposition of gentle doves and majestic lions underscores Atargatis' balanced role as both benevolent life-giver and formidable protector in Syrian religious narratives.^[41] Scholarly debates surrounding the Semiramis myth, in which Atargatis bears a daughter who ascends to queenship, center on whether it euhemerizes historical events—potentially drawing from the Assyrian regent Sammu-ramat's reign—or constitutes pure legendary fabrication to exalt divine lineage.^[42] Ctesias' accounts, critiqued for blending fact and myth, portray Semiramis as a transformative ruler who embodies ambition and conquest, prompting analyses of gender roles that highlight ancient Near Eastern tensions between matriarchal ideals and patriarchal constraints.^[43] These interpretations emphasize how the narrative empowers female agency, portraying Semiramis' rise from divine offspring to sovereign as a symbolic challenge to conventional gender hierarchies in Semitic societies.^[44] Anthropological and psychological readings of Atargatis' mermaid form situate it within Near Eastern contexts as a liminal figure bridging human emotion and cosmic forces, often interpreted as a manifestation of shame-induced transformation that explores themes of guilt, redemption, and the subconscious integration of feminine divinity with natural elements.^[45] This hybrid imagery reflects broader cultural anxieties about boundaries between the terrestrial and aquatic realms, symbolizing emotional depths and the cyclical turmoil of love and loss in ancient psyches.^[46] Such analyses draw parallels to fertility cults where the mermaid archetype facilitates rituals of purification and rebirth, underscoring Atargatis' role in mediating personal and communal psychological transitions.^[22]

Syncretism with Greco-Roman Deities

Atargatis, the principal goddess of northern Syria, underwent significant syncretism with Greco-Roman deities through the process of interpretatio graeca, whereby foreign divinities were equated with familiar Greek and Roman figures based on overlapping attributes such as fertility, love, and protection. In Hellenistic texts, she was frequently identified as the "Syrian Venus" or Aphrodite due to shared characteristics of love, beauty, and fertility, reflecting cultural exchanges in the eastern Mediterranean during the Ptolemaic and Seleucid periods.^[47] This identification is evident in literary sources like Herodian's History, where Atargatis is described as a counterpart to Venus, emphasizing her role in amorous and generative aspects akin to the Greek love goddess.^[48] Under the Roman Empire, particularly in the 2nd century CE, Atargatis' syncretism deepened, fusing her with multiple goddesses to accommodate diverse provincial cults. Lucian of Samosata, in his De Dea Syria (ca. 2nd century CE), portrays the goddess at Hierapolis as exhibiting a composite form that incorporates elements of Hera as the divine consort and queen of the gods, alongside Aphrodite's sensuality, Artemis' hunting and wild aspects, and others like Athena, Selene, Rhea, Nemesis, and the Fates.^[48] This multiform depiction illustrates interpretatio graeca's flexibility, allowing Atargatis to embody Hera's matrimonial sovereignty in contexts where she was paired with her consort Hadad (equated with Zeus or Jupiter), while her martial and virginal traits aligned with Artemis in rural or frontier worship.^[47] Such fusions facilitated the integration of Syrian cults into Roman religious practices, as seen in provincial adaptations where local devotees honored her hybrid identity to bridge cultural divides. Archaeological evidence from inscriptions and dedications underscores this syncretism, particularly in diaspora communities. On the island of Delos, a major Hellenistic trade hub, numerous 2nd-century BCE inscriptions by Syrian merchants and slaves dedicate offerings to Atargatis alongside Aphrodite, blending the goddesses in hybrid worship that highlights shared fertility motifs; for instance, one inscription invokes her as a protective figure akin to the Greek love deity.^[49] In Rome, Latin inscriptions from the 2nd century CE, such as those at Heliopolis and in the Trastevere district, explicitly translate Atargatis as Venus within the Syrian triad (with Hadad as Jupiter and Simios as Mercury), demonstrating Roman imperial efforts to assimilate eastern deities into the pantheon through astrological and civic cults.^[47] These epigraphic records reveal how interpretatio graeca evolved under Roman rule, promoting Atargatis' worship as a culturally adaptive figure in the 2nd century CE.

Cult Practices

Temples and Sacred Sites

The primary center of Atargatis' cult was the grand temple at Hierapolis Bambyce (modern Manbij, Syria), described in detail by the second-century CE writer Lucian of Samosata as a magnificent structure in Ionian style, featuring a vast enclosure over 600 feet long and 200 feet wide, surrounded by double walls, with a northern entrance flanked by massive phalli 30 fathoms high erected in honor of Dionysus. The temple complex included a sacred lake of immense depth exceeding 200 fathoms, teeming with holy fish that were never to be harmed or eaten, some adorned with gold rings, and an altar in its center for offerings; this lake was integral to the site's rituals, with water from a chasm beneath the temple flowing into it biannually. Processional gates led to the inner sanctuary via wooden steps, housing gilded statues of Atargatis (as Hera) enthroned on lions and her consort (as Zeus) on bulls, alongside votive offerings and a golden image topped by a dove, reflecting Hellenistic architectural influences such as columned halls and ornate doorways. In Ashkelon, a Philistine coastal city, Atargatis—known locally as Derketo—was venerated in what Herodotus described as the world's oldest temple to the Heavenly Aphrodite, a site plundered by Scythian invaders in the seventh century BCE, leading to a curse of hereditary disease on their descendants. The cult emphasized her mermaid-like form and included a deep sacred pond stocked with protected fish, mirroring the piscatory reverence at Hierapolis, with Philistine origins tied to Aegean influences evident in excavated domestic structures possibly used for cultic purposes, such as a "horned" altar from the Iron Age.^[50]^[51] Archaeological surveys at Ashkelon have uncovered Philistine religious artifacts like terracotta figurines and altars dating to the 12th–8th centuries BCE, supporting the presence of fertility-oriented worship, though no dedicated Atargatis temple structure has been definitively identified.^[29] At Edessa (modern Şanlıurfa, Turkey), the cult of Atargatis persisted into the early Christian era, with textual evidence from the Doctrina Addai (ca. fourth century CE) attesting to her worship alongside sacred sites featuring altars for fertility rites, though archaeological remains are sparse and limited to inscriptions linking her to local protective deities. In Palmyra (modern Tadmur, Syria), a temple to Atargatis is documented in a 132 CE inscription (CIS II 45), associated with modest sacred enclosures and altars used in communal offerings, incorporating Hellenistic elements like columnar porticos amid the city's oasis groves, where votive dedications emphasized her role in prosperity and fecundity.^[52] These peripheral sites often blended Atargatis' worship with local traditions, featuring open-air altars and groves for seasonal rites, as inferred from epigraphic and numismatic evidence showing Hellenistic stylistic fusions in reliefs and statuary.^[53]

Priesthood, Rituals, and Worship

The priesthood of Atargatis featured a diverse body of religious personnel, including high priests, attendants, and notably eunuch priests known as galli, who served as devoted intermediaries between the goddess and her worshippers. These eunuch priests underwent voluntary self-castration as a profound act of consecration, symbolizing complete surrender to the goddess's power and fertility aspects; the ritual typically occurred during moments of religious ecstasy, where participants severed their genitals with sharp instruments and dashed through the streets in a frenzied state before seeking refuge in a household that would then clothe them in female attire and integrate them into the cult.^[54] In regions like Edessa, such castration practices among Atargatis' devotees were later prohibited by King Abgar, likely Abgar VIII (ca. 177–212 CE), to curb extreme self-mutilation and align local customs with broader imperial norms.^[55] Rituals in the cult emphasized ecstatic devotion, incorporating intense music from flutes, cymbals, and drums, wild dances with head-tossing and circling movements, and acts of self-flagellation or cutting to induce trance-like states that facilitated divine communion. These rites, often performed by the galli in female garb and makeup, mirrored similar practices in related Anatolian cults and served to invoke Atargatis' protective and generative energies.^[56] Votive offerings formed a core element of worship, with devotees presenting terracotta figurines, inscriptions, and anatomical models—such as representations of wombs or limbs—to petition for fertility blessings, healing from illnesses, and safeguarding against misfortune; these gifts were commonly deposited in temple precincts, reflecting the goddess's role as a patron of reproduction and well-being.^[57] Annual festivals at Hierapolis, the cult's central sanctuary, culminated in elaborate processions where the goddess's image was conveyed on a chariot amid throngs of participants, accompanied by ritual music, sacrificial feasts, and communal rejoicing to renew cosmic fertility. Priests ritually fed the sacred fish inhabiting the temple's lake, viewing them as embodiments of Atargatis's aquatic origins and oracular messengers, while doves—symbols of her loving and maternal aspects—were released during ceremonies or maintained as inviolable temple companions. Participation in these observances often exhibited gender-specific elements, with galli leading ecstatic performances and women forming dedicated associations for fertility rites, alongside male priests handling processional duties and animal care.

Legacy and Modern Scholarship

Influence on Later Religions and Cultures

The cult of Atargatis left traces in early Christian iconography, particularly through the adaptation and critique of her fish-tailed form, which scholars associate with emerging mermaid motifs in Byzantine art. This imagery resonated in Christian polemics, where texts like the Doctrina Addai explicitly denounce "Taratha" (Atargatis) as idolatrous, contrasting her with the monotheistic God to assert Nicene supremacy over pagan practices in Syria. Similarly, the History of John employs anti-pagan narratives to dismantle cults akin to Atargatis', portraying their destruction as a triumph of Christian baptism and symbols like the cross, thereby repurposing her aquatic symbolism in a demonized form within early Christian art and literature. Fish symbolism in early Christianity, including ichthys motifs, drew indirect parallels to Atargatis' fish associations, as noted in analyses of Graeco-Roman religious symbols, though adapted to signify Christ rather than the goddess.^[58] In northern Syrian traditions around Hierapolis (Mabbug), the site served as a place of competitive veneration and co-production between Atargatis, the Syrian mother goddess, and Mary, the mother of God, in late antiquity.^[59] Comparative studies identify parallels between Atargatis and pre-Islamic Arabian goddesses like al-Lāt, whose cults incorporated Syrian elements, leading to survivals in Islamic folklore as benevolent or perilous water entities tied to fertility and protection.^[60] These motifs, including fish-tailed female figures, reflect a syncretic transmission where Atargatis' nurturing yet dangerous aquatic persona informed local jinn lore in medieval Syrian tales.^[61] Atargatis played a role in mystery cults and Gnostic traditions through her syncretism with Aphrodite-Venus, contributing to Venusian archetypes that extended into medieval European folklore. In Edessene contexts, her cult exhibited mystery elements, such as initiation rites and sacred fish taboos, which paralleled broader oriental influences on Gnostic demiurgical myths and Hellenistic mystery religions. This Venusian linkage, evident in Lucian's De Dea Syria and later interpretations, portrayed Atargatis as a love and fertility goddess whose fish form symbolized erotic and transformative themes, influencing Gnostic narratives of divine feminine figures in texts like those from Nag Hammadi. By the medieval period, these archetypes manifested in European mermaid legends, where the seductive, half-fish woman echoed Atargatis' duality, as seen in artistic depictions blending pagan and Christian motifs.^[62] Atargatis' imagery transmitted via Hellenistic trade routes to regions like India and Ethiopia, fostering comparative parallels with local fish-goddess traditions. Along incense and maritime paths connecting the Levant to the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, her fish-tailed form—known as Derketo in Greek sources—resonated with Ethiopian aquatic deities and Nubian fertility figures, as noted in ancient travel accounts like Ctesias' fragments, which juxtapose Syrian myths with exotic eastern lore.^[35] In India, parallels emerge with Matsya, the fish incarnation of Vishnu, and regional water goddesses, potentially influenced by Indo-Roman trade exchanges of cultural motifs during the 1st-3rd centuries CE, though direct transmission remains conjectural among scholars.^[63] These connections highlight Atargatis' broader impact on global fish-goddess iconography through commercial networks.^[41]

Archaeological Evidence and Recent Discoveries

Archaeological evidence for the worship of Atargatis primarily derives from excavations at key sites in the ancient Near East, where temples, inscriptions, and iconographic artifacts reveal her role as a fertility and mother goddess. At Dura-Europos in modern-day Syria, the Temple of Atargatis, excavated during the Yale University and French Academy campaigns in the 1920s and 1930s, yielded numerous graffiti, dedications, and reliefs depicting the goddess alongside her consort Hadad, including phallic symbols and altars used for offerings.^[64] Recent digital cataloging efforts have enhanced understanding of this site; a comprehensive dataset of inscriptions from the temple (excluding Room 6) was published in December 2024 as part of the EU-funded Al-At project (Polonez Bis 1, Grant 945339) and the International Digital Dura-Europos Archive (IDEA), modeling the epigraphic material on Wikidata to facilitate analysis of multilingual dedications in Greek, Aramaic, and Palmyrene.^[65] These inscriptions, often invoking Atargatis for protection and prosperity, underscore the temple's role as a multicultural sanctuary blending local Syrian traditions with Hellenistic influences. At Hierapolis (modern Manbij, Syria), the ancient religious center described by Lucian as the primary cult site of Atargatis, excavations since the 19th century have uncovered altars and statues from the Hellenistic and Roman periods, including early inscriptions on limestone altars dating to the 2nd century BCE that name the goddess alongside ritual prohibitions, such as bans on fish consumption in her honor.^[66] While major digs predated the 2010s, with altars bearing dedications from pilgrims across the Roman Empire.^[67] In Nabataean contexts, evidence emerges from sites like Khirbet et-Tannur in Jordan, where 1937 excavations led by Nelson Glueck uncovered high-relief statues of Atargatis enthroned with lions and crowned by fertility symbols such as fish, dolphins, grain spikes, and an eagle, alongside her consort Baalshamin, housed today in the Jordan Museum and Cincinnati Art Museum.^[41] A joint Jordanian-UK project led by the University of Oxford's Classics Department analyzed the 1937 finds, resulting in publications on architecture, religion, and cult offerings in 2013, booklets in 2016 (English) and 2018 (Arabic), and exhibitions such as at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 2019.^[68] This work highlights Nabataean adaptations of Atargatis, portraying her as a localized earth goddess rather than the Syrian archetype, with betyls and eye-idols at Petra's Wadi es-Siyyagh suggesting syncretism with al-Uzza, though her cult remained marginal compared to native deities.^[69] Debates persist regarding purported evidence at Ashkelon (ancient Ascalon), where ancient sources like Diodorus Siculus identify Atargatis with the fish-tailed Derceto, inspiring mermaid lore; however, no archaeological artifacts—such as fish-bodied statues or inscriptions—confirm her worship there, and all known iconography remains anthropomorphic, with claims of mermaid depictions likely stemming from literary conflations rather than physical remains.^[69] Radiocarbon dating of Philistine-era strata at Ashkelon has not yielded Atargatis-specific material, further questioning the site's association beyond textual tradition. Modern scholarship identifies gaps in the archaeological record, particularly underrepresented Nabataean variations where Atargatis appears as a foreign import syncretized with local goddesses like Allat, evidenced by sparse inscriptions such as CIS II 423 (>tr) at Petra, contrasting with her dominant Syrian role.^[69] Comparative studies with Mesopotamian deities, such as parallels to Ishtar in fertility motifs and Dagon in water associations, remain underexplored due to limited cross-regional excavations, with calls for integrated analyses of betyl iconography to trace her evolution from Mesopotamian prototypes.^[69] Post-2023 advancements, including digital epigraphy at Dura-Europos, promise to address these lacunae, though conflict in Syria and Jordan hampers fieldwork.

References

[1]
The Syrian Goddess - History of Ancient Religion - Fall 2022
In this treatise, Lucian focused on the great temple at Hierapolis dedicated to Atargatis, a queen-goddess he described as the local counterpart to the Greek ...
[2]
Two Syrian deities - OpenEdition Journals
It is quite clear that Atargatis was often referred to in Antiquity simply as “the Syrian Goddess”, Dea Syria or qea; Suriva. In more recent times the cult has ...
[3]
The Syrian Goddess Index | Sacred Texts Archive
### Summary of Lucian's 'De Dea Syria' on Atargatis
[4]
Cybele, Atargatis, or Allāt? A Surprising Tomb Artifact from Petra's ...
Jun 25, 2021 · Unlike Cybele, there is evidence of the cult of Atargatis in the Decapolis and beyond (Lichtenberger 2003). Neither the evidence of Khirbat at- ...
[5]
(PDF) Goats and Goddesses. Digital Approach to the Religioscapes ...
Jan 15, 2025 · The study of worshippers of Allat and Atargatis in the Near East and beyond in the Hellenistic and Roman periods focuses more on the people and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[6]
Atargatis Ἀταργατῖς - Brill Reference Works
The cult of Atargatis in Syria and Mesopotamia is known from a wide variety of literary sources, inscriptions, coins, sculptures and terracottas, which display ...
[7]
Astarte in the Temple of Venus: An Allegory of Idolatry - jstor
the Old Testament Baal, and Hera is Atargatis, a syncretic conflation of at least two (Anat and Astarte) and perhaps all three Canaanite goddesses (Anat ...
[8]
Anat ענת - Brill Reference Works
The predominant view among scholars is that the Ugaritic texts present Anat as a “fertility goddess” who is the consort of the god Baal . It is also often ...
[9]
(PDF) The Great Goddesses of the Levant - Academia.edu
During the Bronze Ages, circa 3100 to 1200 BCE, the people of the Levant worshipped many goddesses, but only three "great" ones; Anat, Astarte and Asherah.
[10]
[PDF] David T. Sugimoto (ed.) - Transformation of a Goddess
winged and armed, and as Astarte was the Syrian name of Ishtar, it might be argued that one can describe this local Syrian goddess as “Astarte.” Anat is a ...
[11]
The Doves of the Goddess. Elements of the Cult of Ishtar at Ebla in ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The decorative patterns, and the find places of the artefacts, relate them to popular aspects of Ishtar's cult, typical of north inner Syria in ...Missing: Anat | Show results with:Anat
[12]
None
Below is a merged summary of Atargatis' precursors and syncretism in Bronze Age Syrian religion, consolidating all information from the provided segments into a comprehensive response. To maximize detail and clarity, I will use a table in CSV format to organize the recurring themes (Precursors/Syncretism, Ugarit/Ras Shamra, etc.) across the segments, followed by a narrative summary that integrates additional details not easily tabulated (e.g., specific text references, artifacts, and symbols). This approach ensures all information is retained while maintaining readability.
[13]
The Syrian Goddess: Translation and Notes | Sacred Texts Archive
The Syrian Goddess, by Lucian, tr. by Herbert A. Strong and John Garstang, [1913], full text etext at sacred-texts.com.
[14]
https://static1.squarespace.com/static/520f9c9be4b0210b06eba019/t/6078ad41f497d45a67b1c316/1618521411692/Transformation+of+a+goddess-astarte.pdf
[15]
https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D105
[16]
Non-Greek religious iconography on the coinage of Seleucid Syria.
Seleucid kings adopted local Semitic gods, like Atargatis and Hadad, alongside Greek deities in minting practices. Antiochus IV Epiphanes reintroduced Zeus ...
[17]
Four Greco-Roman Era Temples of Near Eastern Fertility Goddesses
Nov 26, 2007 · This thesis examines whether Atargatis' cult remained Oriental or became Hellenized by tracing the historical development of the temple architecture.Missing: roots | Show results with:roots
[18]
Coin issued in the Seleucid (greater Syria) Kingdom during the reign...
-Coin issued in the Seleucid (greater Syria) Kingdom during the reign of Demetrius III (c88 BCE), showing an image of a fish-like Atargatis on the rear side.
[19]
seleucid royal cult, indigenous religious traditions - jstor
This paper studies the formation of a Seleucid royal cult and its incorporation into pre-existing beliefs, using numismatic evidence.
[20]
some notes on religious embodiments in the coinage of roman syria ...
Hierapolis coins depict the Atargatis cult, showcasing both lunar and solar symbolism through various deities. Palmyra's coinage emphasizes local religious ...
[21]
(PDF) NABATAEAN FERTILITY MYTH, PLACE, TIME, RITUALS ...
Nov 12, 2019 · This paper aims to shed light on the Nabataean fertility mythology, based on the sculptures found at Khirbet et-Tannur Temple, located in south of Jordan.Missing: Palmyrene | Show results with:Palmyrene
[22]
Hadad and Atargatis at Palmyra - jstor
Derketo or Atargatis, the great mistress of the North Syrian lands.' It is well known that Atargatis was worshipped at Palmyra. She appears often on the ...
[23]
Relief of Atargatis and Hadad - Yale University Art Gallery
Provenance. Excavated by the Yale-French Excavations at Dura-Europos (block H2, Temple of Atargatis, courtyard), present-day Syria, 1928–37; Yale University Art ...Missing: attributes doves fruits fish tail
[24]
Relief of Atargatis and Hadad - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Artwork Details · Title: Relief of Atargatis and Hadad · Date: ca. 100–256 · Geography: Syria, Dura-Europos · Medium: Limestone · Dimensions: H. 16 1/8 × W. 11 × D.Missing: attributes doves fruits fish tail
[25]
Atargatis sculpture, Jordan Museum. Art Destination Jordan
Atargatis, seated on the throne, was the Syrian goddess of plants and fertility, while her consort Hadad (see the next page) was the god of storms and rain.Missing: Tannûr | Show results with:Tannûr
[26]
Atarghatis and Hadad from Khirbet et-Tannur
Feb 18, 2019 · Atarghatis is seated on a throne and a large head of the bearded Hadad, sculpted in limestone in the Oriental Syrian style, is beside her.Missing: Tannûr | Show results with:Tannûr
[27]
[PDF] khirbat at-tannūr in the asor nelson glueck archive - DoA Publication
The temple of Khirbat at-Tannur is best known for its sculpture because Glueck focused on this in. Deities and Dolphins (hereafter DD). Half of it is in the ...Missing: flanks | Show results with:flanks<|separator|>
[28]
Towards the Image of Dagon the God of the Philistines - jstor
The popular etymology was probably influenced by the image of Atargatis I. Derketo, the mermaid-like godess of nearby Ashkelon. There is no evidence for the ...
[29]
Divine Kings and Sacred Spaces: Power and Religion in Hellenistic ...
The work is therefore a possible source for the Hellenistic period sanctuary at Hierapolis in lieu of any archaeological evidence. The most significant ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[30]
(PDF) Two Syrian Deities - Academia.edu
Figure 1: Relief from Dura-Europos. On the left, Hadad; on the right, Atargatis; between, the semeion. Photo courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery, Dura- ...
[31]
https://www.academia.edu/375874/Two_Syrian_Deities
[32]
[PDF] Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press - eScholarship
Apr 1, 2016 · 1998 Divinity, Exaltation and Heroization: Thoughts on the Seated Posture in Early Archaic. Greek Sculpture. In Stephanos: Studies in Honor ...
[33]
https://escholarship.org/content/qt61x16383/qt61x16383.pdf
[34]
[PDF] the complete fragments of ctesias of cnidus - ATTALUS
seems that Ctesias is the main source for Diodorus in 16.3-4 but that he probably ... • F1i) raised mounds of earth: Diodorus says that Semiramis raised mounds ...
[35]
Lucian, Syrian Goddess (De Syria Dea) - ToposText
The Syrian Goddess (De Syria Dea), Lucian, The Works of Lucian of Samosata, translated by Henry Watson Fowler (1858-1933) and Francis George Fowler (1871–1918) ...Missing: Atargatis | Show results with:Atargatis
[36]
Pisces Constellation between Atargatis and Aphrodite
This research aims to focus on the role of the Syrian goddess Atargatis (Αταργάτις) as a religious and cultural bridge between the Syrian and Greek ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
[37]
The Woman Who Embodied the Goddess | symbolreader
Sep 24, 2013 · From the egg emerged a great goddess Atargatis, who requested the fish to be placed in the heavens as the sign of Pisces. Image. Atargatis. In ...
[38]
[PDF] Lucian's On the Syrian Goddess - The Lucian of Samosata Project
Studies in Lucian's De Syria dea. Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press,. 1977 ... Votive stele of Atargatis as “Dea Syria,” enthroned with two lions and ...
[39]
The Metaphor of the Lion in Mesopotamian and Greek Civilization
Given the heavy symbolism of the lion, as an emblem of both divine and royal authority in the Near East, signalling kingship in myth, imagery and metaphor ...
[40]
[PDF] NABATAEAN FERTILITY MYTH, PLACE, TIME, RITUALS AND ...
In addition to mentioning Atargatis name in Nabataean inscriptions, several temples and sanctuaries along the trade route from Petra to Syria and Mesopotamia ...Missing: variants Palmyrene
[41]
[PDF] Lectures on the Religion of the Semites - Monoskop
Euhemerism has carefully purged of mythical elements.32 It was ... —'Ctesias and the Semiramis Legend', English Historical Review 2.6 (April, 1887),.
[42]
Legends of Semiramis and her battle at Indus River with Indian king
Historical ambiguity exists regarding Semiramis' military campaigns in India, with critical skepticism from Strabo.Missing: debate | Show results with:debate
[43]
https://www.academia.edu/12357863/Legends_of_Semiramis_and_her_battle_at_Indus_River_with_Indian_king_a_myth_or_a_real_history
[44]
[PDF] FEMALE SUBJECTIVITY IN UNDINE, THE LITTLE MERMAID, AND ...
In this first chapter, I will trace the shifting depictions of sirens and mermaids and the conflation of the two both semantically and symbolically, and then ...
[45]
Mermaids: Myth, Kith and Kin - JSTOR Daily
Dec 24, 2022 · It is, however, the Syriac fertility goddess Atargatis ('Derketo' to the Philistines, and, later, the Greeks) who's said to be the first mermaid ...
[46]
syria. - Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism - Sacred Texts
5_29 Aphrodite Astarte was worshiped in the shape of a conical stone at ... Atargatis and Simios, became Jupiter, Venus and Mercury in Latin inscriptions.
[47]
None
### Summary of Atargatis Syncretism and Related Topics from Rives (2011)
[48]
https://www.philipharland.com/travel/Rives%202011%20Roman%20Translation%20Tacitus%20and%20Ethnographic.pdf
[49]
Chapter IV. The Culture of the Philistines: III. Their Religion
The myth of the Atargatis of Ashkelon fits very badly on to the Syrian deity. She was the very last being to be troubled with shame at the events recorded ...
[50]
Ashkelon Excavations Find New Evidence of Philistine Religion
Apr 13, 2012 · The Ashkelon “horned” altar (visible near top of photo) was found in a typical Philistine domestic structure that may have had a cultic function ...Missing: Atargatis temple
[51]
Palmyra goddesses – quick notes - Colors and Stones
Feb 13, 2023 · The cult of Atargatis, not very popular at Palmyra, must have reached the city from North Syria and must have been preserved as a relic by the ...Missing: variants | Show results with:variants
[52]
Atargatis the Syrian Goddess by Johanna Stuckey - Academia.edu
“Sacred City” — which is the modern Membij and the Greek Bambyce.
[53]
https://www.academia.edu/23577340/Atargatis_the_Syrian_Goddess_by_Johanna_Stuckey
[54]
(PDF) Taylor 2023 Seeing Slaves in Syriac Sources - Academia.edu
... Atargatis in Syria and Mesopotamia whose devotees in Edessa used to castrate themselves in her honour, until stopped by King Abgar.217 Since eunuch slaves ...<|separator|>
[55]
[PDF] The Castrated Gods and their Castration Cults
Sep 1, 2019 · According to Bøgh. (2007), material records reveal a strong popular affinity for Cybele that belies the elites' disdain— and Cybele's cult ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[56]
Cults and Beliefs at Edessa
**Summary of Cults and Beliefs at Edessa (Drijvers) on Atargatis Cult:**
[57]
[PDF] the interpretation of religious symbols in the graeco-roman world: a ...
This dissertation is a study of fish symbolism in early Christianity, which offers a new approach to the interpretation of religious symbols in the ...
[58]
(PDF) Hierapolis/Mabbug in Late Antiquity. A Place of Competitive ...
... Aphrodite, Atargatis, or Astarte. It is difficult, if not impossible, to assign this image to a specific cultic site.10 The combination of a celestial crown ...
[59]
[PDF] From Goddesses to Doctrine: Al-Lāt, Al-ʿUzzā, and Manāt in ... - AIJFR
René Dussaud extended this comparative approach, linking al-Lāt to Syrian Atargatis and al-'Uzzā to the astral cults of Venus. ... According to Islamic tradition, ...
[60]
[PDF] ŞANLIURFA - isamveri.org
The way in which Cybele was worshiped in the cult of Hierapolis was compatible with the faith and tradition of Atargatis in Edessa,22 one notable similarity ...
[61]
[PDF] Under the Mermaid Flag - Semantic Scholar
have been aware that the figure of the mermaid had its antecedence in that of the Assyrian goddess Atargatis, often represented with a fish-tailed lower ...
[62]
[PDF] THE W BETWEEN TH E W O RLD B E TW EEN EMPIRES
The World between Empires presents a new perspective on the art and culture of the Middle East in the years 100 B.C.–A.D. 250, a time.<|control11|><|separator|>
[63]
The Gods of Dura-Europos - Minerva Magazine
It is ancient Syria's greatest goddess: Atargatis. She sits between lions, on her throne, her consort Hadad by her side. This cult relief, as this form of ...Missing: Bronze Ras Shamra
[64]
Inscriptions from the temple of Atargatis, Dura-Europos (without ...
Feb 27, 2025 · This is inscriptional dataset concerning the Temple of Atargatis in Dura-Europos. The data was collected for the purposes of 2 projects: ...
[65]
https://zenodo.org/records/14935415
[66]
[PDF] Religious Identities in the Levant from Alexander to ... - HAL-SHS
Perduration, Continuity and Discontinuity in the sanctuary of Atargatis in Hierapolis (Syria) ... excavations); O. Callot, 'Notes de numismatique ... Seyrig, ' ...
[67]
Khirbet et-Tannur Nabataean Temple Project, Jordan
The Khirbet et-Tannur project studies a well-preserved Nabataean temple, analyzing religious practices and unstudied 1937 excavation finds. It is a pilgrimage ...Missing: Atargatis 2023 2024 2025
[68]
None
Below is a merged summary of the Nabataean variations of Atargatis worship, identification, and comparisons to Mesopotamian deities, consolidating all information from the provided segments into a comprehensive response. To maximize detail and clarity, I will use a table format in CSV style for each major section (Variations of Worship, Identification, Comparisons to Mesopotamian Deities), followed by a list of useful URLs. This approach ensures all details are retained and easily accessible.