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Spindle

A spindle is a rod or pin that serves various functions across multiple fields. In textiles, it refers to a rotating rod used for spinning fibers into thread. In biology, it denotes structures such as the mitotic apparatus involved in cell division or sensory organelles in certain organisms. In engineering and manufacturing, spindles are components in machine tools and drive systems. Vehicles incorporate spindles in suspension and steering mechanisms. Other uses include elements in furniture, woodworking, and scientific instruments. For detailed information on specific uses, see the relevant sections below.

Textiles

Hand spinning tools

A hand spindle is a simple, straight rod, typically tapered at one end and often weighted with a whorl, used to twist natural fibers such as wool, flax, or cotton into yarn through manual rotation.^[1] These tools consist of a shaft for holding the yarn and a whorl to provide momentum for sustained twisting.^[2] The origins of hand spindles trace back to prehistoric times, with the earliest known evidence from the Late Natufian period at Nahal Ein-Gev II in Israel, where perforated limestone pebbles dated to approximately 12,000 years ago served as spindle whorls for fiber spinning.^[3] Archaeological finds from the Indus Valley Civilization, such as spindle whorls at Harappa dated to 2200–1900 BCE, indicate widespread use in ancient South Asian textile production, including spinning bast fibers like jute.^[4] Hand spindles are categorized into two primary types: drop spindles, which are suspended in the air and rely on gravity for twisting, and supported spindles, which rest in a bowl, on the thigh, or in the lap to facilitate rotation without suspension.^[5] Drop spindles often feature a whorl at the bottom or top of the shaft to maintain spin, while supported varieties, such as those used in Andean traditions, have designs that allow stable placement during use.^[6] The basic techniques for hand spinning involve drafting, twisting, and winding. Drafting entails pulling a small amount of prepared fibers, such as roving or sliver, onto the tapered tip of the spindle shaft to prepare them for twisting.^[6] Twisting is achieved by rolling the spindle against the thigh, hand, or another surface to impart rotation, building torque that binds the fibers into yarn; this can be done continuously or in a "park and draft" method where the spindle is paused to allow controlled drafting.^[7] Once sufficient length is spun, the yarn is wound onto the spindle's shaft for storage, repeating the process to build the final yarn.^[6] In ancient societies, spindles held profound cultural significance, symbolizing fate and creation in Greek mythology where the Moirai (Fates)—Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos—were depicted as spinning, measuring, and cutting the thread of human life, embodying the inevitability of destiny.^[8] Indigenous practices worldwide further underscore this, as seen among the ancient Maya where spinning with spindles carried ritual and economic importance, often linked to gender roles and tribute systems.^[9] Similarly, in the Peruvian Andes, Quechua communities use traditional pushkas (spindles) to hand-spin fibers, preserving cultural legacies tied to natural dyes and communal weaving.^[10] Historically, hand spindles were crafted from wood or bone for durability and availability, with whorls often made from clay, stone, or terracotta in prehistoric contexts.^[3] Over time, materials evolved to include modern synthetics like plastic or composite woods in handcrafting, offering lighter weights and resistance to wear while maintaining traditional forms.^[6] This manual approach laid the groundwork for later innovations in powered spinning machinery.

Mechanical textile production

The advent of mechanical textile production marked a pivotal shift from manual methods, enabling large-scale yarn manufacturing through powered multi-spindle systems. The spinning jenny, invented by James Hargreaves in 1764, introduced a horizontal frame with multiple spindles—initially eight, later expanded to over 100—that allowed a single operator to draw out and twist fibers from a roving into fine yarn simultaneously, dramatically increasing output over hand spinning.^[11] This device, operated by human power via a wheel, produced weft yarn suitable for weaving but was limited in strength for warp threads.^[12] Complementing the jenny, Richard Arkwright's water frame, patented in 1769, utilized water power to drive a series of rollers and multiple vertical spindles, producing stronger, twisted cotton yarn ideal for warp in a continuous process.^[13] The frame's design integrated drafting rollers to align and attenuate fibers before winding them onto spindles, enabling factory-based production and laying the foundation for powered textile mills. These early machines collectively boosted productivity by factors of 10 to 20 compared to manual labor, fueling the expansion of the cotton industry. In subsequent developments, ring spinning frames and mule spindles refined the process for finer, stronger yarns. Ring frames, evolved from the water frame by the late 19th century, feature high-speed rotating spindles (up to 15,000 RPM) that wind rovings onto bobbins while a lightweight traveler ring imparts twist through friction, continuously drafting and spinning fibers into yarn.^[14] Mule spindles, invented by Samuel Crompton in 1779 and improved in the 19th century, operate intermittently: during the outward stroke, rovings are drawn and twisted; on the return, spindles wind the yarn onto bobbins at operational rates of approximately 4 to 6 strokes per minute, producing soft, high-quality yarns for both weft and warp.^[15] These systems allowed mills to process thousands of spindles in parallel, standardizing yarn quality for mass production.^[16] Modern innovations have further elevated spindle efficiency in open-end and vortex systems, bypassing traditional twisting for higher speeds. Open-end rotor spinning, commercialized in the 1960s, employs a high-speed rotor (functioning as a spindle) rotating at up to 200,000 RPM to collect and condense fibers via centrifugal force, achieving delivery speeds of 200 meters per minute without separate twisting elements.^[17] Vortex spinning, developed in the 1990s by Murata Machinery, uses compressed air jets around a stationary spindle-like nozzle to wrap fibers at speeds over 400 meters per minute, producing bulkier yarns with reduced hairiness.^[18] These methods have largely replaced mules in high-volume production, enhancing throughput by 5-10 times over ring spinning.^[19] Essential components ensure precise operation across these machines. Spindle bearings, often ceramic or magnetic for minimal friction, support high rotational speeds while maintaining alignment.^[20] Flyers, U-shaped arms mounted above spindles in roving frames, guide and initially twist fibers onto bobbins via differential rotation.^[14] Bobbin holders, adjustable cradles in ring and mule frames, maintain tension by controlling bobbin lift and descent, preventing yarn breaks and ensuring uniform winding.^[21] The integration of these spindle-based technologies profoundly influenced the Industrial Revolution, shifting labor from cottage industries to centralized mills employing thousands—by 1830, British cotton mills operated over 10 million spindles, employing primarily women and children in regimented shifts.^[22] This mechanization reduced unit costs by 80-90% and spurred urban migration, though it also intensified working conditions in purpose-built factories powered by water and later steam.^[23] Today, spindles underpin automated textile factories, where robotic doffing and sensor-monitored ring frames produce yarns with minimal human intervention. Post-2000 advancements, including variable-frequency drives and regenerative braking on spindles, have contributed to energy efficiency improvements in spinning operations, which account for about 40% of mill electricity use, aligning with global sustainability goals.^[24] As of 2025, further innovations like digital optimization of spindle performance and integration with sustainable fibers continue to reduce environmental impact in textile production.^[25]

Biology

Mitotic apparatus

The mitotic spindle is a highly dynamic, bipolar array of microtubules, motor proteins such as kinesins and dyneins, and associated regulatory proteins that assembles during cell division to ensure accurate segregation of chromosomes.^[26] This structure forms in both mitosis and meiosis, orchestrating the equal distribution of genetic material to daughter cells and thereby preserving genomic stability.^[27] Assembly of the mitotic spindle begins with microtubule nucleation primarily at centrosomes, which serve as microtubule-organizing centers containing γ-tubulin ring complexes that initiate polymerization from α- and β-tubulin dimers.^[27] Microtubules grow dynamically from their plus ends toward kinetochores—protein complexes on chromosomes—through a "search-and-capture" mechanism driven by microtubule dynamic instability, where plus ends undergo cycles of polymerization and depolymerization.^[26] Additional pathways, including chromatin-mediated nucleation near chromosomes and augmin-dependent branching from existing microtubules, contribute to spindle density and bipolarity, particularly in animal cells.^[26] The spindle's role unfolds across the phases of mitosis. In prophase, centrosomes separate, and initial microtubule arrays form around chromosomes following nuclear envelope breakdown.^[27] During prometaphase, microtubules attach to kinetochores, capturing and congressing chromosomes toward the spindle equator.^[27] In metaphase, chromosomes align at the metaphase plate, establishing stable bipolar attachments between sister kinetochores and opposite spindle poles.^[27] Anaphase involves shortening of kinetochore microtubules to separate sister chromatids toward the poles (anaphase A), followed by poleward elongation of interpolar microtubules (anaphase B).^[27] Finally, in telophase, the spindle disassembles as microtubules depolymerize, allowing nuclear reformation.^[27] Key functions of the mitotic spindle include establishing bipolar attachments to sister chromatids, which motor proteins like kinesin-5 (Eg5) and dynein help maintain by pushing poles apart and focusing microtubules, respectively.^[26] The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) monitors these attachments, generating a diffusible "wait-anaphase" signal from unattached kinetochores via proteins like Mad2 and BubR1 to inhibit the anaphase-promoting complex until all chromosomes are properly aligned, thus preventing missegregation and ensuring equal DNA distribution.^[28] At the molecular level, microtubules consist of α-β tubulin heterodimers that polymerize head-to-tail into protofilaments, typically 13 of which assemble laterally into a hollow tube with an outer diameter of approximately 25 nm.30703-3) Microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs), such as EB1, bind plus ends to promote stabilization and growth, while others like CLASP and XMAP215 regulate dynamics.^[27] The mitotic spindle and its checkpoint mechanisms exhibit remarkable evolutionary conservation from yeast to humans, with core components like Mad and Bub proteins tracing back to the last eukaryotic common ancestor, underscoring their essential role in genome integrity across eukaryotes.^[29] Defects in spindle assembly or SAC function can lead to chromosomal instability and aneuploidy, a frequent hallmark of cancer where unequal chromosome distribution promotes tumorigenesis.^[29]

Sensory structures

Muscle spindles are specialized proprioceptive sensory organs embedded within skeletal muscles, consisting of intrafusal muscle fibers encapsulated in a connective tissue sheath and arranged parallel to the surrounding extrafusal fibers that generate force.^[30] These structures, distinct from the microtubule-based mitotic spindles involved in cell division, provide essential feedback on muscle length and movement to the central nervous system.^[31] First discovered in 1862 by Rudolf Albert von Kölliker, who identified them in histological preparations of muscle tissue, muscle spindles were later named "Muskelspindeln" by Wilhelm Kühne in 1863.^[31] The structure of a muscle spindle includes 3 to 12 intrafusal fibers in most mammals, with humans typically having 8 to 20 per spindle, enclosed in a fluid-filled capsule up to 8 mm long.^[30] These fibers are categorized as nuclear bag fibers, which are longer and more dynamic, and nuclear chain fibers, which are shorter and contribute to static sensitivity.^[31] The central equatorial region of each intrafusal fiber is sensory, featuring annulospiral (primary) endings from Ia afferent neurons that detect both length and velocity changes, and flower-spray (secondary) endings from group II afferents that primarily sense static length.^[30] The polar regions are contractile, innervated by gamma motor neurons that adjust spindle sensitivity during voluntary movements by contracting the intrafusal fibers independently of the extrafusal ones.^[31] Functionally, muscle spindles initiate the stretch reflex arc, a monosynaptic pathway where rapid muscle lengthening deforms the sensory endings, exciting Ia afferents to signal the spinal cord, which then activates alpha motor neurons to contract the muscle and resist the stretch.^[31] This mechanism underlies the knee-jerk response, elicited by tapping the patellar tendon to briefly stretch the quadriceps, demonstrating the reflex's role in maintaining posture and preventing injury from sudden perturbations.^[32] Beyond reflexes, muscle spindles contribute to proprioception by conveying information on limb position, velocity, and force to higher brain centers, supporting balance, posture, and precise motor coordination.^[30] Their density varies across muscles, with the highest concentrations—up to 100 spindles per gram—found in the intrinsic hand muscles and extraocular eye muscles, enabling fine control in tasks requiring accuracy, such as manipulation or gaze stabilization.^[32] Early physiological insights into muscle spindles came from Charles Sherrington's studies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, where he demonstrated their role in the "muscular sense" and stretch reflexes through decerebrate cat experiments, establishing the link between spindle activation and reflexive muscle contraction.^[31] Sherrington's work, including observations in 1894 on sensory contributions to kinaesthesis and 1906 on proprioceptive feedback, laid the foundation for understanding spindles as key integrators in sensorimotor control.^[31] Dysfunction of muscle spindles impairs proprioceptive feedback, contributing to pathologies such as ataxia, where loss of sensory input leads to uncoordinated movements and balance deficits, as seen in conditions involving proprioceptive neuropathies or genetic mutations like those in PIEZO2.^[30] Prolonged immobilization, such as after injury or casting, causes spindle degeneration, including intrafusal fiber atrophy and reduced afferent sensitivity, which exacerbates muscle weakness and reflex hyperexcitability upon remobilization.^[30] These changes highlight the spindles' vulnerability to disuse, underscoring their importance in maintaining muscle integrity and motor function.^[33]

Engineering and manufacturing

Machine tool components

In machine tools, the spindle serves as a motorized rotating shaft that holds and drives cutting tools or workpieces with high precision, commonly found in lathes, milling machines, and computer numerical control (CNC) systems where it supports tools such as drills, end mills, or chucks for material removal processes.^[34] This component is essential for achieving accurate rotational motion, enabling operations that require controlled speeds and torques to shape metals, woods, or composites.^[35] Machine tool spindles are classified into several types based on their drive mechanisms and performance characteristics. Belt-driven spindles, an older design, transmit power from the motor via belts and pulleys, providing high torque at low speeds suitable for heavy-duty cutting but limited to around 15,000 RPM due to belt slip and wear.^[36] Direct-drive spindles couple the motor shaft directly to the spindle without intermediaries, offering higher speeds up to 60,000 RPM for precision finishing on softer materials like aluminum, though with reduced torque compared to belt-driven variants.^[37] Motorized spindles integrate the motor within the spindle housing, often with built-in cooling systems such as liquid or air circulation to manage heat during prolonged high-speed operation, enhancing efficiency and longevity in CNC applications.^[38] Key features of machine tool spindles emphasize precision and reliability to minimize errors in machining. Bearings, typically angular contact ball types, support radial and axial loads while accommodating high speeds; these are preloaded for rigidity and often paired with hydrostatic oil-film bearings for ultra-precision setups, where pressurized fluid eliminates metal-to-metal contact and reduces friction. Tool clamping is achieved through collets, such as ER-series designs that conform to DIN ISO 15488, which grip cylindrical tool shanks with high concentricity for quick changes and secure holding during rotation.^[39] Runout, the deviation from true circular rotation, is minimized to less than 0.001 mm in high-precision spindles through balanced components and advanced manufacturing, ensuring surface finishes and tolerances critical for aerospace and automotive parts.^[40] The historical development of machine tool spindles traces back to 18th-century foot-powered lathes, which relied on manual or pedal-driven rotation for basic turning. A pivotal advancement occurred in 1797 when Henry Maudslay invented the screw-cutting lathe with a slide rest, allowing automated, precise thread production via a lead screw parallel to the workpiece, which standardized interchangeable parts and laid the foundation for modern precision machining.^[41] Spindles find primary applications in metalworking processes like turning, where the workpiece rotates against a fixed tool in lathes, and milling, where the spindle drives rotating cutters to remove material from stationary stock; similar principles apply to woodworking for shaping timber and to composites for trimming non-metallic laminates without delamination.^[42] Torque in these operations is calculated from available power using the relation P = \tau \omega, where P is power in watts, \tau is torque in newton-meters, and \omega is angular velocity in radians per second, helping engineers select spindles that avoid stalling during cuts.^[43] Modern advancements include air-bearing spindles for ultra-precision grinding, which use pressurized air films for near-frictionless rotation at speeds exceeding 100,000 RPM, ideal for optical and semiconductor manufacturing.^[44] Additionally, smart sensors embedded in spindles enable real-time vibration monitoring; low-power accelerometers detect imbalances or faults with over 98% accuracy via deep neural networks, preventing failures and extending tool life in automated CNC environments.^[45]

Drive mechanisms

Spindle motors in data storage drives are specialized brushless DC (BLDC) motors designed to rotate storage media at high, consistent angular velocities, primarily in hard disk drives (HDDs) and optical disc drives. In HDDs, these motors spin multiple platters at speeds typically ranging from 5,400 to 15,000 revolutions per minute (RPM), ensuring rapid and stable access to magnetic data tracks.^[46]^[47] In optical drives, such as those for CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs, the motors rotate the media at variable speeds governed by constant linear velocity principles, often reaching up to 10,000 RPM for high-speed reading to support laser-based data retrieval.^[48] This constant rotation is critical for maintaining data integrity and performance in compact, high-density storage systems. The core components of a spindle motor include a central hub that secures the platters or disc, a rotor assembly featuring permanent magnets attached to the hub, and stator coils wound around a fixed core to produce the rotating magnetic field via electronic commutation. Fluid dynamic bearings minimize friction and vibration, while servo feedback mechanisms—often employing Hall effect sensors or sensorless back-EMF detection—enable precise speed regulation and synchronization.^[49]^[50] In HDDs, this setup ensures the platters maintain exact rotational stability, positioning read/write heads with sub-micron accuracy over data surfaces. For optical drives, the motor's control system adjusts speed dynamically to keep the laser beam aligned with data pits, optimizing tracking across the disc's varying radii.^[51] Historically, HDD spindle motors evolved from large AC induction motors in the 1950s and early brushed DC or stepper designs in the 1970s to compact BLDC configurations by 1979, which offered higher efficiency and reliability for miniaturization.^[52] The 1990s saw integration of advanced servo controls and hydrodynamic bearings, alongside power efficiency enhancements that reduced operational heat—critical for densely packed enterprise storage arrays.^[53] These improvements lowered energy consumption from several watts to under 2 watts in modern units, mitigating thermal issues that could degrade data density.^[49] Performance benchmarks for spindle motors emphasize reliability and responsiveness, with typical start-up times below 5 seconds to reach operational speed, rotational latency around 3 ms at 10,000 RPM (half the time for one full rotation), and mean time between failures (MTBF) surpassing 1 million hours in enterprise models.^[54]^[55]^[56] Emerging applications extend beyond traditional storage, incorporating these motors in solid-state hybrid drives (SSHDs) to complement flash caching with mechanical platters, and in robotic actuators for compact, high-torque rotation. Post-2020 innovations prioritize ultra-low-power variants for laptops, achieving sub-1-watt idle consumption through optimized coil designs and bearing technologies to extend battery life.^[51] These mechanisms share precision rotation principles with machine tool spindles but are tailored for sustained, low-vibration operation in electronics.

Vehicles

Suspension systems

In vehicle suspension systems, wheel spindles serve as critical structural hubs at the ends of axles, typically forged from high-strength steel or aluminum to house wheel bearings and secure brake components such as calipers and rotors.^[57]^[58] These shafts provide a mounting point for the wheel hub, ensuring precise alignment and load distribution while withstanding dynamic forces from road travel.^[59] The primary function of a wheel spindle is to transfer the vehicle's weight directly to the wheels, enabling smooth rotation via sealed or tapered roller bearings that reduce friction and support radial and axial loads. In independent suspension designs, spindles integrate with upper and lower control arms, allowing vertical wheel movement independent of the chassis for improved ride quality and handling.^[60]^[61] Wheel spindles are classified into two main types based on their role in power transmission: live axle spindles, which rotate with the wheel and axle to deliver propulsion in rear-wheel-drive vehicles, and dead spindles, which remain stationary to support non-driven front wheels focused on steering and load-bearing.^[60] Live spindles often feature hollow designs to accommodate drive axles, while dead spindles prioritize rigidity for steering geometry.^[62] Historically, automotive spindles evolved from simple iron shafts used in 19th-century horse-drawn carriages, where they supported wooden wheels with basic grease lubrication for bearings.^[63] Early 20th-century vehicles like Henry Ford's Model T, introduced in 1908, employed fixed steel spindles on a rigid front axle supplied by manufacturers such as the Dodge Brothers, marking a shift to mass-produced components for affordability and durability.^[64] By the post-1950s era, advancements in independent front suspension led to modern knuckled spindle designs using ball joints instead of kingpins, enhancing maneuverability and reducing unsprung weight.^[61]^[65] Contemporary spindles are crafted from alloys like 4140 chrome-molybdenum steel for its high tensile strength and fatigue resistance, though aluminum variants appear in performance and lightweight applications to reduce mass.^[58] These components handle load capacities up to 10,000 pounds or more per spindle in heavy-duty trucks, depending on axle rating, with built-in kingpin inclination—typically 3 to 8 degrees—promoting stability by generating upward forces on the chassis during turns, countering self-steering effects.^[66]^[67] Proper maintenance is essential for spindle longevity, including periodic lubrication of wheel bearings with high-temperature grease every 12,000 miles or annually, whichever comes first, to prevent overheating and seizure, alongside regular wheel alignment checks to avoid camber deviations that accelerate tire wear.^[68]^[69] Common failures, such as spindle bending from impacts, are prevalent in off-road vehicles where rough terrain exceeds design limits, often requiring gusset reinforcements for added rigidity.^[70] Spindles also contribute briefly to steering by providing the pivot axis for directional control.^[71]

Steering components

The intermediate steering shaft serves as the pivotal mechanical linkage connecting the lower end of the steering column to the steering gear, such as the pinion in a rack-and-pinion system or the pitman arm in a recirculating ball system.^[72]^[73] This shaft often incorporates universal joints at both ends to provide flexibility, allowing it to accommodate vertical and lateral movements from suspension travel and engine vibrations without binding.^[72]^[74] Its core function is to transmit rotational torque from the driver's steering wheel through the column to the steering gear, converting that motion into linear displacement for wheel turning in rack-and-pinion setups or angular deflection via the pitman arm in other configurations.^[72]^[75] Many modern designs feature collapsible sections that deform progressively during frontal collisions, absorbing kinetic energy to minimize driver injury risk.^[72]^[76] In rack-and-pinion systems, which gained dominance in passenger cars after the 1970s for their precision and compactness, the intermediate shaft directly interfaces with the pinion shaft to enable responsive directional control.^[77]^[78] Conversely, recirculating ball systems, favored in trucks for handling high torque loads up to 8,500 Nm, utilize the shaft to link to the pitman arm; in both types, the intermediate design isolates road vibrations, reducing feedback to the driver.^[79]^[80] Steering intermediate shafts trace their evolution from the tiller-based mechanisms of 1890s automobiles, like the Panhard & Levassor, which relied on simple levers for low-speed control, to the introduction of power-assisted variants in the 1951 Chrysler Imperial's Hydraguide hydraulic system.^[81]^[82] Electronic power steering (EPS) integration with these shafts proliferated since around 2000, replacing hydraulics with electric motors for efficient, speed-variable assistance.^[83]^[84] Emerging steer-by-wire systems in electric vehicles, such as those in the Tesla Cybertruck since 2023, eliminate traditional shafts entirely, using electronic signals for steering control.^[85] Essential components encompass flexible couplings like constant-velocity or sliding joints for motion transmission, dust-resistant boots encasing the joints to prevent contamination, and torque sensors in EPS-equipped shafts that detect driver input forces up to 10 Nm to activate proportional motor aid.^[72]^[86] These integrate with stability control systems, such as electronic stability programs, for enhanced vehicle handling.^[72] Compliance with Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) No. 204 requires steering shafts and columns to absorb sufficient crash energy, limiting rearward displacement of the upper end to 127 mm (5 inches) in an unoccupied full-frontal barrier test at 48 km/h (30 mph) to reduce occupant compartment intrusion.^[87] Wear at the universal joints or splines is a frequent issue, manifesting as steering wheel play exceeding 10 degrees or clunking over uneven surfaces, which compromises precision and demands replacement to maintain safety.^[88]^[89] This component briefly interfaces with suspension elements to coordinate wheel pivoting for directional stability.^[72]

Other uses

Furniture and woodworking

In furniture and woodworking, a spindle is a lathe-turned wooden rod serving as a baluster, commonly used in chair backs, stair railings, and bedposts to provide structural support and ornamental detail. These elements are typically 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 cm) in diameter, allowing for slender profiles that balance aesthetics with functionality.^[90]^[91] Turned spindles have played a key role in European joinery since medieval times, where they formed essential components in crafted furniture, evolving into more refined forms by the Renaissance with the rise of bobbin turning techniques. Their prominence peaked in 18th-century Colonial American Windsor chairs, where clusters of tapered spindles in the backrest exemplified vernacular craftsmanship and regional woodworking traditions.^[92]^[93]^[94] Production involves mounting square wood stock on a lathe and shaping it with specialized tools, including gouges for initial roughing and skew chisels for precise cuts, beads, and coves to create fluid contours. Hardwoods like maple, valued for its tight grain and workability, and oak, prized for strength and visible ray fleck patterns, are frequently selected to ensure longevity and visual appeal in finished pieces.^[95]^[94] Spindle styles vary by era and region, with Baroque designs showcasing ornate swells and volutes for dramatic effect, often in larger furniture like cabinets. In contrast, Shaker spindles prioritize unadorned, tapered simplicity to embody functional purity and handcraft ethos. Victorian interpretations incorporate elaborate beading, fluting, and urn shapes, with dimensions proportioned to human scale—such as 18- to 24-inch lengths for chair backs—to enhance comfort and proportion.^[96]^[97]^[98] Today, CNC lathes enable efficient, repeatable turning of spindles for reproduction antique furniture, replicating intricate profiles with minimal waste and high precision. Protective finishes like lacquer are commonly applied post-turning, forming a durable, glossy seal that resists wear while highlighting the wood's natural grain.^[99]^[100] Across cultures, spindles feature in diverse woodworking traditions, such as the lathe-turned spindle legs supporting low stools like the Swahili nta za nyao in East African design, which integrate geometric motifs for both utility and symbolism. In Asian craftsmanship, spindle-like turned elements appear in lattice screens and open cabinets, as seen in Ming-style huanghuali pieces, where they form intricate geometric dividers for light filtration and privacy. The elongated, cylindrical form of furniture spindles echoes the basic shape of textile spindles used for fiber twisting.^[101]

Scientific instruments

In astronomy, the Spindle Galaxy, designated NGC 5866, is an edge-on lenticular galaxy located approximately 50 million light-years from Earth in the constellation Draco, distinguished by its prominent, elongated dust lane that gives it a spindle-like appearance.^[102]^[103] It was independently discovered by William Herschel on May 5, 1788, during his systematic survey of the northern sky.^[104] Hubble Space Telescope imagery captured in February 2006, using the Advanced Camera for Surveys, revealed a subtle reddish bulge around a bright nucleus, a thin blue disk of young stars extending beyond the dust lane, and wisps of dust indicating ongoing star formation in the galactic disk.^[105]^[106] X-ray analysis has revealed dynamic activities in the interstellar medium likely driven by supernova explosions.^[107] In geology and petrology, the spindle stage serves as a specialized accessory for the polarizing microscope, enabling precise measurement of mineral refractive indices by immersing small crystal grains in liquids of known refractive index and rotating them through 360 degrees to observe conoscopic interference figures.^[108] Introduced by J.P. Rosenfeld in 1950, this device revolutionized optical crystallography by allowing uniaxial and biaxial minerals to be identified and oriented in three dimensions on a single grain, facilitating applications in rock thin-section analysis since the mid-20th century.^[109] The stage features a hemispherical mounting system that supports the spindle, which holds the crystal in a droplet of immersion oil, combined with fiber optic illumination for even lighting during rotation and tilt adjustments to align the crystal axes with the microscope's polarizer and analyzer.^[110] Post-2010 advancements have integrated digital imaging cameras and software with spindle stages, enhancing data capture through automated conoscopic figure analysis and higher-resolution recordings of optical properties for quantitative petrological studies.^[111] In optical engineering, spindle ferrules—precision sleeves within fiber optic connectors—ensure accurate alignment of fiber cores to minimize signal loss during light transmission, though their role is secondary to the analytical functions of astronomical and geological spindles.^[112]

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The single most important technological improvement in the cotton spinning industry during the last hundred years has been the replacement of mule by ring ...
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[PDF] Signature redacted-- - DSpace@MIT
Ring spinning is most suitable for the production of worsted yarns varying from 1 to 70s qualities. After replacement of the mule frame by the ring spinning ...
[26]
[PDF] INTRODUCTION TO OPEN-END SPINNING - TECHNICAL BULLETIN
The rotational speed of a combing roll ranges from about 3,000 to 10,000 rpm with 4,000 to 8,000 being most common. In actual operation, the supply sliver is ...
[27]
[PDF] ABSTRACT - NC State Repository
The main attraction of vortex spinning is that it is claimed to be capable of spinning 100% carded cotton fibers at very high speeds (400m/min), and the ...
[28]
(PDF) An Overview on Spinning Mechanism, Yarn Structure and ...
Sep 26, 2025 · Vortex spinning technology is a modified form of air-jet spinning which has attracted a lot of attention because of its advantages over ring ...
[29]
Components for Ring and Compact Spinning Machines - Rieter
Components from Bräcker, Novibra and Suessen are available for ring spinning machines of all types, allowing for reliable and economical yarn production.
[30]
Ring Spinning Machine: Drafting System, Different Parts and Functions
Dec 13, 2020 · Different parts of ring spinning machine: Roving bobbin; Roving; Bobbin holder; Guide roller; Drafting arrangement; Guide; Lappet; Bobbin tube ...
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The Textile Industry During the Industrial Revolution - globalEDGE
Oct 18, 2017 · New technological innovations such as Hargreave's “spinning jenny”, Richard Arkwright's water frame, and the Boulton and Watt steam engine ...
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The Industrial Revolution in England - National Park Service
Coupled with the carding machine, the Arkwright spinning frame ushered in the modern factory. The first textile mills, needing waterpower to drive their ...
[33]
[PDF] Energy-Efficiency Improvement Opportunities for the Textile Industry
As can be seen, spinning consumes the greatest share of electricity (41%) followed by weaving. (weaving preparation and weaving) (18%). Wet-processing ...
[34]
A Review on Energy Management in Textile Industry - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · In this paper, influence of various areas of energy consumption and process of optimisation in textile mill on energy conservation is discussed with practical ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
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Mitotic spindle assembly in animal cells: a fine balancing act - Nature
Feb 8, 2017 · The mitotic spindle has a crucial role in ensuring the accurate segregation of chromosomes into the two daughter cells during cell division.Missing: article | Show results with:article
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https://www.gchtool.com/blog/entry/understanding-cnc-spindles-meaning-types-and-uses.html
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Principles and dynamics of spindle assembly checkpoint signalling
Mar 24, 2023 · In this Review, we discuss how SAC proteins interact to allow production of the mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC) that halts anaphase ...
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https://milwaukeemachinetool.com/spindles/
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Muscle spindle function in healthy and diseased muscle - PMC - NIH
Jan 7, 2021 · This review summarizes the development and function of muscle spindles and the changes observed under pathological conditions.Missing: paper | Show results with:paper
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Muscle spindles and their role in maintaining robust locomotion - PMC
Dec 26, 2022 · We have briefly summarized the vast body of knowledge on the structure and function of muscle spindles, with particular attention to the role of ...
[41]
Mechanoreceptors Specialized for Proprioception - NCBI - NIH
The density of spindles in human muscles varies. Large muscles that generate coarse movements have relatively few spindles; in contrast, extraocular muscles ...
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Reduced motor unit activation of muscle spindles and tendon ...
Immobilization had a minimal effect on muscle spindle afferent (Ia and spindle group II) responses to a ramp-and-hold stretch of the passive muscle. Tendon ...
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Spindle Selection: A Critical Choice in Machine Tool Manufacturing
Jan 6, 2025 · Hybrid spindles: These spindles combine motor systems, like belt-driven and direct-drive spindles. Their configuration offers distinct ...
[44]
Spindles | NSK Global
Low-maintenance NSK spindles provide performance cutting for high-speed machine tools with precision built on world-class NSK bearing technology.
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Learn about the Types of CNC Spindles - GCHTool
Jan 27, 2023 · Belt-Driven Spindle This type of spindle has a maximum rotational speed of 15,000 RPM. As a result, it is slower than a built-in motor spindle. ...Missing: direct- | Show results with:direct-<|separator|>
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https://thessdguy.com/why-dont-hdds-spin-faster-than-15k-rpm/
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Machine Spindle Options | Milwaukee MachineTool Corporation
A motorized spindle can be driven with an electric, air or hydraulic motor. The motor can be directly coupled to the spindle shaft, or offset with a belt drive.
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ER collet chucks - Tool clamping - SCHUNK
The ER collet chuck is suitable for clamping tools with cylindrical shanks in collets in accordance with DIN ISO 15488-B.
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A complete guide to spindle runout correction. Learn to identify, measure, and fix runout for improved machining precision & tool life.
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Henry Maudslay - Linda Hall Library
Aug 22, 2019 · Henry Maudslay, a British machine tool maker, was born Aug. 22, 1771. Maudslay may be the most esteemed machine tool designer of the modern era.
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Sep 3, 2023 · Milling utilizes a rotating cutting tool to remove material, while turning rotates the workpiece against a stationary cutting tool. Both produce ...
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Spindle power and torque limitations - Cutting Tool Engineering
May 1, 2012 · In rotational motion, power is given by torque times rotational velocity (P = Tω), again in watts. The torque and power available in a spindle ...Missing: calculation | Show results with:calculation
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Why CNC Machining with Aerostatic Tool Spindles is Becoming a ...
Mar 22, 2016 · Aerostatic tool spindles which can be used to increase the speed, precision and throughput of CNC machining processes.
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Spindle Condition Monitoring With a Smart Vibration Sensor and an ...
Jan 31, 2023 · This article presents a spindle condition monitoring methodology using a low-power smart vibration sensor and a near real-time deep neural network (DNN) ...
[55]
Why Don't HDDs Spin Faster than 15K RPM? - The SSD Guy
Nov 14, 2012 · HDDs don't spin faster than 15K RPM because increasing speed requires too much power, causing power management issues and potentially ...
[56]
HDD Spindle motors - MinebeaMitsumi
Hard Disk Drive (HDD) spindle motors are what cause the disks in HDDs to rotate. The precision of these motors determine the capacity and speed of HDDs, ...
[57]
Hacking CD/DVD/Blu-ray for Biosensing - PMC
Nowadays, Blu-ray players (12× speed, 432 Mb/s) are affordable devices that reliably read 150 nm data pits from a spinning disc at 10,000 rpm. Optical drive ...
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HDD Spindle Motor - HddSurgery
HDD spindle motors generate torque to rotate platters, using brushless DC motors with a rotor and platter carrier, and fluid bearings.
[59]
HDD BLDC Motor - EDN Network
Oct 17, 2019 · First of all, note that a common hard disc drive (HDD) spindle motor is in fact a sensorless three-phase brushless dc (BLDC) motor!
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A Guide to Hard Drive Spindles - Horizon Technology
Jan 22, 2025 · Brushless DC (BLDC) motors meet most of the demands of a hard drive spindle. As the name suggests, they differ from simple brushed DC motors in ...
[61]
History (1979): IMI 7700, First Brushless DC Spindle Motor for HDDs
Apr 6, 2020 · Beginning with the first HDD in 1957, the mechanism for turning the disks of the drive has evolved over more than 50 years from large ac motors ...Missing: stepper | Show results with:stepper
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[PDF] CFP4207 Series - Seagate Technology
The spindle rotation of up to 35 drives may be synchronized together by daisy chaining pin 1 to pin 1 and pin 2 to pin 2 of each drive on connector J3 or.
[64]
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Rotational latency (in milliseconds) describes the time required to position a specific sector under the read–write head. Average latency is typically given as ...
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Hard disk drive reliability and MTBF / AFR | Seagate US
MTBF is a statistical term relating to reliability as expressed in power on hours (p.o.h.) and is often a specification associated with hard drive mechanisms.Missing: spindle | Show results with:spindle
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Wheel End Assembly and Axle Spindle Interface Dimensions - Truck ...
This recommended practice contains dimensions and tolerances for spindles in the interface area. Interfacing components include axle spindle, bearing cones, ...
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Application of 4140 steel in production of automotive components
May 24, 2023 · 4140 steel is employed in the production of steering components like tie rods and steering shafts. These components require high strength and stiffness.Steering Components · Wheel Hubs And Spindles · Roll Cages And Chassis...
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Bad Spindle Symptoms And How To Replace It (What Is A Spindle?)
It plays a key role in holding the wheel hub and bearings securely in place, and in some vehicles, it also helps support parts of the braking system. The ...What Is A Spindle? · Types Of Spindles · Why Do Spindles Fail?
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Steering Linkage Part 2 - Lares Corporation
Most North American vehicles built with independent front suspension (IFS) before the mid 1950s used kingpins to support the steering knuckle. After that ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
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suspension - What is the difference between a knuckle and spindle?
Feb 22, 2017 · The spindle carries the hub and bearing(s). Generally the spindle is used on non-driven wheels, but there are some where the spindle is hollow ...
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What did they use for a bearing before, say the 1800s, on things like ...
Aug 23, 2022 · Most American wagons of the 1800s like the Conestoga has iron spindles and bearings. They also had lots and lots of grease. There were some wood ...
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The 1913 Model T Ford
Aug 4, 2018 · Like the pedals, most front axles, steering wheel spiders, steering arms and front wheel spindles were supplied by the Dodge Brothers and marked ...
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Tin Lizzie's Last Stand: The 1926-27 Model T Ford
Jan 14, 2024 · The brakes and pedals were larger, while revisions to the frame, axles, and spindles lowered the ride height around an inch. While the '26-'27 ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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https://thors.com/what-is-a-steering-system/
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What Is King Pin Inclination (KPI)? - Suspension Secrets
May 29, 2017 · The purpose of the KPI is to produce vertical displacement of the vehicle in during steering in an upward direction.
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Step-by-Step Guide to Repacking Wheel Bearings on Axle Spindles
Regular Maintenance is Critical: Repack your bearings every 30,000–50,000 miles, or more frequently if you operate in extreme conditions like off-road ...
[78]
5 Steps to Optimize Your Wheel Bearings' Longevity and Performance
Optimize wheel bearings by ensuring proper torquing, regular inspection, greasing, avoiding overloading, and maintaining wheel alignment.
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Steering Linkage Part 1 - Lares Corporation
On vehicles after the mid-1950s, ball joints connect the control arms to a steering knuckle assembly which combines the steering knuckle and support into one ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
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Intermediate Shafts - Nexteer
Our Low Mass Intermediate Shafts (I-shafts) provide a mechanical link from the steering column to the steering gear at various joint angles up to 41 degrees.<|separator|>
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Steering Intermediate Shaft: Symptoms & Repair Guide - RepairPal
The steering intermediate shaft connects the steering wheel to the steering gearbox, or steering rack. The intermediate shaft has a universal joint at each end, ...
[83]
The Recirculating Ball & Nut Steering Gear - Lares Corporation
The recirculating ball and nut steering gear uses ball bearings in a helical groove to move the ball nut, which has gear teeth to move the Pitman arm.
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Sometime in the 1950s, engineers had the brilliant idea of adding a hydraulic system that would assist the driver when turning the vehicle's wheel. Fast forward ...
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[PDF] Plastic can be incorporated in energy absorbing steering columns to ...
Energy absorbing steering columns were first developed in the late 1960s to cushion the impact of the driver's chest by absorbing much of his or her impact ...
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Steering Systems 101: Rack-and-Pinion vs. Recirculating-Ball
May 12, 2015 · In this story we will look at some of the more popular steering systems out there, along with their pros and cons. Get the 101 here!<|control11|><|separator|>
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Sep 23, 2018 · AMC used rack and pinion in their 1975 and up Pacers, but GM and Chrysler did not begin their use until the early Eighties X-bodies and K-Cars.
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Recirculating-ball steering is used on many trucks and SUVs today. The linkage that turns the wheels is slightly different than on a rack-and-pinion system.
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Recirculating Ball Steering – Precise transmission of extrem
Recirculating Ball Steering (RCB) uses steel balls to transmit steering wheel motion to the piston, handling high torques up to 8,500 Newton meters.
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From a Tiller to Command Center – Story of the Steering Wheel
May 6, 2020 · It was only in 1894, when the Frenchman Alfred Vacheron replaced the tiller on his Panhard & Levassor with a steering wheel. This was done to ...Missing: 1890s | Show results with:1890s
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Electric Power Steering: Past, Present and Future - Brake & Front End
Oct 1, 2014 · The 1989 model was going to have an electric-driven pump that resided in the front and powered a conventional power steering rack and pinion — ...
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Rating 5.0 (1) Jul 17, 2025 · Electric power steering was once a technology found on exotic rear engine supercars. In the late 1980s, many cars now had wide front tires.
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Electric Power Steering Sensors - Brake & Front End
Feb 26, 2025 · When looking at the data PIDs, you'll likely see two separate force/torque readings, measured in lb.-ft. or Nm. Turning the steering should ...
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Table 5-7 shows the final energy absorbed as a ratio of the energy absorbed in the FMVSS 208 rigid barrier test. For the test configurations shown, the ...
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5 Warning Signs Of Bad Intermediate Steering Shafts
Jan 31, 2024 · A bad or damaged intermediate steering shaft can result in numerous driving issues. It is not safe to drive a vehicle that has a bad steering shaft.What Are The Symptoms Of... · Difficulty In Turning The Wheels<|control11|><|separator|>
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Balusters, Balustrades and Spindles: What's the Difference?
Mar 20, 2024 · Typically, the term spindle means wooden balusters, particularly those turned on a lathe to create intricate shapes. While spindles fulfill ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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https://www.victoriandepot.com/types-of-furniture
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A brief history of the art of bobbin turned furniture and the craft of ...
Jan 30, 2024 · The craft of bobbin turning was used to create various elements of wooden furniture such as table or chair legs, stretchers, and decorative details.
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The Windsor chair was introduced in England in the late 17th century, and it was about 50 years later, around 1730, that the first American Windsor chairs were ...
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Windsor Chairs: History, Construction, & Styles
As documented in several publications, Windsor furniture originated in England around 1720. While originally Windsor chairs were outdoor chairs, they quickly ...
[102]
Tips for better spindle turning - WOOD Magazine
Jan 15, 2025 · No matter how complex it might look, every turned spindle consists of four basic shapes, shown below—bead, cove, vee, and straight—used ...Things To Know Before... · Starting From Square One... · Now Set Critical Diameters...Missing: balusters | Show results with:balusters
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Types of Furniture By Victorian Depot
The first style of Victorian Furniture we will discuss is Gothic Revival. Gothic furniture creations saw a revival between 1840 and 1860.<|separator|>
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Wooden Spindles | Custom Stair & Furniture Spindles - H.A. Stiles
Order custom wooden spindles from H.A. Stiles. CNC or high-volume turned options for staircases, furniture, & home projects. Call us today!Missing: modern | Show results with:modern
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We will walk you through some of the woodturner's 'go to' finishing products that will help give your projects lasting shine and hard wearing protection.
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Catalogue 61 · African Brilliance · Omeka S - Exhibitions
This low stool, known as nta za nyao, has lathe-turned wooden spindle legs of the Siyu style, named for the northern Swahili town of Siyu, on the island of ...
[109]
Messier 102: Spindle Galaxy
Sep 8, 2015 · It has the designation NGC 5866 in the New General Catalogue. The Spindle Galaxy occupies an area of 4.7 by 1.9 arc minutes of apparent sky, ...
[110]
2006 June 12 - Edge On Galaxy NGC 5866 - APOD
Jun 12, 2006 · The blue disk of young stars can be seen extending past the dust in the extremely thin galactic plane, while the bulge in the disk center ...
[111]
Sky Notes 2021 : June & July - British Astronomical Association
May 31, 2021 · Messier 102 (NGC 5866) is a spindle galaxy, its almost perfectly edge-on dust lane being a fine feature. ... It was discovered by Sir William ...
[112]
ACS image of NGC 5866 - ESA/Hubble
Jun 8, 2006 · The image highlights the galaxy's structure: a subtle, reddish bulge surrounding a bright nucleus, a blue disk of stars running parallel to the ...
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Full ACS Image of NGC 5866 - NASA Science
This Hubble image of NGC 5866 is a combination of blue, green and red observations taken with the Hubble Telescope's Advanced Camera for Surveys in November ...Missing: Spindle | Show results with:Spindle
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DYNAMIC S0 GALAXIES: A CASE STUDY OF NGC 5866 - IOPscience
This study shows strong evidence for dynamic activities in the interstellar medium, which are most likely driven by supernova explosions in the galactic disk ...
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[PDF] The spindle stage: a turning point for optical crystallographyt - RRuff
Abstract. Spindle-stage methods combined with computer and statistical analysis of the resultant data promise a significant upgrading and expansion of the ...Missing: invention | Show results with:invention
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The Spindle Stage: Principles and Practice - Rosenfeld - 1983
Feb 8, 1983 · When I published my first paper [Rosenfeld, 1950], one on what is now called the spindle stage, describing a simple device and conoscopic ...Missing: invention | Show results with:invention
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978-1-4615-2387-1.pdf
index tests. The immense utility of the spindle stage for refractive index determi- nations results from the fact that all three refractive indices can be.Missing: 1950s | Show results with:1950s
[118]
Temperature control spindle stage | American Mineralogist
Jul 9, 2018 · Herein is described a simple temperature control spindle stage, together with the recommended operation procedure.Missing: invention | Show results with:invention
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Effects of Alignment on Fiber Optic Connector Loss
The fiber hole in the ferrule may not be centered in the ferrule or may be offset from its proper location as in multifiber connectors. The blue line on the ...Missing: spindle | Show results with:spindle