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Australian commandos

Australian commandos are elite special forces units within the Australian Army's Special Operations Command, specializing in reconnaissance, direct action, counter-terrorism, and unconventional warfare, with origins tracing back to the Independent Companies formed in late 1940 for guerrilla operations against Japanese forces in the Pacific during World War II.^[1]^[2] The Independent Companies, later redesignated as Commando Squadrons in 1943, were raised starting in January 1941 under British advisory influence and deployed for raiding, sabotage, and long-range patrolling in campaigns across New Guinea, Timor, and Borneo, conducting stay-behind operations and delaying tactics against superior enemy numbers.^[1] After the war, commando capabilities were re-established in the post-war era when, on 16 September 1954, the Australian Military Board authorized the formation of two Citizen Military Force commando companies in Sydney and Melbourne, each with 265 personnel structured for both clandestine and conventional roles, drawing directly from World War II traditions.^[3] These evolved into the 1st Commando Regiment, established with regimental headquarters in 1981 at Randwick Barracks, New South Wales, as the Army's primary reserve special forces unit providing trained personnel for operational support, signals, and logistics, with deployments including Bougainville (1994), East Timor (1999–2000), the Solomon Islands (2000–2003), Iraq (2003–2009), and Afghanistan (2008–2013).^[2]^[4] In parallel, the modern regular commando force emerged from the 1997 re-roling of the 4th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment, into a commando unit, culminating in the formal establishment of the 2nd Commando Regiment on 19 June 2009 at Holsworthy Barracks, New South Wales, as a Tier 2 special forces formation focused on strategic strike, hostage rescue, and high-risk special recovery missions.^[2] The Special Operations Command itself was created on 5 May 2003 to integrate these commando regiments alongside the Special Air Service Regiment and support elements like the Special Operations Engineer Regiment, enhancing Australia's capacity for joint special operations and domestic counter-terrorism responses.^[2] Both regiments emphasize rigorous selection processes, including the 13-week Special Forces Screen and advanced training in airborne, amphibious, and urban operations, while upholding traditions such as the Sherwood green beret (changed to khaki in 2025) for the 1st Commando Regiment and the double diamond insignia for the 2nd, symbolizing their heritage of swift and decisive action.^[2]^[5] Notable post-2001 contributions include over 20 rotations to Afghanistan by the 2nd Commando Regiment, earning a Unit Citation for Gallantry for actions in 2005–2006, alongside ongoing roles in international coalitions and regional security partnerships.^[2]

History

World War II Formations and Operations

The Australian independent companies, the precursors to formal commando units, were established in 1941 as specialized forces designed for guerrilla warfare, reconnaissance, and sabotage in potentially undefended or occupied territories in the Pacific.^[6] The first such unit, the 1st Independent Company, was raised in May-June 1941 at the No. 7 Infantry Training Centre on Wilson's Promontory, Victoria, with subsequent companies following a similar model amid growing threats from Japanese expansion.^[7] These units drew inspiration from British commando concepts but were adapted for jungle and island environments, emphasizing small-team operations and mobility.^[8] By 1943, the independent companies underwent reorganization into cavalry commando squadrons to better integrate with conventional forces while retaining their irregular warfare focus, resulting in units like the 2/2nd, 2/4th, and 2/6th becoming designated as such.^[9] For instance, the 2/2nd Independent Company, after initial service, was redesignated the 2/2nd Cavalry (Commando) Squadron and participated in operations across multiple theaters.^[10] Each independent company typically comprised 17 officers and approximately 250 other ranks, totaling around 267 personnel, trained in jungle warfare, demolitions, and small-unit tactics at specialized schools like the Guerrilla Warfare School at Foster, Victoria.^[11]^[7] In parallel, the M and Z Special Units were created under Allied Intelligence Bureau auspices for covert operations behind enemy lines, with M Unit focusing on long-range reconnaissance and coastwatching, and Z Unit on sabotage and raiding.^[12] A notable Z Special Unit action was Operation Jaywick in September 1943, where a small team led by Major Ivan Lyon, using disguised fishing vessels and folboats, sank or damaged multiple Japanese ships in Singapore Harbour without Allied casualties, disrupting enemy logistics.^[13] These units operated with extreme secrecy, often inserting via submarine or small craft, and contributed to intelligence vital for broader Pacific campaigns.^[14] The Royal Australian Navy established Beach Commando units in early 1944—modeled on Royal Navy equivalents—to support amphibious assaults through beach reconnaissance, signaling, and traffic control during landings.^[15] These commandos, organized into sections of signals and beach parties, participated in operations such as the Borneo Campaign (Operation Oboe), where they facilitated the 9th Australian Division's landings at Tarakan, Labuan, and Balikpapan in 1945, ensuring efficient unloading of troops and supplies under fire.^[16] Key engagements underscored the commandos' adaptability in irregular warfare. In Timor, from February 1942, elements of the 2/2nd and 2/4th Independent Companies conducted a prolonged guerrilla campaign against Japanese forces, harassing supply lines and gathering intelligence for over a year despite being outnumbered, which delayed enemy consolidation and tied down significant Japanese troops.^[17] In New Guinea, the 2/6th Independent Company played a pivotal role in the Ramu Valley, notably at the Battle of Kaiapit in September 1943, where a company-strength force ambushed and defeated a Japanese battalion, securing the Markham Valley and enabling Allied advances.^[18] During the 1945 Borneo operations, commando squadrons from the 2/6th and others conducted deep reconnaissance and raids, supporting the overall Allied push that liberated key oilfields and airfields with minimal resistance in targeted areas.^[8]

Post-World War II Evolution

Following the end of World War II, most Australian commando units, such as the 2/7th, 2/2nd, 2/8th, and 2/9th Commando Squadrons, were disbanded by early 1946 after undertaking limited occupation duties in Borneo and other Pacific areas.^[19] In the mid-1950s, amid growing regional security concerns, the Australian Army revived commando capabilities by raising the 1st Commando Company in Sydney and the 2nd Commando Company in Melbourne as part of the Citizen Military Forces (CMF) on 24 February 1955, focusing on part-time training in special operations skills like raiding and reconnaissance.^[20] The Vietnam War prompted further expansion of Australian special forces in the 1960s and 1970s, with the Special Air Service Regiment (SASR) deploying squadrons from 1966 to 1971 for long-range reconnaissance patrols.^[21] During the Cold War, notable developments included the formation of the SASR in 1957 as a company-sized unit modeled on the British SAS, its growth to a full regiment with three sabre squadrons in 1964, and the 1981 establishment of the 1st Commando Regiment as a reserve formation uniting the existing CMF commando companies with a special forces signals squadron for enhanced coordination.^[21]^[22] In the early 1990s, personnel from the 1st Commando Regiment contributed to United Nations operations in Somalia in 1993 and Rwanda in 1994, providing logistics and signals support.^[23] These changes reflected key doctrinal shifts toward counter-insurgency and rapid deployment capabilities, drawing from British SAS experiences in Malaya and Oman—emphasizing "hearts and minds" strategies and unconventional warfare—and U.S. Special Forces models in Vietnam, which integrated intelligence gathering with direct action.^[24] Training programs transitioned from the improvised approaches of World War II to formalized CMF curricula by the 1960s, incorporating structured jungle warfare instruction, small-unit tactics, and interoperability exercises to prepare part-time forces for potential Southeast Asian contingencies.^[4]

Organization

Special Operations Command

The Special Operations Command (SOCOMD) was established on 5 May 2003 to centralize command and control of all Australian Army special forces units under a single joint headquarters, drawing inspiration from the structure of the United States Special Operations Command to enhance operational efficiency and coordination.^[2] This creation addressed the need for a unified approach to special operations in response to evolving global security challenges, particularly counter-terrorism, by integrating previously disparate units such as the Special Air Service Regiment and commando formations.^[25] Headquartered at Holsworthy Barracks in New South Wales, SOCOMD serves as the primary coordinator for joint special operations involving the Australian Defence Force's Army, Navy, and Air Force elements, facilitating rapid deployment and interoperability across services.^[26] The command is led by a Major General serving as the Special Operations Commander Australia, who reports directly to the Chief of Joint Operations and oversees subordinate components including the Special Operations Aviation Regiment for rotary-wing support, the Special Operations Logistics Squadron for sustainment, and signals units for communications and intelligence enablement.^[27] These elements provide dedicated aviation, logistics, and signals support to enable commando units to conduct missions such as counter-terrorism assaults and special reconnaissance with heightened precision and endurance.^[25] Since its inception, SOCOMD has integrated core commando regiments as its primary maneuver elements, fostering greater interoperability among them for complex operations.^[2] The command has evolved to emphasize capabilities tailored to the Indo-Pacific region, including expansions in training facilities and equipment to support distributed operations amid rising strategic tensions.^[28] Post-2021, SOCOMD has deepened integration with allies through the AUKUS security framework, enabling enhanced joint exercises and technology sharing with the United States and United Kingdom special operations forces to bolster regional deterrence.^[25]

Commando Regiments

The Australian Army's commando regiments operate under the Special Operations Command (SOCOMD) and consist of the 1st Commando Regiment, a primarily reserve force unit, and the 2nd Commando Regiment, a full-time regular unit, both specializing in high-intensity special operations tasks such as raiding, reconnaissance, direct action, and counter-terrorism.^[2]^[29] These regiments integrate regular, ex-regular, and reserve personnel to deliver scalable capabilities, with the reserve elements providing surge capacity during major operations while maintaining part-time commitments that allow members to balance civilian professions.^[30]^[2] The 1st Commando Regiment, established in 1981 by grouping existing reserve commando companies originally raised in 1955, is headquartered at Randwick Barracks in Sydney, New South Wales, and functions as SOCOMD's primary reserve special forces unit.^[31]^[29] Its structure includes a regimental headquarters, 1st and 2nd Commando Companies (based in New South Wales and Victoria, respectively), and the 301st Signal Squadron for communications support, enabling roles in raiding, reconnaissance, and providing individual reinforcements to other SOCOMD units.^[30] With approximately 450 personnel comprising a mix of full-time cadre and part-time reserves, the regiment emphasizes surge support for sustained operations, such as company-sized deployments in peacekeeping and combat scenarios.^[30] In contrast, the 2nd Commando Regiment is a regular army unit formally established on 19 June 2009, following the 1997 re-roling of the 4th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (Commando), and is based at Holsworthy Barracks in New South Wales.^[2]^[30] It specializes in direct action raids and counter-terrorism as the Tactical Assault Group-East, with a structure featuring a regimental headquarters, four commando companies (A through D), the 126th Signal Squadron, an operations support company, and a logistics support company to enable rapid global deployments.^[30] As a full-time force, it maintains continuous readiness for expeditionary missions, differing from the reserve model by focusing on immediate response without relying on mobilization.^[29] Supporting these regiments is the Special Operations Engineer Regiment (SOER), formerly the Incident Response Regiment (IRR), originating from a 1999 joint unit and raised in 2002, which was integrated into SOCOMD upon its establishment in 2003 and provides specialized capabilities against chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and explosive (CBRNE) threats through mobility, counter-mobility, and technical support roles.^[2] Personnel for both regiments are recruited via a mix of direct general entry for civilians, who undergo initial military training before specialist assessment, and in-service transfers from the regular army, with selection prioritizing individuals demonstrating exceptional physical endurance and mental resilience to withstand demanding operational environments.^[32]^[29] Since the 2010s, both regiments have expanded their amphibious focus through joint exercises aligned with the Australian Defence Force's broader amphibious readiness, incorporating specialized training like the Commando Amphibious Operators Course for zodiac boat operations and assault swimming to enhance littoral maneuverability.^[29]

Roles and Capabilities

Primary Operational Roles

Australian commandos, operating under the Special Operations Command (SOCOMD), fulfill a range of core missions that emphasize precision, adaptability, and integration with joint forces. Their primary operational roles include special reconnaissance, direct action, counter-terrorism, and special warfare, enabling the Australian Defence Force (ADF) to address diverse threats from conventional conflicts to asymmetric challenges. These roles are executed by the commando regiments, with the 2nd Commando Regiment specializing in strategic strikes and direct action, and the 1st Commando Regiment focusing on special warfare support.^[33] Reconnaissance and surveillance form a foundational role, involving long-range patrols and deep penetration behind enemy lines to gather actionable intelligence. Australian commandos conduct clandestine special reconnaissance operations to achieve information dominance, such as detecting weapons of mass destruction or anti-access/area denial systems, often in small teams to minimize detection.^[34]^[35] Direct action encompasses raids, ambushes, and precision strikes against high-value targets, prioritizing speed, surprise, and a minimal operational footprint to achieve decisive effects. The 2nd Commando Regiment specializes in strategic strike missions, applying surgical effects at key points to disrupt enemy capabilities. These operations leverage principles of relative superiority, including simplicity, security, and purpose, to overpower adversaries rapidly.^[33]^[34] Counter-terrorism remains a key domestic and international responsibility, involving hostage rescue, siege resolution, and network disruption. Since 1980, Tactical Assault Groups from the SASR and 2nd Commando Regiment have provided a "no-fail" capability for high-risk responses, supporting civil authorities under the Defence Force Assistance to the Civil Community framework while adhering to principles of necessity and proportionality. This role has evolved from reactive domestic defense to proactive overseas engagements, including training partner forces to counter violent extremism.^[35]^[34] Special reconnaissance and unconventional warfare extend to supporting allied forces in hybrid threats, particularly in urban and maritime environments. The 1st Commando Regiment leads special warfare efforts, such as building proxy forces and conducting influence operations to foster stability, drawing on indirect approaches deemed more decisive than direct action alone. These missions include regime change support in contexts like Libya and Syria, emphasizing cultural understanding and partner capacity building.^[33]^[34] Doctrinal principles guiding these roles trace back to a World War II-era "hearts and minds" approach, which has evolved to incorporate unified actions, surprise, and decision superiority in modern contexts. By the 2020s, this framework has integrated cyber-enabled operations to defeat advanced threats, such as anti-access systems, through combined cyberspace and physical effects. Australian principles also stress integrated operations with Navy and Air Force assets for enhanced readiness.^[34] Environmental adaptations underpin operational versatility, with expertise in jungle, desert, and amphibious settings enabling missions across heterogeneous terrains. Special forces train for mountain, sub-surface, and urban maneuvers, supporting joint amphibious operations like those integrated with the ADF's littoral capabilities. This adaptability ensures effectiveness in diverse scenarios, from regional surveillance to global deployments.^[34]

Training and Selection Processes

The selection process for Australian commandos begins with the Special Forces Entry Test (SFET), a rigorous physical assessment designed to evaluate candidates' fitness and suitability for special operations roles within the Special Operations Command (SOCOMD). This initial screening, typically lasting several days, includes timed runs, swims, pack marches, and strength tests to filter applicants from across the Australian Defence Force (ADF).^[36] Successful candidates then proceed to the Special Forces Selection Course, a combined three-week program introduced in 2024 and conducted at locations such as the Bindoon Training Area in Western Australia. This course intensifies challenges through sleep-deprived endurance events, like a 20 km timed pack march, alongside assessments of cognitive behavior, leadership, teamwork, navigation, and resilience under extreme stress, aiming to identify individuals for roles as special forces operators or support integrators.^[37]^[38] Following selection, successful candidates enter the reinforcement training pipeline, a comprehensive 11- to 12-month program at facilities including Holsworthy Barracks in New South Wales and Singleton Training Area. This phase builds operational proficiency through instruction in advanced weapons handling, demolitions, static-line parachuting, combat diving, and tactical maneuvers, culminating in live-fire exercises and scenario-based simulations to prepare personnel for deployment.^[29] Psychological evaluations are integrated throughout, focusing on mental toughness and decision-making under duress to ensure candidates can endure prolonged high-stress environments.^[39] Specialist courses extend beyond initial reinforcement, offering advanced training in areas such as close-quarters urban combat, free-fall parachuting, and language or cultural immersion for specific missions. These are tailored to operational needs and conducted at specialized sites within SOCOMD, enabling commandos to adapt to diverse environments from amphibious insertions to high-altitude operations.^[29] Attrition rates during selection are exceptionally high, typically ranging from 70% to 80%, with many candidates withdrawing due to the combined physical and psychological demands; only a small fraction—around 20-30%—complete the course.^[39]^[40] This high failure rate underscores the emphasis on inherent resilience, as no amount of prior preparation fully replicates the course's intensity. For reservists in the 1st Commando Regiment, the process differs from that of regular units like the 2nd and 4th Commando Regiments, featuring a shorter initial selection adapted to part-time service—often modular over two 16-day blocks—followed by annual refreshers to maintain skills without the full-time 12-month pipeline.^[29] Since 2015, training has evolved to incorporate emerging threats, integrating drone operation for reconnaissance and surveillance, as well as basic cyber awareness modules to counter digital vulnerabilities in modern operations.^[41]^[42]

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