Commando
A commando is a combatant in an elite light infantry or special operations force trained for executing surprise raids, reconnaissance, and sabotage missions, often operating in small, highly mobile teams behind enemy lines.[1][2] The term derives from the Afrikaans kommando, referring to Boer irregular mounted units in 19th-century South Africa, where burghers were legally commandeered into citizen militias for rapid-response defense and guerrilla warfare against colonial forces.[2][3] These Boer commandos emphasized mobility, marksmanship, and decentralized tactics, traveling light on horseback and employing long-range rifles to outmaneuver larger British armies during conflicts like the Anglo-Boer Wars (1880–1881 and 1899–1902).[4][5] The commando concept was adapted by the British Army during World War II, when Prime Minister Winston Churchill directed the formation of specialized raiding units in June 1940, shortly after the Dunkirk evacuation, to inspire aggressive action and harass Axis forces.[6][7] These British Commandos underwent rigorous training in amphibious assaults, unarmed combat, and survival, conducting high-risk operations such as the St. Nazaire Raid (1942), which destroyed a key dry dock, and assaults during the D-Day landings (1944), where they scaled cliffs at Pointe du Hoc and secured beachheads despite heavy casualties.[6] Their success in hit-and-run tactics influenced postwar special forces worldwide, including units like the U.S. Army Rangers and modern commando formations in Commonwealth nations, though early raids like Dieppe (1942) highlighted the perils of such operations, resulting in over 60% casualties for some units due to inadequate intelligence and support.[6][7] Today, "commando" denotes versatile elite troops prioritizing speed, initiative, and precision strikes, distinct from conventional infantry.[1]
Terminology and Concept
Definition and Characteristics
A commando is a soldier belonging to an elite light infantry or special operations unit trained primarily for conducting raids, reconnaissance, and sabotage operations in small, highly mobile teams, often behind enemy lines or in hostile territory.[1] This role emphasizes shock tactics, surprise assaults, and rapid disengagement, distinguishing commandos from conventional infantry focused on sustained positional warfare.[8] The term originated with Boer volunteer militias in South Africa during the late 19th century, where commandos functioned as irregular guerrilla forces capable of mounting swift, decentralized attacks against superior British conventional armies.[9] Key characteristics include rigorous volunteer selection, advanced physical and tactical training exceeding standard military standards, and versatility in amphibious, airborne, or overland insertions.[6] Commando units typically operate in troops or sections of 10 to 30 personnel, prioritizing individual initiative, marksmanship, and endurance over heavy armament, with equipment tailored for stealth and speed such as lightweight weapons, demolitions, and survival gear.[10] They excel in direct action missions like targeting enemy infrastructure—such as docks, factories, or command posts—while minimizing exposure to prolonged engagements, a doctrine refined by British forces in World War II to counter static defenses.[8] Unlike broader special forces emphasizing long-term unconventional warfare or foreign internal defense, commandos historically focus on overt, high-intensity raids with immediate strategic impact, as evidenced by their employment in operations requiring precision demolition and intelligence gathering under extreme risk.[11] This specialization demands exceptional discipline and adaptability, with units maintaining high operational tempo through decentralized command structures that empower junior leaders.[9]Distinction from Conventional Forces
Commando units distinguish themselves from conventional forces through their focus on small-scale, high-precision operations that prioritize strategic impact over territorial control or massed firepower. Unlike conventional infantry, which operates in larger formations to conduct sustained engagements, seize and hold objectives, and integrate combined arms tactics such as artillery support and armored maneuvers, commandos emphasize raids, ambushes, sabotage, and special reconnaissance conducted by teams of 4 to 40 personnel in denied or hostile environments far from logistical bases.[12] This operational paradigm requires operator-level initiative in planning, execution, and adaptation, often under clandestine conditions with minimal external support, contrasting with the hierarchical command structures and resupply chains typical of conventional units.[12] Training and personnel selection further underscore these differences, as commandos undergo regimens that develop multifaceted skills in unconventional warfare, cultural immersion, and survival in austere settings, enabling missions like direct action or unconventional warfare that exceed the doctrinal scope of regular forces.[12] Conventional forces, by contrast, prioritize collective discipline, weapons proficiency, and integration within mechanized or line infantry roles suited to symmetric conflicts, with less emphasis on individual autonomy or specialized insertions such as HALO jumps or maritime approaches.[13] Equipment for commandos is lightweight and versatile—favoring personal weapons, demolitions, and surveillance gear over heavy crew-served systems—to facilitate rapid deployment and exfiltration, reflecting an economy-of-force principle where limited numbers achieve disproportionate effects against high-value targets.[12] These distinctions arise from doctrinal necessities in asymmetric or hybrid warfare, where commandos exploit enemy vulnerabilities through surprise and mobility rather than attrition, often integrating with or enabling conventional operations without assuming their roles.[14] Historical examples, such as British Commandos during World War II, demonstrate this by executing hit-and-run assaults like the 1942 St. Nazaire raid, which disrupted naval assets using 612 men against fortified defenses, a feat impractical for conventional battalions reliant on overwhelming force.[15] In modern contexts, this separation preserves commando units for politically sensitive or high-risk tasks, avoiding dilution in routine garrison duties or frontline attrition that characterize conventional deployments.[12]Etymology and Historical Origins
Boer War Commandos
The Boer commando system emerged in the 18th century among Dutch-descended settlers in the Cape Colony as a decentralized militia to counter threats from indigenous tribes, compensating for the absence of a standing army.[16] It drew from earlier expeditionary traditions, organizing armed parties for rapid mobilization against local adversaries.[16] By the late 19th century, this structure had evolved into the primary defense mechanism of the independent Boer republics—the South African Republic (Transvaal) and the Orange Free State—relying on citizen-soldiers who provided their own horses and rifles.[4] In the Second Boer War, which began on October 11, 1899, commandos formed the core of Boer forces, with burghers aged 16 to 60 legally obligated to serve upon call-up.[16] [4] Organized by geographic districts, each commando varied in size from under 100 men in rural areas to over 2,800 in urban centers like Pretoria; subunits known as wards or corps typically comprised 20 to 60 fighters led by elected veldcornets (field cornets).[4] Commandants, chosen democratically by commando members, oversaw district-level operations, while higher generals coordinated across republics.[16] Initial mobilization yielded approximately 45,000 disposable burghers from a potential force of around 61,000, supplemented by artillery crews, police, and foreign volunteers.[16] [4] Boer commandos emphasized mobility and marksmanship, employing tactics suited to their agrarian lifestyle: small detachments of 5 to 20 horsemen conducted skirmishes, outflanking maneuvers, and long-range fire from concealed positions using smokeless-powder Mauser rifles.[16] [17] They avoided close-quarters combat, favoring hit-and-run raids, ambushes on supply lines, and defensive use of terrain in early conventional engagements such as the battles of Colenso (December 15, 1899), Magersfontein (December 11, 1899), and Stormberg (December 10, 1899), which inflicted significant British casualties during "Black Week."[17] As the war shifted to guerrilla warfare after British advances in 1900, commandos fragmented into smaller, elusive bands, disrupting communications and logistics until attrition from scorched-earth policies and blockhouses eroded their effectiveness by 1902.[17] Armed with modern artillery like Creusot 155mm "Long Toms" and Krupp field guns, they demonstrated proficiency in sieges at Ladysmith, Kimberley, and Mafeking early in the conflict.[4]British Adoption and Early Use
The British military first encountered the term "commando" during the Second Boer War (1899–1902), where it described the Boer republics' citizen militias—mobile, mounted irregular forces organized by district for rapid mobilization, emphasizing marksmanship, horsemanship, and guerrilla tactics that inflicted significant attrition on British conventional armies despite numerical inferiority.[18] These units, typically numbering 1,000–3,000 men per commando under elected field cornets and commandants, operated with high autonomy, living off the land and avoiding pitched battles in favor of hit-and-run ambushes, which frustrated British supply lines and sieges like Ladysmith (October 1899–February 1900).[19] The effectiveness stemmed from the Boers' intimate terrain knowledge and cultural adaptation to veld warfare, prompting British adaptations such as mounted infantry columns and blockhouse systems by 1901, though the war ended with Boer surrender on May 31, 1902, after 22,000 British deaths.[18] Post-war analyses highlighted the commandos' decentralized structure and raiding prowess as lessons for irregular warfare, influencing British doctrinal shifts toward mobile forces, though immediate unit adoption was absent amid army reforms focusing on rifle training and territorial organization.[20] The term persisted in British lexicon to denote Boer-style raiders, embedding the concept of lightweight, versatile troops capable of offensive independence.[5] Formal British adoption occurred on June 5, 1940, when Prime Minister Winston Churchill, responding to the Dunkirk evacuation's strategic reversal, issued a directive via Chief of the Imperial General Staff Gen. Sir John Dill for "independent companies" of 250–300 volunteers each to conduct hit-and-run raids on occupied Europe, aiming to harass German forces and boost morale.[21] Lt. Col. Dudley W. Clarke, tasked with implementation and born in South Africa to British parents familiar with Boer tactics, proposed naming these units "Commandos" to evoke the Boer War predecessors' guerrilla mobility and shock value, rejecting alternatives like "Raiders" for their historical resonance.[22] By July 1940, the first four Army Commandos (Nos. 1–4) were raised from 2,000 volunteers at deals like Lochailort, Scotland, undergoing intensive training in amphibious assault, silent killing, and endurance marches, with early raids such as Operation Ambassador (Guernsey, July 4–5, 1940) testing small-scale infiltration despite limited success due to intelligence failures.[6] These initial formations, consolidated into the Special Service Brigade by November 1940 under Brig. Robert Laycock, marked the shift from ad hoc Independent Companies to a dedicated raiding capability, with 10 Army Commandos operational by year's end, totaling over 3,000 men selected for physical rigor and initiative.[23] Early employment emphasized coastal sabotage, as in the Lofoten Islands raid (March 4, 1941), where No. 3 and No. 4 Commandos destroyed fish oil factories and captured 225 Germans with minimal losses, validating the Boer-inspired model of surprise and withdrawal.[6] The adoption prioritized empirical adaptation over rigid convention, reflecting causal lessons from Boer asymmetry where conventional superiority yielded to agile disruption.[22]Selection and Training
Volunteer Selection Processes
Volunteers for commando units, particularly the British formations established during World War II, were drawn exclusively from serving personnel in existing regiments rather than conscripts, ensuring a self-selected cadre motivated for irregular warfare and raiding missions.[6] This approach prioritized individuals with inherent resilience for hazardous duties, as commandos operated behind enemy lines with minimal support, demanding exceptional initiative and endurance.[24] The selection process began with a War Office circular in June 1940 soliciting volunteers for undisclosed "special service," allowing commanding generals to nominate suitable officers and men without revealing operational details to maintain secrecy.[25] Prospective volunteers underwent a personal interview with an officer to assess suitability, with an option for private withdrawal if doubts arose post-briefing.[24] [25] Key criteria included youth and peak physical fitness, intelligence, self-reliance, independence, swimming proficiency, resistance to seasickness, and prior completion of standard infantry training; officers were limited to those under 40 years old possessing tactical acumen, leadership, and boldness.[25] These attributes were deemed essential for tasks involving amphibious assaults, sabotage, and evasion, where failure often meant capture or death. Following initial acceptance, candidates entered a three-month basic course at the Commando Depot, where approximately 50% were retained based on demonstrated aptitude and physical performance, with the remainder returned to their original units (RTU) for inadequacy or disciplinary issues.[25] [24] This probationary phase served as a de facto extended screening, filtering for those capable of mastering advanced skills like close-quarters combat and survival under duress. Subsequent unit-specific training at Scottish centers such as Achnacarry further weeded out unfit personnel via progressive tests, reinforcing the volunteer ethos by emphasizing voluntary perseverance amid high attrition.[6] This model influenced allied counterparts, such as U.S. Army Rangers formed in 1942, who similarly required volunteers meeting stringent physical and psychological standards, including timed marches and combat proficiency evaluations, to emulate British commando raiding tactics.[25] Across formations, the process underscored causal links between rigorous pre-training vetting and operational success, as unmotivated or ill-suited individuals posed risks in small, elite teams reliant on cohesion and adaptability.[24]Rigorous Training Regimens and Green Berets
The green beret originated as the official headgear for British Commandos during World War II, with No. 1 Commando becoming the first unit to wear it in battle during operations in North Africa.[26] It symbolizes the completion of demanding training that instills the "Commando Spirit"—characterized by courage, determination, unselfishness, and cheerfulness in adversity—and grants wearers qualification for elite raiding and reconnaissance roles. This tradition influenced other forces, including the U.S. Army Special Forces, which unofficially adopted the green beret in 1953 under Major Herbert Brucker, a veteran of the Office of Strategic Services, before formal authorization by President Kennedy in 1961.[27] In the British Armed Forces, rigorous commando training for non-Royal Marines personnel occurs via the All Arms Commando Course (AACC) at the Commando Training Centre Royal Marines in Lympstone, Devon, lasting 7 weeks and held four times annually.[28] Prerequisites include medical deployability, passing a basic swimming test (40-meter swim and 3-minute water tread), annual combat fitness assessments, and proficiency in weapons handling and navigation. The syllabus covers infantry fundamentals like patrolling and small-unit tactics, alongside specialized commando elements such as amphibious assaults, cliff climbing, helicopter insertions, and survival skills, with a 4-week preparation phase focusing on battle physical training and field exercises.[29] Central to qualification are the four Commando Tests, testing speed, strength, stamina, and load-bearing under fatigue:- Endurance Course: 6 miles navigated in 73 minutes while carrying 9.6 kg of equipment and a personal weapon, incorporating obstacles and terrain challenges.[29]
- Tarzan Assault Course: Completed in 13 minutes with 9.6 kg load and weapon, emphasizing agility over aerial obstacles like walls and ropes.[29]
- 9-Mile Speed March: Covered in 90 minutes bearing 18 kg of equipment, prioritizing rapid movement across varied ground.[29]
- 12-Mile Loaded March: Finished in under 4 hours with a 31 kg load, simulating prolonged operational endurance often conducted at night on Dartmoor.[28]