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Austrian Netherlands

The Austrian Netherlands designated the southern Low Countries under Habsburg rule from Austria, spanning from 1714 to 1797 and encompassing territories that form present-day Belgium and Luxembourg.^[1]^[2] This entity emerged from the Peace of Utrecht in 1713 and subsequent treaties like Rastatt in 1714, which transferred the former Spanish Netherlands from Bourbon Spain to the Austrian branch of the Habsburgs following the War of the Spanish Succession.^[3] Governed nominally within the Holy Roman Empire, it maintained a composite structure with provincial estates wielding considerable fiscal and legislative powers, limiting central Habsburg authority.^[4] Under rulers such as Emperor Charles VI, Empress Maria Theresa, and Emperor Joseph II, the Austrian Netherlands experienced economic growth driven by textile industries and agriculture, alongside administrative centralization efforts.^[5] Maria Theresa's pragmatic reforms focused on military and fiscal efficiency, while Joseph II's enlightened absolutist edicts— including religious tolerance and administrative unification—provoked widespread resistance, culminating in the Brabantine Revolution of 1789–1790, a short-lived bid for constitutional independence suppressed by Leopold II.^[6]^[7] The territory's era ended amid the French Revolutionary Wars, with French armies conquering it after the Battle of Fleurus in June 1794, leading to annexation and the dissolution of Habsburg sovereignty by 1797.^[8]^[6]

Geography and Demographics

Territorial Composition

The Austrian Netherlands encompassed territories in the southern Low Countries acquired by the Habsburg monarchy through the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) and ratified by the Treaty of Rastatt (1714), following the War of the Spanish Succession. These lands, previously part of the Spanish Netherlands, corresponded roughly to modern-day Belgium and Luxembourg, excluding the northern provinces retained by the Dutch Republic and enclaves such as the Prince-Bishopric of Liège.^[3] The borders established in 1714 saw few alterations until the French Revolutionary Wars in the 1790s, reflecting Habsburg efforts to maintain territorial integrity amid geopolitical pressures.^[9] Administratively, the region comprised nine principal provinces inherited from prior Spanish rule: the Duchy of Brabant, the County of Flanders, the County of Hainaut, the County of Namur, the Duchy of Luxembourg, the Lordship of Mechelen, the Margraviate of Antwerp, the Tournaisis (Tournai and surrounding areas), and the lands of Overmaas (including Austrian-held portions of Limburg and Upper Guelders). These units preserved medieval divisions, with Flanders and Brabant forming the economic core, while Namur, Hainaut, and Luxembourg provided strategic depth.^[10] The fragmented layout, bisected by independent ecclesiastical territories like Liège, complicated unified governance but underscored the patchwork inheritance from Burgundian and Spanish eras.^[4] Geographically, the Austrian Netherlands featured low-lying plains drained by the Scheldt, Meuse, and Sambre rivers, rendering it a natural corridor for military campaigns between France and the Holy Roman Empire. This positioning amplified its role as a Habsburg buffer against French ambitions, with open terrain favoring defensive fortifications over natural barriers. The Third Barrier Treaty (1715) formalized Dutch access to garrison seven key strongholds along the southern frontier—Namur, Mons, Charleroi, and others in Hainaut—to counter potential invasions, allocating costs between Austria and the United Provinces while limiting Dutch commercial interference.^[9] Such arrangements highlighted the territories' defensive primacy, deterring aggression without altering sovereign borders.^[9]

Population Characteristics

The population of the Austrian Netherlands grew moderately during the Habsburg era, with regional estimates indicating increases ranging from 25 to 130 percent between 1700 and 1780, reflecting recovery from prior wars and stable agricultural productivity.^[10] This expansion underpinned a predominantly rural demographic, where over three-quarters of inhabitants were peasants engaged in subsistence farming under semi-feudal tenures, with land ownership concentrated among nobility and clergy who held exemptions from certain taxes and maintained seigneurial rights over villages.^[11] Linguistically, the region displayed duality, with Dutch (including Flemish variants) spoken by the majority in northern provinces like Flanders and Brabant, while French and Walloon dialects prevailed in the south, such as Hainaut and Luxembourg; Latin persisted in ecclesiastical and legal contexts, and German served limited administrative roles under Habsburg oversight.^[12] Roman Catholicism unified this diversity as the established faith, enforced through Counter-Reformation policies that marginalized Protestant minorities to less than 1 percent of the populace by the mid-18th century, fostering traditional social norms resistant to secular Enlightenment influences.^[11] Demographic stability arose from high birth rates—typically 35-40 per 1,000 inhabitants annually, akin to pre-industrial European norms—and limited internal or external migration, which kept urban centers like Brussels (around 80,000 residents by 1780) and Ghent as exceptions amid a broader agrarian fabric.^[10] Urban elites, comprising merchants and artisans in specialized trades such as woolen cloth production and lace-making, formed a burgher class that benefited from guild protections but represented under 20 percent of the total, reinforcing self-sufficiency over rapid industrialization or proletarian shifts observed elsewhere in Europe.

Government and Administration

Habsburg Rule and Central Institutions

The Habsburg emperors governed the Austrian Netherlands through a viceregal system centered in Vienna, with the Governor-General serving as the emperor's direct proxy and residing in Brussels, which functioned as the primary administrative hub. This arrangement ensured top-down oversight, as the Governor-General coordinated imperial policies, military affairs, and diplomacy on behalf of the sovereign, often drawing from Habsburg nobility or trusted military figures to maintain loyalty to the distant court. For example, Charles-Alexandre de Lorraine held the position from 1744 to 1780, leveraging his court in Brussels to embed imperial influence amid local dynamics.^[13]^[14] Central to this structure was the Council of State, initially consolidated into a single body from 1718 to 1725 to streamline Habsburg administration after the transition from Spanish rule, replacing prior fragmented councils. Composed of imperial appointees, it advised on fiscal, judicial, and policy matters but held no substantive veto power over Vienna's directives, which was exercised only sparingly before the 1780s as emperors like Maria Theresa prioritized consultative mechanisms over devolution. This advisory role underscored the tension inherent in enlightened absolutism, where rationalist reforms from Vienna—emphasizing uniformity in taxation and bureaucracy—frequently encountered resistance from provincial particularism without granting the council autonomous enforcement.^[10]^[15] The territories' subordination extended to foreign policy, exemplified by the Barrier Treaty of 15 November 1715, which bound the Habsburgs to permit Dutch and allied garrisons in strategic fortresses—including Tournai, Mons, Namur, Dendermonde, and Ghent—to form a defensive buffer against France, with costs shared between Austria and the United Provinces. This obligation, rooted in post-Utrecht alliances, limited sovereign control over military deployments and fortifications, reinforcing Vienna's strategic prioritization of continental balances over full territorial autonomy.^[16]^[17]

Provincial Autonomy and Local Governance

The provincial estates of the Austrian Netherlands, comprising delegates from the clergy, nobility, and third estate in each of the nine provinces (such as Brabant, Flanders, and Hainaut), exercised substantial control over taxation and local defense arrangements, including the mustering of militias for internal security. These powers originated in medieval constitutional agreements, notably the Joyeuse Entrée of 1356 for Brabant, which codified limits on princely authority in exchange for loyalty and fiscal support, a model echoed in similar provincial charters from the 14th to 16th centuries.^[18] Upon accession, Habsburg rulers like Charles VI in 1716 were compelled to swear oaths to these privileges during inauguration ceremonies, ensuring provincial veto rights over extraordinary taxes and reinforcing decentralized governance against imperial overreach.^[15] This arrangement maintained stability by aligning central policy with entrenched local interests but embedded tensions that later manifested in opposition to unification efforts. Judicial administration operated through a hybrid framework of provincial sovereign courts and lower tribunals, where customary law—codified in regional coutumes like those of Brabant and Namur—predominated alongside selective applications of Roman law principles for procedural and contractual matters, with Catholic orthodoxy embedded as a core enforcement priority to safeguard religious uniformity post-Reformation.^[19] Local privileges, such as exemptions for nobility and clergy, often trumped uniform application, fostering a patchwork of jurisdictions that prioritized communal traditions over centralized codes. The clergy's role amplified provincial autonomy via dedicated representation in the estates and stewardship of extensive church estates, which encompassed up to 20-25% of arable land and generated revenues insulating ecclesiastical interests from fiscal demands until Joseph II's interventions in the 1780s.^[20] This influence enabled consistent advocacy for confessional protections, including oversight of moral and educational tribunals, thereby sustaining a balance of spiritual authority within the secular provincial framework.^[21]

Economy and Trade

Agricultural and Industrial Base

The agricultural sector in the Austrian Netherlands, particularly in the fertile coastal plains of Flanders and the loamy soils of Brabant, sustained high crop yields through intensive cultivation of grains, flax, and dairy products, enabling food self-sufficiency despite population growth from approximately 2.3 million in 1715 to over 2.7 million by 1784. Eighteenth-century records indicate land productivity rose steadily, with wheat yields in Flanders averaging 12-15 hectoliters per hectare—among Europe's highest—bolstered by innovations like marl liming and leguminous rotations that restored soil fertility without widespread mechanization.^[22]^[23] Smallholder tenure dominated, with fragmented holdings averaging 5-10 hectares per farm, fostering diversified output that mitigated subsistence risks during harvest shortfalls.^[24] Traditional open-field systems and communal grazing rights persisted, with minimal enclosure akin to England's parliamentary acts, thereby avoiding displacement of tenant farmers and preserving rural social cohesion amid demographic pressures from urban migration and natural increase.^[10] Seigneurial dues, though lingering in Brabant, imposed light burdens compared to eastern European manors, channeling rents into local improvements rather than absentee extraction, which supported stable grain surpluses for Antwerp markets. This structure prioritized resilience over yield-maximizing reforms, as evidenced by the absence of major famines post-1740 despite episodic price spikes.^[25] Industrial activity centered on guild-monopolized urban crafts, which constrained but stabilized production in textiles and metallurgy, with Ghent's linen sector employing over 20,000 workers by mid-century through regulated apprenticeships and quality controls.^[26] Brussels guilds oversaw luxury trades like tapestry weaving and lace-making, enforcing journeyman limits that curbed overproduction while integrating rural proto-industrial spinning via urban merchant networks, yielding consistent exports without factory-scale disruption.^[27] These institutions, rooted in medieval charters, resisted Habsburg liberalization attempts pre-1780, prioritizing craft standards over competitive expansion and thus buffering economic volatility from agricultural fluctuations.^[28] Proto-industrial rural outworking supplemented urban output, particularly in flax processing, but guild vetoes on rural competition maintained wage floors and skill transmission.^[29]

Commercial Networks and Challenges

The primary external commercial networks of the Austrian Netherlands centered on riverine exports via the Scheldt to France and linkages to the Rhine for German markets, facilitating shipments of linens, cereals, and re-exported colonial goods despite navigational constraints.^[30] Customs data reveal intra-European trade volumes rising notably after the 1750s, with recorded exports expanding through the 1760s and 1770s amid growing demand in neighboring regions.^[31]^[32] Geopolitical barriers, particularly the Dutch Republic's closure of the Scheldt estuary—imposed by the 1648 Peace of Westphalia and upheld in the 1715 Barrier Treaty—imposed severe limitations on Antwerp's maritime outlet, prioritizing Amsterdam's dominance over regional integration.^[33] This external veto, rather than Habsburg administrative shortcomings, constituted the chief impediment to broader commercial expansion. A notable Habsburg initiative to diversify routes, the Ostend Company chartered on 17 December 1722, rapidly generated profits from Asian tea and Mocha coffee trades but faced suspension in 1727 and full revocation by 31 December 1731 following British and Dutch diplomatic coercion, which framed the venture as a monopoly threat.^[34] In the late 18th century, these pressures fostered extensive smuggling networks and black-market channels that circumvented Dutch Scheldt controls, channeling goods through Ostend transits and small-vessel evasions to preserve urban mercantile vitality in ports like Antwerp and Ghent.^[33] Efforts to formally reopen the Scheldt under Joseph II culminated in the 1784 Kettle War, a brief clash underscoring persistent foreign vetoes on navigation rights.^[33] Such informal economies mitigated but could not fully offset the structural drags from rival powers' trade protections.

Society and Culture

The Catholic Church dominated religious life in the Austrian Netherlands, where over 99% of the population adhered to Roman Catholicism, serving as the primary institution for moral guidance, education, and social welfare. Ecclesiastical properties, including lands, tithes, and leased estates, formed a substantial portion of the region's wealth, enabling the Church to fund seminaries for clerical training and provide poor relief through parishes and monasteries. These assets reinforced the Church's role in maintaining social order, as revenues supported charitable distributions that mitigated destitution without relying on centralized state mechanisms.^[35]^[36] Occupational guilds and religious confraternities constituted key elements of the social fabric, intertwining economic regulation with Catholic ethics to enforce a moral economy. Guilds, prevalent in urban centers like Antwerp, Brussels, and Ghent, controlled apprenticeships, quality standards, and market access, thereby stabilizing artisan communities and curbing wage undercutting or profiteering that could exacerbate inequality. Confraternities, often parish-based and focused on sacraments like the Eucharist or burial rites, extended this framework by organizing mutual aid, processions, and pious works, which fostered communal solidarity and upheld virtues of charity and discipline among members across social strata.^[37]^[38] Family structures adhered to norms prescribed by canon law, emphasizing indissoluble sacramental marriage, parental authority, and procreation within wedlock, which cultivated stable households and low illegitimacy ratios—typically under 5% in rural areas during the early 18th century, rising modestly thereafter but remaining below European Protestant averages. Gender roles assigned men as household heads and providers, while women managed domestic spheres and child-rearing, reinforced by confessional practices that stigmatized premarital relations and promoted bridal chastity. These conventions, disseminated via sermons and catechism, limited social deviance and preserved inheritance lines tied to legitimate descent.^[39]^[40]

Intellectual and Artistic Developments

The intellectual landscape of the Austrian Netherlands exhibited deliberate conservatism, blending longstanding scholastic traditions with selective elements of emerging scientific thought while resisting the skeptical rationalism of continental Enlightenment figures. At the University of Louvain, the primary center of higher learning, curricula emphasized Thomistic philosophy and Catholic theology, with professors integrating Newtonian mechanics into natural philosophy courses by the mid-18th century, but framing it within orthodox parameters to avoid atheistic implications. This approach, influenced by Habsburg educational policies under Maria Theresa, prioritized empirical utility—such as in astronomy and engineering—over philosophical upheaval, resulting in modest advancements like improved mathematical instruction without widespread adoption of experimental academies seen in Protestant regions.^[10]^[41] Artistic developments adhered closely to Flemish precedents, sustaining genre painting, landscapes, and still lifes in the vein of 17th-century masters like David Teniers the Younger, amid patronage from Habsburg viceroys and ecclesiastical patrons. Artists such as those active in Antwerp guilds produced works depicting rural taverns, peasant life, and allegorical scenes, often commissioned for churches or noble residences, reflecting economic recovery post-war but lacking the innovative vigor of earlier Baroque eras. Governor Prince Charles of Lorraine (r. 1744–1780) supported cultural institutions, including academies in Brussels that preserved technical proficiency in oil techniques and chiaroscuro, yet the output remained traditionalist, eschewing neoclassicism or romanticism in favor of continuity with Counter-Reformation aesthetics.^[42] Strict press controls, enforced through Habsburg ordinances akin to those in Vienna, curtailed the influx of subversive printed materials, fostering an environment where official gazettes upheld doctrinal purity and moral order. Underground literature, including satirical pamphlets against Joseph II's centralizing edicts, proliferated only during the 1780s amid reform backlash, but such dissent was swiftly suppressed until the revolutionary upheavals of 1789. This censorship, rooted in ecclesiastical oversight, preserved intellectual orthodoxy but stifled broader debate, contributing to the era's cultural insularity.^[43]

History

Establishment and Consolidation (1714–1780)

The Austrian Netherlands were established through the Peace of Utrecht in 1713 and the Treaty of Rastatt signed on 6 March 1714, by which Philip V of Spain ceded the territories to Emperor Charles VI, with formal sovereignty transfer occurring in 1716 after ratification of the Barrier Treaty.^[44]^[15] The Barrier Treaty of 15 November 1715 granted the Dutch Republic rights to garrison fortresses such as Ghent, Dendermonde, and Namur to form a defensive buffer against France, with Austria sharing maintenance costs to secure alliances. This pragmatic arrangement prioritized geopolitical stability over full centralization, yielding initial peace amid post-war devastation from the War of the Spanish Succession. Prince Eugene of Savoy was appointed governor-general in 1716, serving until 1724, though his frequent absences led to delegation to the Marquis de Prié, whose early fiscal impositions like the pain d'Abbaye tax in 1720 provoked resistance resolved through negotiations affirming local privileges.^[15] Charles VI's virtual inauguration in 1720, where he pledged adherence to provincial constitutions including Brabant’s joyeuse entrée of 1356, reinforced legitimacy by invoking continuity with Spanish Habsburg traditions, fostering elite cooperation and averting widespread unrest.^[15] The arrival of Archduchess Maria Elisabeth as governor in 1724 further stabilized governance by embodying Habsburg presence while respecting customary institutions. Vienna's peripheral attention to the Netherlands, focused instead on core hereditary lands, permitted substantial provincial autonomy under estates and councils, enabling recovery from wartime economic collapse; from 1714, Austrian authorities issued East Indies trade licenses, revitalizing commerce in ports like Ostend despite Dutch competition.^[10] This hands-off approach, combined with barrier fortifications deterring invasion until the 1740s, sustained internal peace without significant revolts, as local structures managed taxation and defense pragmatically.^[15] Disruptions from the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748), including French occupations, were temporary, with rapid postwar rebound via restored privileges and trade, consolidating Habsburg hold through 1780.^[15]

Josephinist Reforms and Resistance (1780–1789)

Upon ascending as sole ruler of the Habsburg lands in November 1780 following the death of his mother Maria Theresa, Emperor Joseph II initiated a series of centralizing reforms in the Austrian Netherlands aimed at rationalizing administration and reducing ecclesiastical influence, but these measures provoked widespread opposition from local elites. The Patent of Toleration, issued on 13 October 1781, granted limited religious freedoms to Protestants and Jews, permitting public worship for Calvinists and easing civil disabilities, yet it was perceived by Catholic clergy and nobles as undermining the Catholic Church's privileged status and traditional social order.^[45] Complementing this, Joseph's 1782 Edict on Idle Institutions led to the suppression of contemplative monasteries across the Habsburg domains, including over 160 convents, abbeys, and priories in the Low Countries, with their assets redirected to state uses like education and welfare; this secularization alienated the religious orders and laity who viewed monastic life as spiritually essential rather than economically unproductive.^[46]^[47] Administrative edicts further exacerbated tensions, as Joseph sought to impose uniformity by decreeing German as the language of official administration and correspondence in 1784, supplanting the longstanding use of French, Latin, and Dutch in the Netherlands' provinces, which local officials and elites interpreted as cultural imposition from Vienna. In January and March 1787, Joseph abolished the traditional provincial constitutions, including the Joyous Entry charters that enshrined local privileges and the Estates' veto powers, replacing them with centralized absolutist governance modeled on other Habsburg territories; this dissolved the autonomy of bodies like the Estates of Brabant and Hainaut, ignoring petitions from these assemblies that invoked historical oaths and warned of destabilization.^[48]^[49] These changes fostered coalitions among nobles, clergy, and burghers defending feudal and corporate rights, as the reforms prioritized state control over proven local mechanisms without demonstrating improved fiscal or judicial outcomes. The Josephinist program expanded bureaucracy through new centralized councils and officials, yet empirical evidence from the period shows no corresponding gains in administrative efficiency; tax collection stagnated amid resistance, and enforcement relied on military presence rather than voluntary compliance, highlighting the causal mismatch between Viennese rationalism and entrenched provincial particularism. By 1787, unrest manifested in riots across Brabant and other provinces—termed the "Small Revolution"—prompting the emigration of hundreds of dissident nobles and agitators to the neighboring Dutch Republic, where they organized opposition networks and evaded Austrian reprisals.^[50] This exodus underscored the reforms' failure to secure elite buy-in, as traditional privileges like those in the Joyous Entry proved resilient anchors of loyalty, ultimately sowing seeds of broader defiance without yielding the intended modernization.^[48]

Brabant Revolution and Collapse (1789–1797)

The Brabant Revolution erupted in late 1789 amid widespread discontent with Joseph II's centralizing policies, though its momentum derived from opportunistic alliances rather than a unified ideological program.^[6] Rebels, initially cooperating across ideological lines, launched incursions from the Dutch Republic into the Austrian Netherlands, culminating in the Battle of Turnhout on October 27, 1789, where approximately 7,000 poorly equipped patriot forces under Jean-André van der Mercht defeated a smaller Austrian contingent of 3,500 troops led by Karl Joseph Hadik, exploiting surprise and terrain advantages near the town's graveyard.^[51] This victory, marking the revolution's military high point, prompted further uprisings and the expulsion of Austrian garrisons from key cities like Ghent and Brussels by early November.^[6] Emboldened, provincial estates convened in Brussels and on January 11, 1790, proclaimed the United Belgian States, a loose confederation restoring pre-Josephinist privileges and emphasizing Catholic orthodoxy and provincial autonomy under a sovereign congress.^[6] However, the nascent state's viability eroded rapidly due to irreconcilable factionalism between the conservative Statists, who prioritized estate privileges and clerical influence under Henri van der Noot, and the more liberal Vonckists, advocating centralized governance and enlightenment reforms led by Jean-François Vonck.^[6] By March 1790, Statists unleashed violent purges against Vonckists, forcing the latter into exile in France and fracturing revolutionary cohesion, which exposed the movement's ideological incoherence—rooted more in reactionary defense of ancien régime structures than innovative principles comparable to the contemporaneous French Revolution.^[6] These internal divisions precluded effective military organization, enabling Habsburg forces under the pragmatic Leopold II, who ascended in February 1790 and rescinded many of Joseph's edicts, to mount a reconquest.^[6] Austrian troops, reinforced to over 30,000 by mid-1790, systematically retook territories, culminating in the surrender of Brussels on December 2, 1790, after minimal resistance from the demoralized United Belgian States' army of roughly 20,000.^[6] Leopold's conciliatory approach, including guarantees of local privileges via the 1791 convention of The Hague, underscored the revolution's swift collapse not from inherent lack of popular support but from self-inflicted disunity.^[6] External predation sealed the Austrian Netherlands' fate during the French Revolutionary Wars. French armies invaded in November 1792, securing victory at Jemappes on November 6 and overrunning the territory by December, only for Austrians to reclaim it after Neerwinden in March 1793.^[52] Renewed French offensives triumphed at Fleurus in June 1794, leading to full reconquest by 1795 and administrative annexation as the départements of the French Republic, justified by revolutionary exportation of liberty but executed through conquest and suppression of local autonomies.^[52] The Habsburg era definitively ended with the Treaty of Campo Formio on October 17, 1797, whereby Austria formally ceded the Austrian Netherlands to France in exchange for territorial compensations elsewhere, reflecting geopolitical realignment rather than Belgian revolutionary success.^[53]

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Edict of Toleration | Religious Freedom, Tolerance & Joseph II
Oct 11, 2025 · Edict of Toleration, (Oct. 19, 1781), law promulgated by the Holy Roman emperor Joseph II granting limited freedom of worship to non-Roman Catholic Christians.Missing: monasteries language Low Countries resistance
[46]
Suppression of Monasteries | Catholic Answers Encyclopedia
The dioceses of the Low Countries (then subject to the House of Hapsburg) lost one hundred and sixty-eight convents, abbeys, or priories. In all, 738 religious ...
[47]
Joseph II | Holy Roman Emperor, Enlightened Ruler & Reformer
The Emperor hoped for more success with his unusual plan of exchanging the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria. The Wittelsbach dynasty had been extinguished in ...
[48]
Austria - Enlightenment, Reforms, Joseph II | Britannica
### Summary of Joseph II's Reforms and Resistance in the Austrian Netherlands (1780-1789)
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Joseph II's Reforms | Research Starters - EBSCO
Blanning's earlier work, Joseph II and Enlightened Despotism(1970), contains an analysis of the monarch's reign, presenting Joseph as a pragmatic ruler who was ...
[50]
Joseph II | Research Starters - EBSCO
Joseph's mother was Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles VI, the Holy Roman Emperor, from whom she inherited, in 1740, the Habsburg dynastic lands if not the ...
[51]
Battle of Turnhout
On October 27, 1789, 3 500 trained and well-armed Austrians approached Turnhout. A considerable portion of the patriots were entrenched behind the graveyard ...Missing: Netherlands | Show results with:Netherlands
[52]
THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS - HistoryWorld
A victory at Jemappes on November 6 enables the French to overrun much of the Austrian netherlands before turning east to capture Aachen. Meanwhile another ...
[53]
Treaty of Campo Formio 1797 - The Napoleon Series
The Treaty of Campo Formio ended the war with Austria, left France at war with England, and changed boundaries in France, Italy, and Germany. Austria ceded the ...Missing: Netherlands | Show results with:Netherlands