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Backup and Restore

Backup and Restore (Windows 7) is a built-in backup utility in Windows, introduced in in 2006 and enhanced in in 2009. It enables users to create backups of files, folders, libraries, and the entire to protect against from , errors, or disasters, with restoration options for individual items or full system recovery. The tool supports scheduling automatic backups and storing them on local hard drives, external USB drives, or DVDs, emphasizing local storage for reliability and ease of access. It also allows creation of a system repair disc for into environments. While available in and later versions via the Control Panel, it was deprecated starting with in 2012, with recommending File History for file backups and the modern Windows Backup app (introduced in ) for cloud-integrated protection using .

History

Introduction in Windows Vista

Backup and Restore was introduced as a core feature in , released to manufacturing on November 8, 2006, and made available to consumers on January 30, 2007. This tool, known as the Backup and Restore Center, marked a significant evolution in Microsoft's approach to data protection within the operating system, replacing fragmented backup utilities from prior versions like . It debuted as part of the Vista RTM (release to manufacturing) build, providing users with an integrated solution for safeguarding personal files and system configurations. The primary goals of Backup and Restore in were to enable automated backups of user files and folders in all editions, with full system imaging capabilities available only in the , , and editions to mitigate risks from , software corruption, or hardware failures. By leveraging the Volume Service (VSS), the feature allowed for consistent snapshots of open files without interruption, ensuring reliable protection for active documents and applications. This addressed common user pain points by automating routine backups to prevent accidental deletions or system crashes from rendering data irretrievable. The tool integrated elements from earlier development phases, including the Windows Complete PC Backup functionality tested in betas, which evolved into a unified interface combining file-level and complete system backups. This consolidation simplified the process, making comprehensive recovery more accessible without relying on third-party software. Despite its advancements, the initial implementation had notable limitations, particularly in consumer editions like Home Basic and Home Premium, where full system imaging and network backups were not supported, restricting operations to local drives, external USB storage, or optical . The focus on local targets ensured and with common hardware but limited scalability for networked environments, a gap addressed in subsequent versions. Access to the feature was streamlined through a wizard-based setup in the Control Panel under System and Maintenance, guiding users step-by-step from initial configuration to scheduling automated sessions. This intuitive design emphasized ease of use, with options to select backup locations and file types via straightforward dialogues. Overall, and Restore in laid the groundwork for modern Windows data protection, prioritizing reliability for individual users while setting the stage for broader enhancements.

Enhancements in Windows 7

Windows 7, released on October 22, 2009, introduced several enhancements to the Backup and Restore functionality originally debuted in Windows Vista, making it more accessible and versatile across editions. A key improvement was the availability of full system image backup and restore features in all editions, including the entry-level Starter edition, whereas Vista limited these capabilities to higher editions like Ultimate. This change democratized robust data protection, allowing users to create complete system images that capture the operating system, programs, and settings for quick recovery. System images in Windows 7 are stored in the Virtual Hard Disk (VHD) format, enabling compatibility with virtualization tools and easier management, such as mounting the VHD files directly in Disk Management for file access without full restoration. Scheduling options were also refined for greater flexibility, supporting customizable intervals such as daily or weekly backups, with a default setting of Sundays at 7:00 PM that users could adjust through the "Change schedule" dialog in the interface. This built on Vista's basic scheduling by providing more granular control, helping users align backups with their routines while leveraging the Volume Shadow Copy Service (VSS) for efficient incremental backups that only capture changes since the last session, resulting in faster performance and reduced storage needs compared to full backups each time. Additionally, added for backing up files and folders directly to network locations, expanding beyond Vista's local and removable media restrictions and enabling centralized storage in shared environments. For enterprise scenarios, Backup and Restore in integrated seamlessly with Backup, sharing the underlying architecture to facilitate consistent data protection strategies across client and server environments, such as using the same VSS-based mechanisms for bare-metal recovery. These optimizations contributed to overall improved reliability, with restoration times for system images often completing in under 15 minutes on compatible hardware, establishing as a more efficient platform for backup operations until phased support began in later versions.

Legacy Status in Windows 8 and Later

In , released in 2012, Backup and Restore was deprecated in favor of the new File History feature for primary file-level backups, with the tool retained solely for creating and restoring system image backups to ensure . This shift positioned Backup and Restore as a legacy component, limiting its role to full-system imaging without further enhancements to file or incremental backup capabilities. With the launch of in 2015, Backup and Restore remained accessible through the Control Panel under the label "Backup and Restore (Windows 7)," explicitly indicating its legacy status and lack of new development. It continued to support restoration of system images from prior Windows versions, serving users migrating from older setups, but Microsoft emphasized third-party solutions for modern full-disk backups due to its outdated architecture. In Windows 11, introduced in 2021 and continuing through updates in 2025, Backup and Restore persists as a hidden legacy option, accessible primarily via the Control Panel rather than the modern Settings app, reflecting its diminished prominence. Following the end-of-support for Windows 10 on October 14, 2025, Microsoft explicitly recommends against using it for new backup configurations, citing the absence of updates and security improvements, and directs users toward alternatives like Windows Backup or File History for contemporary needs. While compatible with UEFI-based systems for and , Backup and Restore encounters challenges with BitLocker-encrypted drives during , often requiring manual tweaks such as suspending or providing the recovery key to avoid boot failures or access denials. Adoption of Backup and Restore has declined sharply in recent years, as preferences shifted toward integrated and file-focused options.

Core Features

Backup Creation Process

The and Restore tool in Windows is accessed through the Control Panel by navigating to System and Security > and Restore (Windows 7). Alternatively, users can search for "backup" in the and select Backup and Restore from the results. Upon launching, the tool opens a for initial setup, where users select a backup location such as an external drive or share. The then prompts for selection of items to back up, offering defaults like user libraries (Documents, Pictures, Music, Videos) or allowing manual choice of drives and folders. Users can also opt to include a for full drive backups during this configuration. The creation process relies on the Volume Shadow Copy Service (VSS) to generate point-in-time snapshots of volumes, enabling backups without interrupting ongoing user or application activity. This allows consistent captures of open files and system states. Backups begin with a full initial copy of selected data, followed by incremental backups that append only new or modified files to the existing backup set, optimizing storage and time for subsequent runs. During execution, the tool's interface displays real-time progress, including estimated time remaining and completion status. Detailed logs of the process, including any warnings or completions, are recorded in the Event Viewer under Windows Logs > Application, sourced from Microsoft-Windows-Backup. Common errors, such as insufficient space on the drive, halt the process and require manual resolution like freeing disk space via or selecting a larger ; the does not automatically retry failed operations but allows restarting the .

Restore Mechanisms

Restore mechanisms in Windows Backup and Restore enable users to recover data and from previously created backups, supporting both granular recovery and full reconstitution in various failure scenarios. -level restore allows selective retrieval of individual files or folders without affecting the entire . Users this through the Backup and Restore interface in Control Panel, where they can browse a catalog of backed-up content organized by date and location. This process involves selecting specific items from the backup history and extracting them to their original paths or alternative destinations, preserving versions and where available. For comprehensive system recovery, restore facilitates the application of a complete to rebuild the operating system, applications, and data on a target drive. This is initiated by booting into the Windows Recovery Environment (WinRE), accessible via advanced startup options or bootable media, followed by selecting the System Image Recovery tool. The tool scans for available images and applies the chosen one, supporting bare-metal recovery on unformatted or new drives by partitioning and formatting as needed during the process. It automatically handles drive letter assignments to match the original configuration, minimizing post-restore reconfiguration. Recovery options within these mechanisms provide flexibility by allowing selection of specific restore points or dates from the backup catalog, ensuring users can target the most relevant for their needs. During , the tool prompts for of the target volume and excludes non-essential partitions to avoid data overwrites. To enable offline restores, particularly for non-bootable systems, users can create bootable such as a system repair or USB drive directly from the Backup and Restore . This involves inserting compatible and running the , which copies essential recovery files including WinRE components. Booting from this launches WinRE, from which image or file restores can proceed without requiring the host OS. A key limitation of system image restore is its dependency on compatible hardware; restoring to dissimilar hardware configurations may fail due to embedded drivers and hardware-specific settings in the image, necessitating third-party tools for driver injection or universal restore capabilities. File-level restores are generally more hardware-agnostic, as they operate within a running OS and do not involve low-level disk operations.

Backup Types

File and Folder Backups

File and folder backups provide a targeted approach to data in Windows Backup and Restore, enabling users to safeguard selected personal and without capturing the entire operating or applications. This functionality centers on user-defined selections from standard libraries, including Documents, Pictures, Music, Videos, , Contacts, and Favorites, while inherently excluding , program installations, and other non-user to streamline the process and reduce unnecessary overhead. Versioning is a core aspect of these backups, where the system retains multiple copies of files across scheduled sessions, facilitating restoration to prior versions in case of accidental deletion, corruption, or modification. By performing incremental updates after the initial full backup, subsequent sessions capture only changes, preserving a history of file states that users can access through the Restore Files wizard. To optimize storage efficiency, file and folder backups employ similar to ZIP archiving, which can reduce the size of backed-up data by 25% to 80% depending on file types, such as text documents achieving higher ratios than media files. This occurs during the backup creation, balancing reduced disk usage with acceptable restore times. Users maintain control over backup content through customizable exclusions, allowing rules to omit temporary files (e.g., those in folders), large video files, or specific extensions that do not require protection, thereby tailoring the operation to essential only. These exclusions are configured during setup, ensuring focused s that avoid bloating storage with irrelevant items. In typical personal scenarios, and backup sessions range from 1 to 10 , influenced by the volume of selected user data like documents and photos, making it suitable for external s or limited targets.

System Image Backups

A backup in Windows captures a complete, bit-for-bit replica of the selected s, facilitating full system recovery in disaster scenarios like hard , infection, or catastrophic corruption. This feature, accessible via the legacy tool, creates a holistic that allows restoration of the entire to a previous state, preserving bootability and functionality without piecemeal recovery. The scope encompasses entire partitions necessary for system operation, including the operating files, installed applications, configurations, and associated on the primary drives. By , it targets the drives required for Windows to boot and run, such as the for UEFI-based systems, the (MSR), the main Windows OS partition, and the Windows (WinRE) partition. This ensures comprehensive coverage, including the system reserved partition (often the EFI or MSR) and recovery partitions, to support full bootable restoration. The resulting image is stored in the .vhd format within a WindowsImageBackup , which supports efficient compression and expandability for larger volumes. To maintain reliability, backups are recommended on a monthly basis or immediately prior to major system changes, such as large updates or modifications, to capture a recent stable state. On average configurations, the creation process for a full typically requires 30 to , influenced by factors like drive size, efficiency, and storage interface speed. Post-creation, the .vhd incorporates built-in checksums in its structures—covering the file footer, header, and allocation —to verify and detect potential during subsequent access or . Storage space for a generally ranges from 50 to 200 , scaling with the installation's footprint—including the OS base (around 20-50 for a standard setup), accumulated applications, and user data—while leveraging to reduce the final footprint compared to raw sizes. This makes it suitable for external drives with adequate capacity, ensuring the remains viable for quick deployment in situations.

Storage Targets

Local and External Drives

The Backup and Restore feature in Windows supports internal hard disk drives (HDDs) and solid-state drives (SSDs) as backup destinations, provided they are secondary drives separate from the system partition, as well as USB-connected external drives for storing file backups and system images. External drives must have sufficient capacity, with a minimum recommendation of at least 1.5 times the size of the data being backed up to allow room for initial full backups and subsequent incremental versions. During setup, the tool automatically detects and lists all eligible connected local and external drives in the Backup and Restore interface, enabling users to select a destination without mounting. For compatibility and , drives must be formatted using the file system, as FAT32 or other formats are not supported for local backups due to Microsoft's policies enforcing permissions and features. Users can verify or reformat drives to via Disk Management if needed, ensuring seamless integration with the backup . Local internal drives deliver the highest performance for backups and restores, with transfer speeds typically reaching up to 100 /s on SATA-connected HDDs, making them ideal for frequent or large-scale operations. External USB drives exhibit variable based on the interface: USB 2.0 connections limit speeds to approximately 30 /s, while USB 3.0 enables rates up to 100 /s or higher, depending on the drive's . These speeds support efficient handling of system images, which can exceed hundreds of gigabytes. A key advantage of external drives is their portability, allowing users to physically transport backups offsite for added against localized disasters like fires, floods, or , thereby following best practices for . In contrast to network-based options, which may introduce , direct-attached external drives ensure reliable, uninterrupted access during creation and . The Backup and Restore tool includes built-in management features, such as monitoring available space on the destination drive and issuing warnings when capacity falls low, prompting users to free space or switch drives. It also facilitates drive rotation by permitting selection of different local or external targets for successive backups, enabling strategies like the rule (three copies, on two media types, with one offsite) without automated reconfiguration. This manual flexibility supports ongoing maintenance while minimizing data loss risks.

Network and Removable Media

Backing up data to network locations in Windows Backup and Restore relies on (SMB) shares as the primary protocol for accessing shared resources on a . Users must configure the backup destination by mapping the network drive or entering the UNC path (\server\share), with authentication performed using Windows credentials that leverage either NTLM or protocols depending on the domain configuration and security policies. This capability for file and folder backups was available in earlier versions like , but full support for backups to network locations was introduced in Professional, , and editions, enabling centralized storage without requiring . Removable media, such as and DVDs, serves as an alternative for small-scale backups in the Windows Backup and Restore tool, particularly useful for users without access to larger storage options. The process involves inserting blank discs into an optical drive, with the tool prompting for additional media as needed to span the backup across multiple sessions—a feature that supports multi-session recording on rewritable or write-once DVDs to accommodate data exceeding a single disc's capacity. These media are ideal for archiving select files or creating bootable discs, though their practicality is constrained by the standard single-layer DVD capacity, often limiting use to datasets under several gigabytes. Network backups are influenced by available , where typical connections yield practical transfer rates of 10-50 MB/s after accounting for protocol overhead and , rendering them more efficient for incremental updates than initial full backups that could take hours or longer on slower links. Security for network operations is enforced through the aforementioned NTLM or authentication mechanisms, which integrate with for credential validation and , though users should ensure shares are configured with appropriate permissions to prevent unauthorized access. In contrast, removable media introduces physical security risks, such as loss, theft, or damage, necessitating storage in protected environments without built-in in the native . Key limitations include the absence of native cloud storage integration in the Windows Backup and Restore tool prior to 2015 enhancements in subsequent Windows versions, requiring third-party solutions for remote or online backups. Network paths are also subject to the Windows MAX_PATH restriction of characters, which can cause failures when backing up deeply nested folders or long filenames over shares, potentially skipping affected files without explicit warnings. These constraints highlight the tool's orientation toward and use cases rather than modern distributed storage paradigms.

Operational Aspects

Scheduling and Management

Scheduling and management of backups in Backup and Restore facilitate automated and efficient data protection through configurable and oversight tools. Users can establish backup schedules during the initial setup process via the "Set up backup" in the Control Panel under System and Security, where options for daily, weekly, or monthly frequencies are available to suit varying needs. These schedules specify start times and recurring days, ensuring backups occur without manual intervention, and the system defaults to a weekly interval if not customized. Additionally, integration with enables advanced triggers, such as initiating backups during system idle time or upon user logon, allowing for more flexible beyond basic time-based scheduling. Task management occurs primarily through the Backup and Restore , where users can view, edit, or delete existing backup jobs by selecting "Manage backup" to access settings like modifications or cessation of automated runs. This displays active tasks and allows halting or adjusting parameters, while deeper control is provided via Task Scheduler, where Backup and Restore creates underlying tasks (e.g., under \Windows\Backup) that can be directly edited, disabled, or removed for comprehensive administration. Monitoring ensures reliability, with the system sending notifications for backup failures or issues directly to the Action Center, alerting users to incomplete or erroneous operations for prompt resolution. For detailed auditing, history logs are maintained in the Event Viewer under the Microsoft-Windows-Backup operational log, recording events such as successful completions, errors, and performance details to support and compliance reviews. To minimize disruption, resource usage can be configured through Task Scheduler properties for backup tasks, including settings to run only during idle conditions or adjust process priority levels (e.g., below normal) for CPU and disk I/O, thereby reducing impact on system performance during peak active hours. Best practices for Backup and Restore emphasize adapting the established 3-2-1 rule, which recommends maintaining three copies of across two different types with one stored offsite, to enhance against local failures or disasters. This approach integrates well with the tool's support for local and external drives, supplemented by manual offsite transfers for the third copy.

Security and Encryption

Security and are critical components of the backup and restore process in Windows, ensuring that data remains confidential, intact, and protected from unauthorized access during storage and recovery. For file and folder backups, the (EFS) provides optional , preserving the security of individual files by maintaining their encrypted state in the backup set. EFS employs AES-256 symmetric for the file encryption key (FEK), combined with or AES-256 for key protection, allowing users to secure sensitive data at the file level without additional configuration during backup. In contrast, backups utilize built-in to reduce file size but lack native options, relying instead on the of the storage target to protect the resulting virtual hard disk (VHD) files. Access controls in backups are designed to mirror the original file system's permissions, ensuring that backed-up files and folders inherit access control lists (ACLs) from their sources, which restricts restoration to authorized users only. Creating or restoring system images requires administrator privileges to access protected system volumes, preventing unauthorized modifications to critical OS components. Despite these protections, backups remain vulnerable to ransomware attacks if stored on connected or network-accessible media, as can encrypt or delete backup files alongside primary data. recommends implementing air-gapped storage—physically isolated backups disconnected from networks—to mitigate such risks and enable clean recovery from isolated copies. For compliance with regulations like HIPAA and GDPR in personal or small-scale use, the built-in and access controls provide foundational safeguards for (PHI) or , supporting requirements for data and through EFS and permission inheritance. However, the feature does not include advanced auditing or logging capabilities, limiting its suitability for enterprise-level compliance without supplementary tools.

Edition and Version Comparisons

Differences by Windows Edition

In consumer editions of Windows, such as Home Basic and Home Premium, as well as Home Basic and Home Premium, the built-in Backup and Restore functionality is restricted primarily to and backups, excluding the ability to create backups or target locations for . These editions support basic -level but lack advanced capabilities, which are essential for full without reinstallation. Professional and Enterprise editions, available in both Vista and Windows 7, provide comprehensive access to all Backup and Restore features, including system image creation for complete drive backups and support for network destinations, enabling automated backups to shared drives or servers. Additionally, these editions include the command-line tool wbadmin.exe, allowing scripted and automated backup operations for more technical users or IT environments. The edition builds on features by integrating drive encryption directly into the backup process, permitting secure, encrypted system images and file backups to protect data during storage and transfer. This enhancement is particularly valuable for users handling sensitive information, as it ensures backups remain protected without additional third-party tools. Server editions, such as those in (aligned with Vista-era features) and (for ), extend Backup and Restore through the dedicated Windows Server Backup tool, which supports bare-metal recovery, application-aware backups, and centralized management via Objects (GPOs) for scheduling and configuration across domain-joined systems. These edition-based differences often influence upgrade decisions, with features typically bundled in upgrade packs costing around $100 in 2009 retail pricing, providing access to advanced options without a full edition change.

Evolution Across Windows Versions

The and Restore feature, introduced in as part of the Complete PC tool in higher editions, underwent significant enhancements in to improve usability and functionality. In , renamed and restructured the tool as "Backup and Restore" within the Control Panel, providing a more intuitive interface that allowed users to select individual folders and drives for rather than relying solely on predefined file types, which was a limitation in . Additionally, added support for backing up to network locations in , , and editions, expanding beyond 's restriction to local drives or . backups in were stored in VHD format, enabling easier mounting and recovery compared to 's WIM-based images, which facilitated integration and bare-metal restores. In and 8.1, Backup and Restore saw no substantial updates to its core capabilities, maintaining the Windows 7-era functionality for system images and file backups while remaining accessible via Control Panel. However, introduced File History as a new continuous backup mechanism for personal files in libraries, desktop, and contacts, partially supplanting the file-level backup aspects of the legacy tool by focusing on versioned restores without overwriting data. This shift emphasized automated, user-centric file protection over comprehensive system imaging, though Backup and Restore continued to support full system recovery needs. Windows 10 repositioned Backup and Restore explicitly as "Backup and Restore (Windows 7)" in the Control Panel, signaling its legacy status while retaining compatibility for creating and restoring backups from prior versions. No deep integration with cloud services occurred, but the tool's interface included prompts recommending for simpler file syncing alongside traditional backups, aligning with 's growing emphasis on cloud-based alternatives. deprecated the feature for new backups starting with version 1709 in 2017, advising users to adopt File History or third-party solutions for ongoing needs, though it remained functional for recovery of existing archives. In , released in 2021, minor UI adjustments integrated Backup and Restore references into the modern Settings app under recovery options, but the legacy Control Panel applet persisted. Although deprecated since , Backup and Restore (Windows 7) remains available in , including version 24H2 (October 2024) and 25H2 (October 2025), supporting creation and restoration of new system images and file backups, including via wbadmin.exe. recommends the OneDrive-centric Windows Backup in Settings for app, settings, and folder synchronization, or external tools for advanced imaging. Over successive Windows versions, Backup and Restore evolved from a robust, standalone utility in and —capable of full system imaging and network operations—into a deprecated compatibility layer by , reflecting Microsoft's pivot toward cloud-integrated, lightweight recovery options like File History and to streamline user data protection in an always-connected ecosystem.

Deprecation and Alternatives

Phase-Out in Modern Windows

Microsoft announced the deprecation of the Backup and Restore (Windows 7) feature in documentation in 2017, indicating that the tool would no longer receive updates or new functionality. This legacy component, carried over from , was marked for phase-out to prioritize modern backup solutions. The feature remains available but is no longer being developed and may be removed in a future release. The primary reasons for this phase-out include the rise of services, which offer more scalable and accessible backup options compared to local drive-based methods. emphasized better integration with Microsoft Accounts and services like for seamless, account-linked backups across devices. Additionally, maintaining the legacy tool imposed resource constraints, as it was rarely used and required ongoing support for outdated codebases amid evolving hardware and security needs. As of 2025, Backup and Restore remains available in via Control Panel, though deprecated and receiving no new features or enhancements. provides migration guidance in its articles, recommending users export or restore data from existing backups using the tool before transitioning to alternatives to avoid . This involves selecting "Recover system settings or your computer" in the to access and transfer files or images to alternative storage. This shift encourages adoption of successors like Windows Backup for cloud-centric workflows.

Successor Tools and Features

Following the deprecation of traditional Backup and Restore in Windows, Microsoft introduced File History starting with Windows 8 as a primary successor for user file protection. This feature provides continuous versioning of personal files, such as those in libraries, desktop, favorites, and contacts, by automatically saving changes to an external drive or network location. Unlike periodic full backups, File History scans and copies modified files every hour by default, retaining versions until space is needed, which enables easy restoration of previous file states without overwriting current data. It focuses exclusively on user-generated content, excluding system files, to streamline personal data recovery while integrating seamlessly with removable media. For operating system recovery, Microsoft enhanced System Restore and the Reset this PC feature as built-in alternatives to full system image backups, available across Windows versions including Windows 11. System Restore reverts system files and settings to a prior state using restore points, without affecting personal files, while Reset this PC allows reinstallation of Windows while optionally keeping or removing user data. In Windows 11, the Reset option includes a cloud download mode that fetches the latest Windows installation files directly from , ensuring an up-to-date recovery without relying on local media or prior images. This approach prioritizes quick OS repair over comprehensive imaging, reducing recovery time to under an hour in most cases and eliminating the need for during the process. The Windows Backup app, introduced in version 23H2 in October 2023 and extended to via updates from August 2023, serves as a centralized tool for modern backup needs. It backs up apps, settings, credentials, files, photos, and data to a linked and , enabling seamless transfer and restoration across devices. Users can toggle individual categories for backup, with automatic syncing occurring in the background, and restoration available on version 22H2 or later. This app shifts emphasis from local storage to cloud integration, supporting cross-device continuity without manual drive management. In August 2025, Microsoft released Windows Backup for Organizations, an enterprise-grade extension of the Windows Backup app. This feature, available on Entra-joined devices after the August 2025 security update, allows organizations to back up and restore user settings, Microsoft Store apps, and credentials via Microsoft Intune, facilitating seamless device transitions from Windows 10 to Windows 11. For scenarios requiring full system imaging, which the built-in tools largely avoid, Microsoft guidance in official forums recommends third-party solutions like Macrium Reflect. Macrium Reflect offers reliable disk cloning and incremental image backups, with free editions sufficient for home users to create bootable recovery media. This integration encourages users to combine native features for files and settings with external tools for comprehensive OS protection, as endorsed in Microsoft Q&A responses for enhanced reliability over legacy methods. These successor tools provide key advantages over Backup and Restore by emphasizing , automated versioning, and reduced dependency on local or external drives, aligning with modern workflows. File History and Windows Backup enable real-time protection without scheduled interruptions, while Reset's option ensures fresh OS deployments without media preparation.

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