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Ballistic conduction

Ballistic conduction, also known as ballistic transport, is the unimpeded flow of charge carriers, primarily electrons, through a conductor over distances shorter than their mean free path, where scattering events are negligible and electrons maintain their momentum and energy like classical projectiles.^[1] This contrasts with diffusive conduction, in which frequent collisions with lattice vibrations, impurities, or other electrons lead to randomized motion and energy dissipation, resulting in classical ohmic resistance.^[2] The concept was theoretically proposed by Rolf Landauer in 1957, with experimental confirmation of quantized conductance in quantum point contacts occurring in 1988.^[3]^[4] In mesoscopic physics, ballistic conduction emerges when the conductor's length scale is comparable to or smaller than the electron mean free path, typically on the order of nanometers to micrometers in high-purity materials at low temperatures, enabling quantum coherent transport without thermal equilibration.^[1] The condition for the ballistic regime is generally expressed as L < \lambda, where L is the conductor length and \lambda is the mean free path, which can reach tens of micrometers in structures like carbon nanotubes even at room temperature.^[5] Theoretically, ballistic conduction is described by the Landauer formalism, which relates the conductance G to the transmission probability T of electron modes through the conductor via G = \frac{2e^2}{[h](/page/H+)} \sum T_i, where e is the electron charge, h is Planck's constant, and the sum is over conducting channels, leading to quantized conductance in one-dimensional systems.^[2] This quantization, observed in quantum point contacts, highlights the wave-like nature of electrons and has profound implications for nanoelectronics, including ultra-low power devices and high-speed transistors.^[6] Such phenomena are significant in nanoscale systems like nanowires and carbon-based materials, with analogous ballistic effects also observed in heat transport by phonons. Despite the absence of scattering within the conductor, overall resistance arises from contacts and mode mismatches, underscoring the dissipative nature of even ideal ballistic systems.^[7]^[8]

Introduction

Definition and Basic Principles

Ballistic conduction refers to the transport of charge carriers, such as electrons, through a material without significant scattering events, occurring when the length of the sample L is shorter than or comparable to the mean free path \lambda_\mathrm{MFP} of the carriers.^[9] In this regime, carriers propagate unimpeded from one contact to another, behaving either as classical particles following straight-line trajectories or as quantum waves maintaining phase coherence over the entire distance.^[7] Unlike diffusive conduction, where frequent collisions randomize carrier motion, ballistic conduction exhibits a conductance that is independent of the material's bulk scattering properties and instead determined by the geometry and nature of the injecting and collecting contacts.^[10] A key feature of ballistic conduction is the presence of finite resistance, even in the absence of internal scattering, arising from the mismatch in the density of states or mode availability at the interfaces between the conductor and its reservoirs.^[10] This contrasts sharply with superconductivity, which involves zero resistance through electron pairing and the Meissner effect but requires a phase transition to a coherent quantum state; ballistic conduction lacks such pairing mechanisms and does not expel magnetic fields. The transport remains ohmic with a non-zero resistivity that scales with the number of available channels, emphasizing the role of boundary effects over intrinsic material dissipation.^[7] Ballistic conduction typically manifests under conditions where L \leq \lambda_\mathrm{MFP}, often achieved in low-dimensional structures such as one-dimensional (1D) nanowires or two-dimensional (2D) electron gases, at low temperatures to minimize phonon scattering, and in high-purity materials to extend the collision-free distance.^[9] These conditions are prevalent in mesoscopic systems, where quantum effects become prominent due to the comparable scales of L and \lambda_\mathrm{MFP}.^[11] The mean free path \lambda_\mathrm{MFP} quantifies the average distance a carrier travels before scattering and is given by \lambda_\mathrm{MFP} = v_F [\tau](/page/Tau), where v_F is the Fermi velocity and [\tau](/page/Tau) is the relaxation time.^[2] This relation adapts the Drude model, where [\tau](/page/Tau) represents the average time between collisions derived from the balance of acceleration by an electric field and collisional damping; multiplying [\tau](/page/Tau) by the characteristic carrier speed v_F (the velocity at the Fermi surface in degenerate systems) yields the collision-free distance, establishing the criterion for ballistic versus diffusive regimes.^[2]

Historical Context

The theoretical foundations of ballistic conduction trace back to early considerations of electron transport without scattering. In the 1930s, J. Frenkel explored the electrical resistance at contacts between solid conductors, deriving expressions for current flow through narrow constrictions where electrons could traverse ballistically, akin to vacuum tube behavior.^[12] Building on this, J. M. Ziman's 1960 work on transport phenomena in solids emphasized the role of electron mean free paths, predicting that when the mean free path exceeds the sample dimensions, conduction approaches the ballistic limit with minimal scattering. The modern understanding emerged in the 1980s with the rise of mesoscopic physics, driven by researchers like Y. Imry and R. Landauer, who investigated quantum coherent effects in submicron structures where phase coherence and ballistic motion dominate.^[13] The Landauer–Büttiker formalism, developed during this period, provided a essential theoretical tool for quantifying conductance in such ballistic regimes. The first direct experimental confirmation occurred in 1988, when C. W. J. Beenakker and H. van Houten observed quantized conductance steps in gallium arsenide (GaAs) quantum point contacts within a two-dimensional electron gas, evidencing one-dimensional ballistic channels.^[14] In the 1990s, advancements in nanofabrication, such as scanning tunneling microscopy tips and lithographic techniques, enabled the fabrication of atomic-scale point contacts, allowing observation of quantized ballistic conductance even at room temperature in metallic systems like nickel, copper, and platinum.^[15] These developments extended ballistic transport studies to shallower etched structures in GaAlAs, where quantization persisted up to around 36 K, laying groundwork for higher-temperature regimes.^[16] The 2010s shifted focus to two-dimensional materials, particularly graphene, where suspended sheets demonstrated near-ballistic electron transport over micrometer scales at room temperature, with mobilities exceeding 200,000 cm²/V·s after current annealing to reduce impurities.^[17] This era highlighted the potential of van der Waals materials for sustaining long mean free paths. In the 2020s, research has integrated ballistic conduction into quantum technologies, with experiments in topological insulators like Bi₂Te₂.₃Se₀.₇ showing ballistic topological surface states mediating Josephson currents over micrometer distances,^[18] and second-order topological insulators such as Bi₄Br₄ exhibiting coherent one-dimensional ballistic states with extended lengths beyond previous limits.^[19]

Theoretical Framework

Scattering Mechanisms

Scattering mechanisms in ballistic conduction primarily involve interactions that disrupt the straight-line trajectory of charge carriers, such as electrons, thereby determining the mean free path (MFP) and limiting the extent of ballistic transport. Elastic scattering preserves the kinetic energy of the electron while altering its momentum, typically through encounters with impurities, defects, or lattice vibrations that do not involve energy exchange. In contrast, inelastic scattering results in energy loss or gain, often via interactions with phonons, where electrons emit or absorb vibrational quanta, leading to a reduction in carrier velocity. These processes collectively prevent the maintenance of ballistic regime, where carriers traverse the conductor without collisions, as the MFP becomes comparable to or shorter than the device length.^[20]^[21] The combined effect of multiple scattering channels on the overall MFP is described by Matthiessen's rule, which assumes independent contributions from each mechanism and yields the reciprocal of the total MFP as the sum of reciprocals from individual processes:

\frac{1}{\lambda_{\mathrm{MFP}}} = \sum_i \frac{1}{\lambda_i}

Here, the individual MFPs \lambda_i account for electron-electron scattering (\lambda_{\mathrm{el-el}}), acoustic phonon scattering (\lambda_{\mathrm{ap}}), optical phonon emission (\lambda_{\mathrm{op,ems}}) and absorption (\lambda_{\mathrm{op,abs}}), impurity scattering (\lambda_{\mathrm{impurity}}), defect scattering (\lambda_{\mathrm{defect}}), and boundary scattering (\lambda_{\mathrm{boundary}}). The full expression is thus:

\frac{1}{\lambda_{\mathrm{MFP}}} = \frac{1}{\lambda_{\mathrm{el-el}}} + \frac{1}{\lambda_{\mathrm{ap}}} + \frac{1}{\lambda_{\mathrm{op,ems}}} + \frac{1}{\lambda_{\mathrm{op,abs}}} + \frac{1}{\lambda_{\mathrm{[impurity](/page/Impurity)}}} + \frac{1}{\lambda_{\mathrm{defect}}} + \frac{1}{\lambda_{\mathrm{[boundary](/page/Boundary)}}}

This additive rule holds well in semiconductors under conditions where scattering rates are not strongly correlated, providing a framework to predict transport limitations in nanoscale systems.^[21]^[22] At room temperature, optical phonon emission emerges as the dominant scattering mechanism limiting ballistic conduction, as electrons with energies above the optical phonon energy (typically 20-60 meV in common semiconductors) rapidly dissipate excess energy through emission, shortening the MFP to tens of nanometers. In impure or defective samples, however, impurity and defect scattering—elastic processes involving Coulomb interactions with ionized centers or structural irregularities—can become equally or more prevalent, further reducing mobility even at low temperatures. Acoustic phonon scattering, while weaker, contributes inelastically at higher temperatures via deformation potential coupling. Boundary scattering, prominent in confined structures like nanowires, arises from reflections at interfaces and scales inversely with cross-sectional dimensions.^[23]^[24] To extend the ballistic regime, strategies focus on minimizing these scattering rates, such as using high-purity materials to reduce impurity and defect contributions, operating at low temperatures to suppress phonon populations, or engineering structures like suspended nanowires to mitigate boundary effects. For instance, isotopically pure samples diminish isotope-induced scattering, while strain engineering can tune phonon spectra to increase optical phonon energies. These approaches have enabled observations of ballistic transport over micrometer lengths in select systems at cryogenic temperatures, where the MFP exceeds device dimensions as defined in basic principles.^[24]^[25]

Landauer–Büttiker Formalism

The Landauer–Büttiker formalism models ballistic electron conduction as a scattering problem in which electrons propagate coherently from source reservoirs to drain reservoirs through a mesoscopic conductor, with the overall conductance determined by the energy-dependent transmission coefficient T(E) rather than classical resistivity. This approach shifts the focus from local material properties to global transmission probabilities, capturing the quantum nature of transport in phase-coherent systems where the sample length is shorter than the mean free path. Markus Büttiker extended the original two-terminal Landauer formulation to a multi-terminal generalization, enabling the description of complex network geometries and voltage probes in coherent transport regimes typical of mesoscopic systems. This framework applies particularly to ballistic conduction in nanostructures, where scattering at interfaces or impurities influences T(E), but phase coherence is maintained throughout the conductor. The current flowing from terminal A to terminal B in this formalism is given by

I_{AB} = \frac{g_s e}{h} \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} M(E) [f_A(E) - f_B(E)] T(E) \, dE,

where g_s = 2 accounts for spin degeneracy, e is the electron charge, h is Planck's constant, M(E) is the number of conducting modes at energy E, f_{A,B}(E) are the Fermi-Dirac distributions in reservoirs A and B with Fermi energies E_{F_A} and E_{F_B}, and T(E) is the transmission probability. At zero temperature and small bias voltage, where the Fermi functions become step functions and T(E) is approximately constant near the Fermi energy, the linear-response conductance simplifies to

G = \frac{2e^2}{h} M T,

with the quantum of conductance G_0 = 2e^2 / h \approx 77.5 \, \mu\text{S} setting the scale for quantized transport; the resistance per mode is then h / (2e^2) \approx 12.9 \, \text{k}\Omega. The formalism assumes full phase coherence across the conductor, limiting its applicability to systems where dephasing lengths exceed the device dimensions. Additionally, in ballistic point contacts, a geometric Sharvin contact resistance arises due to mode mismatch at the interface, given by R_S = \frac{h}{2e^2} \frac{4}{k_F^2 a^2}, where k_F is the Fermi wavevector and a is the contact radius.^[26]

Diffusive vs. Ballistic Transport

In diffusive transport, electrons in a conductor experience frequent scattering events due to impurities, phonons, or other defects, such that the sample length L is much greater than the mean free path \lambda_\mathrm{MFP} (L \gg \lambda_\mathrm{MFP}), resulting in a random walk trajectory for charge carriers.^[27] This regime is characterized by the classical Drude model, where the conductivity \sigma is given by \sigma = n e^2 \tau / m, with n the electron density, e the elementary charge, \tau the relaxation time (inverse scattering rate), and m the effective electron mass; correspondingly, the resistivity \rho = 1/\sigma = m / (n e^2 \tau).^[28] The current density j follows Ohm's law j = \sigma E, with E the electric field, leading to a linear voltage drop across the sample that scales with length, as resistance arises primarily from bulk scattering.^[27] In contrast, the ballistic regime occurs when scattering is negligible within the sample, such that L \leq \lambda_\mathrm{MFP}, allowing electrons to traverse the conductor without collisions, akin to free flight.^[27] Here, conductance becomes independent of sample length, as transport is limited only by the injection and collection at the contacts rather than internal dissipation.^[29] The transition between these regimes is demarcated by the Knudsen number \mathrm{Kn} = \lambda_\mathrm{MFP} / L \approx 1, where \mathrm{Kn} \gg 1 indicates ballistic dominance and \mathrm{Kn} \ll 1 diffusive behavior, analogous to rarefied gas dynamics but applied to electron kinetics in solids.^[29] The crossover region, often termed the mesoscopic regime, features partial scattering where L is comparable to \lambda_\mathrm{MFP}, leading to a blend of ballistic and diffusive characteristics with incomplete randomization of electron paths.^[30] In this intermediate state, quantum interference effects, such as weak localization, become visible but diminish as scattering increases, transitioning toward classical diffusion.^[27] A fundamental distinction lies in the origin of resistance: in the ballistic regime, it is contact-dominated, exemplified by the Sharvin resistance R_S = (h / 2e^2) (1 / N), where h is Planck's constant, N the number of conduction channels, and resistance stems from mode mismatch at the interfaces rather than material volume.^[31] Conversely, diffusive transport yields bulk-dominated resistance, proportional to L via the material's resistivity, highlighting how nanoscale dimensions can shift dominance from volume to boundary effects.^[29]

Optical and Wave Analogies

Ballistic conduction in electronic systems can be intuitively understood through analogies to optical phenomena, where electrons propagate similarly to photons. In the ballistic regime, electrons travel through a conductor without scattering, akin to light propagating straight through a clean waveguide or high-quality optical medium, maintaining their momentum and direction over the mean free path. In contrast, diffusive transport corresponds to light scattered randomly in a milky or turbid medium, where photons undergo frequent deflections, leading to a loss of directional coherence and an exponential decay in intensity. This optical parallel highlights how the absence of impurities or defects in a nanoscale channel enables unimpeded electron flow, much like low-loss optical fibers preserve photon trajectories.^[32] From a wave perspective, electrons in ballistic conduction behave as de Broglie waves, whose wavelength is determined by the particle's momentum via \lambda = h / p, where h is Planck's constant and p is momentum. In this regime, the wave nature is preserved over distances comparable to or longer than the sample size, allowing phase coherence that facilitates interference effects, such as the Aharonov-Bohm oscillations observed in mesoscopic rings under magnetic fields. These oscillations arise from the constructive or destructive interference of electron waves encircling a flux, directly analogous to the phase-sensitive interference of light waves in optical interferometers, and require ballistic propagation to maintain the necessary coherence length.^[33] Scattering mechanisms in ballistic transport further mirror optical processes: elastic scattering, which changes the electron's direction without altering its energy, parallels the reflection of light off a mirror, redirecting the wave while conserving its frequency. Inelastic scattering, involving energy exchange with phonons or other excitations, resembles absorption followed by re-emission in optics, where the photon's energy is dissipated or redistributed, leading to randomization of the electron's trajectory and transition to diffusive behavior. These parallels underscore the role of scattering in disrupting ballistic motion, with elastic events potentially tunable for wave manipulation, much like optical elements.^[34]^[35] The implications of these analogies are profound for quantum transport, as ballistic conduction preserves the wave coherence essential for phenomena like conductance quantization, where the electrical conductance of a channel takes discrete values G = (2e^2/h) M, with M the number of occupied modes and e the electron charge. Such quantization, absent in diffusive regimes due to phase-breaking scattering, enables precise control in quantum devices, drawing directly from the Landauer–Büttiker formalism's emphasis on transmission probabilities. This wave-optical framework not only aids visualization but also inspires hybrid electron-photon systems for advanced sensing and computing.

Applications and Significance

Nanoscale Electronics

Ballistic conduction offers significant advantages in nanoscale electronics by enabling ultralow resistance and high-speed electron transport due to the absence of scattering within short channel lengths.^[36] This regime is particularly ideal for interconnects in integrated circuits, where it supports scaling beyond traditional Moore's law limitations by minimizing energy loss and allowing efficient signal propagation over nanometer distances.^[37] In such systems, conductance can approach the quantum unit G_0 = 2e^2/h, highlighting the fundamental efficiency of ballistic pathways.^[36] Key device examples leveraging ballistic conduction include transistors fabricated in silicon nanowires, which demonstrate near-ideal transport characteristics for high-performance switching.^[38] These structures exploit the one-dimensional confinement to achieve ballistic efficiency, enabling faster operation compared to diffusive counterparts.^[39] Additionally, quantum point contacts serve as building blocks for logic gates, utilizing constricted ballistic channels to control current flow with minimal dissipation and support multi-valued logic operations.^[40] Despite these benefits, challenges persist in maintaining the ballistic regime at larger scales, where scattering from impurities or interfaces disrupts coherence over extended lengths beyond tens of nanometers.^[36] Thermal management also poses issues, as heat generated during operation dissipates inelastically primarily at the contacts rather than uniformly along the channel, complicating cooling in densely packed circuits. These hurdles require advanced passivation and design strategies to preserve performance. Ballistic conduction is being explored to enable sub-5 nm nodes in semiconductor devices, particularly through two-dimensional materials, with simulations showing promise for scattering-free transport in ultra-short channels as of 2025.^[41]^[42] Integration with complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) processes is being investigated to facilitate hybrid chips that combine high-speed elements with established fabrication techniques, paving the way for energy-efficient computing architectures.

Quantum Devices and Phenomena

Ballistic conduction facilitates phase-coherent transport, where electrons maintain quantum interference over mesoscopic distances without significant scattering, enabling observable Aharonov-Bohm (AB) oscillations in ring-like structures. In topological insulator rings, for instance, AB oscillations arise from the interference of surface-state electrons traveling ballistically along opposite paths around the ring, with the oscillation amplitude reflecting the phase coherence length exceeding the ring circumference. This phenomenon underscores the role of ballistic channels in preserving wave-like electron behavior essential for quantum interference effects. Similarly, in quasi-ballistic three-dimensional electron gases, AB oscillations confirm coherent transport in cylindrical geometries, highlighting ballistic conduction's compatibility with higher-dimensional confinement. Ballistic transport also suppresses weak localization, a quantum interference effect that enhances backscattering and reduces conductance in diffusive regimes. In graphene, the suppression of weak localization magnetoresistance occurs due to the material's pseudospin conservation and long mean free paths, leading to near-perfect transmission in ballistic channels and the absence of localization corrections even at low temperatures. This suppression is particularly pronounced in clean, ballistic systems where intervalley scattering is minimized, allowing conductance to approach universal quantum limits without the logarithmic corrections typical of disordered transport. In quantum devices, ballistic channels serve as interconnects in quantum dot arrays for spin qubits, ensuring low-decoherence transfer of spin states. For example, in Ge/Si core/shell nanowire quantum dots, ballistic quantum transport enables coherent coupling between dots via Pauli spin blockade, facilitating high-fidelity spin manipulation and readout for qubit operations. Likewise, ballistic nanowires are crucial for realizing Majorana fermions in topological superconductors, where proximity-induced superconductivity in spin-orbit-coupled semiconductors like InSb supports zero-energy Majorana bound states at the wire ends under magnetic fields. These states, protected by topology, enable non-Abelian braiding for fault-tolerant quantum computing. As of 2025, these systems remain in the experimental stage, with demonstrations of zero-energy states but challenges in braiding and scalability for fault-tolerant computing.^[43] The significance of ballistic conduction in quantum technologies lies in its support for fault-tolerant architectures and high-resolution sensing. In Majorana-based systems, ballistic nanowires provide the clean transport needed for topological protection against local noise, essential for scalable, error-corrected quantum processors. Additionally, ballistic magnetoresistance in atomic-scale magnetic nanocontacts yields giant resistance changes—up to thousands of percent—enabling sensors with atomic-scale spatial resolution for detecting magnetic fields in spintronic and quantum metrology applications. Recent advances as of 2025 have leveraged ballistic transport in two-dimensional van der Waals materials to develop scalable qubit platforms. In InSb nanoribbons gated by van der Waals dielectrics, few-mode ballistic conduction achieves anisotropic quantum transport with mobilities exceeding 10^4 cm²/Vs, paving the way for integrated hole-spin qubits with enhanced coherence times. Furthermore, integration of ballistic nanowire networks, such as InAs cross-junctions, supports reliable quantum information routing in hybrid semiconductor-superconductor systems, advancing quantum network architectures for distributed computing.

Experimental Examples

Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene Nanoribbons

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) exhibit ballistic conduction at room temperature over lengths up to several microns, with metallic SWCNTs supporting approximately 2-4 conducting modes depending on diameter and chirality. In these structures, the transmission probability approaches 0.9, reflecting high ballisticity with minimal scattering, as electrons traverse the nanotube without significant energy loss. This behavior aligns with the Landauer formalism, where conductance manifests as plateaus at multiples of the quantum of conductance G_0 = 2e^2/h. A landmark experimental demonstration occurred in 2000, when individual SWCNTs of about 1 μm length showed room-temperature ballistic transport with a mean free path on the order of 1 μm, evidenced by quantized conductance and quantum interference patterns.^[44] These observations confirmed that electrons in SWCNTs can propagate coherently over micron scales, limited primarily by contact resistance and impurities rather than intrinsic scattering. However, challenges persist due to chirality dependence—only one-third of SWCNTs are metallic and thus ideally suited for ballistic conduction—along with defect-induced backscattering that can degrade transport in longer or imperfect tubes. Graphene nanoribbons (GNRs), quasi-one-dimensional strips of graphene, achieve ballistic conduction through edge-state confinement that quantizes electronic states into 1D-like subbands, particularly in armchair-edged GNRs. In these structures, the mean free path reaches 1-10 μm at room temperature, enabling coherent electron transport over significant distances despite substrate-induced disorder. Experimental studies have highlighted robust ballistic properties, with conductance quantization observed in ribbons as wide as 20 nm, underscoring their potential as interconnects. Key limitations include sensitivity to edge defects, which promote backscattering and reduce mean free paths in narrower or rough-edged ribbons, as well as width-dependent bandgap opening that affects metallicity in armchair configurations.^[45]

Isotopically Enriched Diamond

Isotopically enriched diamond enables ballistic conduction for electrons in ultrahigh-purity, defect-free samples, where mean free paths can approach micron scales under high electric fields (≥10 V/μm) in thin films (≤0.1 μm). Electron transport benefits from reduced isotopic disorder, though it remains secondary to phonon-dominated thermal conduction due to strong carbon-carbon bonds and low anharmonicity.^[46] Isotopic enrichment to greater than 99.99% ^{12}C minimizes mass disorder scattering from the ^{13}C isotope (1.1% natural abundance). Measurements in the 1990s confirmed enhanced thermal conductivities exceeding 2000 W/m·K at room temperature in ^{12}C-enriched single-crystal diamonds, a 50% improvement over natural isotopic composition, with phonon mean free paths extending to over 1 mm at low temperatures (below 100 K).^[47]^[48] In diamond nanowires, quasiballistic phonon transport is observable, but for electrons, high mobilities exceeding 1000 cm²/V·s enable low-resistance interconnects in short-channel devices. Such properties position isotopically enriched diamond for advanced applications in nanoelectronics, including efficient heat management and potential electron ballistic channels in high-field regimes.^[49]

Semiconductor Nanowires and Other Systems

Semiconductor nanowires, such as those made from III-V materials like InGaAs and InSb, exhibit ballistic conduction when their length is shorter than the electron mean free path, typically around 100 nm at cryogenic temperatures like 4 K. In these structures, electrons traverse the nanowire without significant scattering, leading to quantized conductance plateaus observable in transport measurements. For instance, InSb nanowires demonstrate clear conductance quantization at nonzero magnetic fields, with plateaus appearing as a function of gate voltage and bias, confirming one-dimensional ballistic transport.^[50] Similarly, silicon nanowires show quasi-ballistic behavior at low temperatures, with coherent transport over lengths up to 250-450 nm in Ge/Si core-shell configurations, as evidenced by Fabry-Pérot interference patterns in magnetotransport data.^[51] In the 2010s, experiments on GaAs quantum wires highlighted ballistic conduction with quantized conductance values near 2 G_0 (where G_0 = 2e^2/h is the conductance quantum), particularly in clean, gate-defined channels where the first spin-degenerate mode dominates.^[52] These observations align with the Landauer-Büttiker formalism, where the total conductance G ≈ M G_0 for M open modes, tunable via electrostatic gating to control the number of propagating channels. Gate-tunable modes enable precise manipulation of the transport regime, enhancing device performance in nanoscale electronics. Beyond traditional III-V and group IV nanowires, other systems like topological insulators showcase robust ballistic conduction due to protected surface states. In Bi_2Se_3, surface-state electrons exhibit ballistic transport with mean free paths exceeding several μm in high-quality samples. This robustness to disorder arises from spin-momentum locking, suppressing backscattering and enabling dissipationless propagation even in imperfect structures. In 2025, ultrathin Bi_2Se_3 nanoribbons showed pronounced conductance oscillations indicative of ballistic transport.^[53] Similarly, monolayer MoS_2 transistors approach ballistic limits at low temperatures, achieving transmission probabilities up to 0.25 in short-channel devices (∼10 nm), with quasi-ballistic signatures in self-aligned top-gated configurations.^[54] Emerging systems, such as second-order topological insulators, further extend ballistic conduction to higher-order edge modes, with quantum coherent transport observed over micrometer scales. In hybrid organic-inorganic perovskites, developments in the 2020s explore coherent electron transport in low-dimensional structures for optoelectronic applications. These systems collectively demonstrate the versatility of ballistic conduction in inorganic and hybrid nanostructures, with topological protection offering particular advantages for disorder-resilient quantum devices.

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The ballistic efficiency and self-heating effects in gate-all-around silicon nanowire transistors (SNWTs) are experimentally investigated in this paper.
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Jan 22, 2014 · In this paper, we report multi-valued logic gate devices, which can fully exploit the ballistic nature of quantum transport. We report a logic ...
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[PDF] Electron Transport in Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes
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Ballistic Phonons in Ultrathin Nanowires | Nano Letters
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Quasiballistic quantum transport through Ge/Si core/shell nanowires
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[PDF] arXiv:1203.2843v2 [cond-mat.mes-hall] 23 Apr 2012
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New model can detect ballistic electrons under realistic conditions
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[PDF] Approaching Ballistic Transport in Monolayer MoS2 Transistors with ...
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Quantum coherent transport of 1D ballistic states in second order ...
We investigate quantum transport in micrometer-sized single crystals of Bi 4 Br 4 , a material predicted to be a second-order topological insulator.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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Two-dimensional organic-inorganic hybrid perovskite quantum-well ...
Mar 27, 2025 · We present a large family of quantum-well nanowires made from 2D organic-inorganic hybrid metal halide perovskites with tunable well thickness.