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Barium nitrate

Barium nitrate is an inorganic chemical compound with the molecular formula Ba(NO₃)₂ and a molecular weight of 261.34 g/mol, appearing as a white, odorless crystalline solid that is highly soluble in water (approximately 9 g/100 mL at 25°C) but only slightly soluble in ethanol and acetone.^[1] It has a density of 3.24 g/cm³ and decomposes upon heating at around 590°C, releasing nitrogen oxides and barium oxide, while its melting point is reported at 592°C.^[1] As a salt of barium and nitric acid, it functions as a strong oxidizer, noncombustible on its own but capable of accelerating the combustion of other materials, and it is incompatible with reducing agents, acids, and combustible substances.^[1] Barium nitrate is primarily produced by reacting barium carbonate (BaCO₃) with nitric acid (HNO₃) in a controlled process where the acid is diluted and heated before adding the carbonate, yielding the nitrate salt along with carbon dioxide and water; the solution is then filtered, evaporated, and crystallized to obtain the pure compound.^[2] This method leverages the availability of barium carbonate derived from natural barite (barium sulfate) ores, ensuring industrial scalability for applications requiring high-purity barium salts.^[3] Alternative syntheses may involve barium chloride or sulfate with nitrate sources, but the carbonate-nitric acid route remains the most common due to its efficiency and byproduct management.^[4] The compound finds extensive use in pyrotechnics, where it imparts a characteristic green color to flames in fireworks, signal lights, and military applications like thermite grenades, owing to the emission spectrum of excited barium ions.^[5] It is also employed in the manufacture of ceramics, glass, and vacuum tube components to remove residual gases, as well as in the production of barium oxide and other specialty chemicals; additionally, it serves as a precursor in ammonia synthesis catalysts and in doping graphene materials for electrochemical enhancements.^[6] Due to its oxidizing properties, it appears in explosives and neon sign production, though its handling is regulated given its toxicity.^[3] Barium nitrate poses significant health and safety risks as a toxic substance that can cause severe gastrointestinal distress, muscle weakness, and cardiac arrhythmias upon ingestion or inhalation, with an oral LD50 in rats of 355 mg/kg; it is classified as an oxidizer under GHS standards, potentially leading to fire or explosion hazards when mixed with combustibles.^[1] Exposure limits are set at 0.5 mg/m³ (NIOSH recommended TWA), and protective measures include avoiding skin/eye contact, using ventilation, and immediate medical intervention for exposures, such as rinsing affected areas with water.^[1] Its environmental impact includes potential barium contamination in water systems, necessitating careful disposal and regulatory compliance in industrial settings.

Properties

Physical properties

Barium nitrate appears as a colorless to white crystalline solid and is odorless.^[1] It exhibits a cubic crystal structure in the isometric system, with space group P213.^[7] The compound is hygroscopic, meaning it can absorb moisture from the air, and remains stable under standard conditions of temperature and pressure.^[8] Key physical properties of barium nitrate are summarized in the following table:

Property	Value	Conditions/Source
Molecular weight	261.34 g/mol	^[1]
Density	3.24 g/cm³	20 °C; Lide, D.R., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 2007-2008^[1]
Melting point	592 °C (decomposes above)	Lide, D.R., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 2007-2008^[1]
Solubility in water	9.0 g/100 mL	20 °C^[9]
Solubility in ethanol	Slightly soluble	Lide, D.R., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 2007-2008^[1]

These properties contribute to its utility in applications such as pyrotechnics, where the crystalline form and solubility influence formulation and handling.^[10]

Chemical properties

Barium nitrate has the chemical formula Ba(NO₃)₂. It is an ionic compound consisting of Ba²⁺ cations and NO₃⁻ anions. The nitrate anions are planar trigonal structures with resonance delocalization of the negative charge across the three oxygen atoms, stabilizing the ion through equivalent N–O bond lengths of approximately 1.24 Å.^[11] When heated above 550 °C, barium nitrate decomposes thermally, yielding barium oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and oxygen gas via the reaction:

$2 \mathrm{Ba(NO_3)_2} \rightarrow 2 \mathrm{BaO} + 4 \mathrm{NO_2} + \mathrm{O_2}

This endothermic process occurs in the temperature range of 500–700 °C, with the primary decomposition around 630 °C for the bulk material.^[12]^[13] As a strong oxidizing agent, barium nitrate facilitates the combustion of combustible materials by liberating oxygen from the nitrate group, though the compound itself is noncombustible. In aqueous solutions, it dissociates completely into its ions and undergoes slight hydrolysis of the Ba²⁺ cation, producing an approximately neutral pH for a 5% solution (pH range 5.0–8.0 per reagent specifications). It is chemically incompatible with reducing agents, acids, combustible substances, and certain metals like aluminum or magnesium, which can result in exothermic reactions, fires, or explosions upon contact.^[1]^[12]^[9]^[14]

Production and occurrence

Natural occurrence

Barium nitrate occurs naturally in the form of the rare mineral nitrobarite, with the chemical formula Ba(NO₃)₂. This mineral is characterized by its cubic crystal system and colorless appearance in transmitted light, often forming pseudo-octahedral crystals.^[15] Nitrobarite is primarily found in arid nitrate-rich evaporite deposits, where it is often found with a wad coating, a manganese oxide, among other evaporite minerals.^[16] The mineral's formation results from the interaction of barium-rich minerals, derived from local geological sources, with nitrates accumulated through long-term atmospheric deposition in hyperarid environments. In the Atacama Desert of northern Chile, these nitrates originate from photochemical oxidation of ammonia and nitrogen oxides, primarily from oceanic spray and volcanic activity, which concentrate in surface layers over millions of years due to minimal rainfall and evaporation.^[17] Rare occurrences of nitrobarite are documented in caliche horizons—porous, cemented soil layers rich in soluble salts—within the Tarapacá and Antofagasta provinces, as well as other evaporite settings like salt pans.^[16] Nitrobarite is extremely uncommon, known from only a handful of localities worldwide, predominantly in Chile's nitrate fields, making it a minor component of global barium mineralogy.^[18] It was first identified in 1882 during explorations of South American nitrate deposits, predating formal International Mineralogical Association approval.^[7]

Synthetic production

Barium nitrate is commonly prepared in laboratory settings through the reaction of barium carbonate with nitric acid, yielding the balanced equation BaCO₃ + 2 HNO₃ → Ba(NO₃)₂ + CO₂ + H₂O.^[19]2)) This process involves dissolving barium carbonate in nitric acid, allowing iron impurities to precipitate, followed by filtration, evaporation, and crystallization to isolate the product.^[19] An alternative laboratory method utilizes barium hydroxide reacted with nitric acid according to Ba(OH)₂ + 2 HNO₃ → Ba(NO₃)₂ + 2 H₂O, which similarly proceeds via dissolution and subsequent isolation steps.2)) Industrial production of barium nitrate begins with barite (BaSO₄) as the primary raw material, which is first converted to barium sulfide through the black ash process—a high-temperature solid-phase reduction using a carbonaceous agent such as coal at approximately 1,100 °C.^[20]^[21] The barium sulfide is then transformed into barium carbonate by precipitation with sodium carbonate: BaS + Na₂CO₃ → BaCO₃ + Na₂S, after which the carbonate reacts with nitric acid to form barium nitrate via the aforementioned equation.^[21]^[19] This multi-step route leverages the abundance of barite while minimizing direct handling of sulfide intermediates in the final nitrate synthesis. Purification of the resulting barium nitrate typically involves recrystallization from hot water, which effectively removes residual impurities and achieves purities exceeding 99%.^[22] Industrial yields for the overall process are high, often reaching 90–95% when accounting for the efficient conversion from barium carbonate to nitrate, with nitric acid recycling employed to enhance resource utilization and reduce waste.^[23]^[24] The synthetic production of barium nitrate scaled up significantly during the 19th century, driven by demand for its application in pyrotechnics, following the isolation of barium compounds in the early 1800s.^[25]

Applications

Pyrotechnics and fireworks

Barium nitrate serves as a key oxidizer and colorant in pyrotechnic compositions, particularly for generating green hues in fireworks and related displays.^[1] When incorporated into burning mixtures, the barium ions become excited and emit characteristic green light, primarily through the formation of barium monochloride (BaCl) in the presence of chlorine donors, with dominant emission wavelengths around 554 nm.^[22] This green coloration arises from the electronic transitions in barium atoms or ions during combustion, making it essential for vibrant visual effects.^[26] In typical formulations, barium nitrate constitutes 20-50% of green pyrotechnic mixtures, acting as the primary oxidizer alongside fuels such as aluminum powder, magnesium, or sulfur to sustain combustion.^[22] For instance, a common green star composition includes approximately 25% barium nitrate, 58% potassium perchlorate, 15% aluminum, and smaller amounts of binders like dextrin or sodium benzoate to achieve a bright, persistent flame.^[27] These mixtures are pressed into shells or stars for fireworks, where the nitrate provides oxygen for rapid burning while the barium enhances the spectral output.^[28] The compound finds widespread application in producing green stars, aerial flares, and tracer effects within fireworks displays, as well as in theatrical pyrotechnics for stage lighting and special effects.^[29] Signal flares, often used for emergency or recreational purposes, also rely on barium nitrate to create highly visible green bursts that can be seen over long distances.^[30] Compared to barium chlorate, barium nitrate offers advantages such as a brighter green output when paired with perchlorates and lower hygroscopicity, reducing moisture absorption and improving storage stability in humid environments.^[22] Historically, barium nitrate was introduced to fireworks in the 19th century, initially for military signaling devices like green flares to distinguish signals in nighttime operations.^[19] Its adoption expanded civilian pyrotechnics, enabling more vivid color palettes beyond traditional black powder effects.^[31] Due to its toxicity, which can cause gastrointestinal distress, muscle weakness, and cardiovascular issues upon ingestion or inhalation of fumes, barium nitrate faces restrictions in fireworks production and use in several countries.^[32] For example, the European Union regulates barium compounds under REACH for environmental release limits.^[33] International regulations on pyrotechnics increasingly address heavy metal content to protect public health and reduce pollution.^[34]

Industrial and other uses

Barium nitrate is employed in the production of optical glass, where it enhances the refractive index, enabling the creation of high-quality lenses for cameras and other precision instruments.^[19] It also adjusts the density and optical properties of glass formulations to meet specialized requirements for various glass products.^[35] In the ceramics industry, barium nitrate serves as a flux in glaze formulations, lowering the melting point of ceramic materials and facilitating the development of glossy, durable finishes.^[36] This fluxing action promotes better adhesion and surface quality in ceramic products without requiring excessive high-temperature processing.^[36] Barium nitrate functions as a precursor in the vacuum tube industry for producing barium oxide coatings on cathodes, which are essential for electron emission in devices such as cathode-ray tubes.^[1] These coatings improve the efficiency and longevity of vacuum tubes used in older electronic applications.^[19] It is specifically applied in cathode coatings for vacuum tubes and electron-emitting components.^[37] Historically, barium nitrate has been used in rodenticide formulations due to its toxicity to rodents, though such applications have largely been phased out in favor of safer alternatives.^[38]^[39] In analytical chemistry, it acts as a high-purity reagent for laboratory syntheses, such as catalyzing the production of 1,4-dihydropyridines, and in precise assays requiring stable nitrate sources.^[6]^[40] Global production of barium nitrate is estimated in the range of several thousand metric tons annually, with the market valued at approximately USD 2.4 billion as of 2024 and projected to reach USD 4 billion by 2033.^[41]^[42]

Military applications

Barium nitrate serves as a key oxidizer in various military pyrotechnic and explosive compositions due to its ability to support rapid combustion and produce distinctive green emissions.^[43] In percussion primers for small arms ammunition, it is a primary component of mixtures like NOL-130, which typically consists of 40% basic lead styphnate, 20% dextrinated lead azide, 20% barium nitrate, 15% antimony sulfide, and 5% tetracene, enabling reliable ignition upon impact.^[44] This formulation has been widely used in stab detonators and initiating devices for munitions, providing the necessary oxygen for the primary explosive reaction.^[45] In tracer and incendiary applications, barium nitrate contributes to green-tracing bullets and illumination rounds by facilitating a visible green pyrotechnic trail during flight.^[46] For instance, formulations for 7.62mm tracers often include barium nitrate combined with magnesium and dechlorane to achieve a light green burn, enhancing nighttime visibility for gunners without revealing positions as prominently as red tracers.^[46] These compositions ignite at the bullet's base upon firing, sustaining combustion to mark projectile paths in combat scenarios.^[19] As an oxidizer in military explosives, barium nitrate is incorporated into flash powder compositions for grenades and other ordnance, where it reacts vigorously with fuels like aluminum to produce intense bursts.^[47] A representative example is its role in thermate-TH3, used in incendiary grenades, comprising approximately 29% barium nitrate, 68.7% thermite (iron oxide and aluminum), 2% sulfur, and 0.3% binder, which amplifies the thermite reaction for cutting through metal targets.^[48] Such mixtures, often around 50-70% barium nitrate with aluminum and binders or perchlorates, provide the explosive flash needed for distraction or destruction in tactical operations.^[49] Historically, barium nitrate was employed in World War I signaling flares, where it enabled green-light pyrotechnics for aerial and ground communication, as seen in compositions blending it with aluminum for reliable illumination.^[50] These flares supported coordination in trench warfare and reconnaissance, leveraging the compound's stable oxidation properties.^[50] In modern military contexts, barium nitrate's use has been curtailed in some applications due to its toxicity and environmental persistence, with alternatives like strontium nitrate or sodium nitrate adopted for tracers, illuminants, and primers to reduce heavy metal contamination.^[51] For example, U.S. Army efforts at Picatinny Arsenal have developed barium-free green illuminants, phasing it out from certain pyrotechnic devices while retaining it in legacy systems.^[52]

Safety and handling

Toxicity and health effects

Barium nitrate, as a highly soluble barium compound, poses significant health risks primarily through the release of barium ions (Ba²⁺), which are rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream following exposure.^[32] The main routes of absorption include inhalation of dust or fumes, ingestion, and to a lesser extent, dermal contact, with gastrointestinal absorption estimated at 5–30% in humans for soluble forms like barium nitrate.^[32] Inhalation exposure is particularly relevant in occupational settings, where fine particles can lead to rapid systemic uptake via the respiratory tract.^[53] Acute exposure to barium nitrate typically manifests as severe gastrointestinal distress, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea, often appearing within hours of ingestion or inhalation.^[53] Cardiovascular effects are prominent due to hypokalemia induced by barium ions, which block intracellular potassium channels, leading to symptoms such as irregular heartbeat, hypertension or hypotension, slow pulse, and potentially ventricular tachycardia or cardiac arrest.^[54] Additional acute symptoms include muscle weakness, tremors, numbness, and in severe cases, paralysis or seizures, with death possible from respiratory or cardiac failure if untreated.^[53] The oral LD50 for barium nitrate in rats is approximately 355 mg/kg, indicating moderate acute toxicity, while the OSHA permissible exposure limit (PEL) is 0.5 mg/m³ as barium to prevent occupational overexposure.^[55] Chronic exposure to barium nitrate can result in renal damage, with nephropathy observed in animal studies at doses as low as 160 mg/kg/day over extended periods, and potential muscle weakness or paralysis from ongoing nerve function disruption.^[32] The mechanism involves barium ions mimicking potassium, thereby interfering with potassium-dependent processes in nerves and muscles, exacerbating hypokalemia and leading to cumulative neuromuscular and cardiovascular impairments.^[54] Treatment for barium nitrate poisoning focuses on supportive care, including immediate gastric lavage or administration of emetics for recent ingestion, followed by oral sulfates (e.g., magnesium or sodium sulfate at 250 mg/kg, up to 30 g) to precipitate insoluble barium sulfate and reduce absorption.^[53] Potassium supplementation is critical to correct hypokalemia and stabilize cardiac rhythm, with hemodialysis considered in severe cases for rapid barium and electrolyte clearance; no specific antidote exists.^[56] Workers in barium production, pyrotechnics manufacturing, and related industries face the highest risk of exposure, as do individuals with pre-existing cardiovascular disease or lung conditions, who may experience amplified effects from even low-level chronic inhalation or ingestion.^[57] Barium nitrate dust can also act as an irritant to the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract, potentially worsening exposure in these populations.^[58]

Fire and environmental hazards

Barium nitrate is classified as a strong oxidizer under UN 1446, Hazard Class 5.1 with a subsidiary hazard of 6.1 (toxic), and Packing Group II, meaning it accelerates the combustion of other materials but does not burn itself.^[59] In fire situations, it can intensify surrounding fires by providing oxygen, and thermal decomposition may release toxic nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) gas, necessitating the use of water spray to cool exposed containers while avoiding direct streams that could spread the material.^[12] Firefighters should wear self-contained breathing apparatus and full protective gear to mitigate exposure to decomposition products.^[60] For safe storage and handling, barium nitrate should be kept in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from reducing agents, combustible materials, and sources of ignition to prevent reactions or fires.^[61] Personal protective equipment, including chemical-resistant gloves, safety goggles, and respirators with appropriate filters, is essential during handling to avoid dust inhalation or skin contact.^[62] Environmentally, barium nitrate's high water solubility leads to potential contamination of soil and groundwater, as the compound dissociates into barium ions that remain mobile in aqueous systems.^[63] Barium ions can bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms, posing risks to ecosystems, particularly in sensitive freshwater habitats, and the compound is regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as a hazardous waste under RCRA code D005 due to its toxicity.^[64] In the event of spills, the material should be absorbed with inert materials like sand or vermiculite, contained to prevent runoff into waterways, and not washed into sewers to avoid environmental release.^[62] Disposal of barium nitrate must comply with EPA regulations for hazardous waste, typically involving chemical treatment such as precipitation with sulfates to form insoluble barium sulfate or secure landfilling, rather than incineration, to minimize environmental release.

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[62]
[PDF] Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet - NJ.gov
▻ Barium Nitrate may damage the kidneys. ▻ Repeated exposure may cause an abnormal chest x-ray. This usually takes years to develop. ▻ Barium Nitrate is not ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[63]
[PDF] Ecological Soil Screening Levels for Barium
Soluble barium compounds, such as barium nitrate, barium cyanide, barium permanganate, and barium chloride, are expected to be mobile in the environment.
[64]
BARIUM AND BARIUM COMPOUNDS (CICAD 33, 2001) - INCHEM
Dissolved barium in aquatic environments may represent a risk to aquatic organisms such as daphnids, but it is apparently of lesser risk to fish and aquatic ...