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Basidiocarp

A basidiocarp, also referred to as a basidiome or basidioma, is the fruiting body of basidiomycete fungi, consisting of a multicellular structure that bears spore-producing basidia on its surface.^[1] It represents the reproductive phase in the life cycle of Basidiomycota, emerging from dikaryotic mycelium to facilitate the production and dispersal of basidiospores following karyogamy and meiosis within the basidia.^[2] Basidiocarps develop from secondary mycelium, which is dikaryotic—containing two haploid nuclei from compatible mating strains—and form under favorable environmental conditions such as moisture and temperature.^[1] Their structure typically includes a fertile hymenium layer, where basidia are arranged, supported by sterile trama tissue composed of compacted hyphae; the hymenium may be exposed on gills, pores, or smooth surfaces.^[3] Outer protective layers, such as skeletal hyphae for rigidity and a peridium in enclosed forms, contribute to their diversity in texture, from fleshy and ephemeral to woody and persistent.^[2] Morphologically, basidiocarps vary widely, including epigeous (above-ground) forms like the umbrella-shaped pileus and stipe of mushrooms (e.g., Agaricus species) and hypogeous (underground) types like false truffles (e.g., Scleroderma species)^[4]; developmental patterns range from gymnocarpous (open hymenium from the start) to angiocarpous (fully enclosed until spore maturity).^[3] Functionally, they enable sexual reproduction by generating basidiospores, which are forcibly discharged or passively dispersed via wind, water, or animal vectors, ensuring genetic recombination and propagation.^[5] Ecologically, basidiocarps are significant as many Basidiomycota species form mycorrhizal associations, decompose organic matter, or act as pathogens, with examples including edible mushrooms and toxic species like certain Amanita.^[1]

Overview

Definition

A basidiocarp, also known as a basidiome or basidioma, is the multicellular fruiting body or sporocarp produced by fungi in the phylum Basidiomycota, serving as the structure on which basidiospores—the sexually produced spores—are formed via specialized club-shaped cells called basidia.^[2]^[1] This fruiting body develops from dikaryotic mycelium and represents the reproductive phase in the fungal life cycle, distinguishing Basidiomycota from other fungal phyla that produce spores in different structures.^[6] Basidiocarps vary in form but are characterized by their role in spore maturation and dispersal, often featuring a fertile layer known as the hymenium where basidia are densely packed.^[7] Key characteristics of basidiocarps include their occurrence as either epigeous forms, which emerge above ground such as mushrooms and bracket fungi, or hypogeous forms, which remain underground like false truffles, facilitating different dispersal strategies adapted to environmental conditions.^[8] However, not all Basidiomycota produce basidiocarps; they are notably absent in certain groups such as the rusts (order Pucciniales) and smuts (order Ustilaginales), which instead form simpler spore-producing structures like telia without macroscopic fruiting bodies.^[7] The term "basidiocarp" derives from "basidium," the term for the small pedestal-like cell (from Ancient Greek básis meaning base, plus the diminutive suffix -idium), combined with "carp" from the Greek karpos meaning fruit, reflecting its role as a spore-bearing reproductive organ.^[9]^[10] This nomenclature emerged later in the 19th century, building on the foundational work of mycologist Elias Magnus Fries, who in his Systema Mycologicum (1821–1831) established the classification of what are now known as Basidiomycota based on fruiting body morphology, providing the first systematic description of these structures.^[11]^[12]

Biological Significance

The basidiocarp serves as the primary site for sexual reproduction in Basidiomycota, where basidia—specialized cells within its structure—undergo karyogamy and meiosis to produce haploid basidiospores.^[13] This process facilitates genetic recombination during meiosis, which generates novel combinations of alleles and enhances genetic diversity among basidiomycetes, enabling adaptation to varying environmental pressures.^[14] By concentrating meiotic events in an elevated, exposed structure, the basidiocarp ensures efficient release of these diverse spores, contrasting with the more localized spore production in other fungal groups. Evolutionarily, the macroscopic size of many basidiocarps provides a key advantage for spore dispersal, often elevating basidia above the substrate to exploit wind currents and increase the range of basidiospore distribution over long distances.^[15] This structural adaptation likely contributed to the diversification of Basidiomycota, as larger fruiting bodies correlate with greater spore production and dispersal efficiency compared to the typically smaller ascocarps of Ascomycota, which rely more on direct contact or shorter-range mechanisms. Such features have supported the ecological dominance of basidiomycetes in terrestrial habitats, including forests where they play roles in decomposition and symbiosis. In human contexts, basidiocarps are significant as sources of edible mushrooms, such as Agaricus bisporus (button mushroom), which form the basis of a global industry valued for nutrition and contributing to food security.^[16] They also yield medicinal compounds, including polysaccharides from Ganoderma species used in traditional and modern therapies for immune modulation and anticancer effects.^[16] Conversely, certain basidiocarps produce potent toxins like amatoxins in Amanita species, posing risks of severe poisoning and underscoring the need for mycological expertise in foraging and agriculture.^[16] Overall, these fungi drive economic impacts through cultivation, pharmaceutical development, and research in mycology, while also influencing agricultural practices via symbiotic associations that enhance crop productivity.^[17]

Morphology

General Structure

In many epigeous basidiocarps, particularly pileate-stipitate forms like mushrooms, the fruiting body exhibits a macroscopic anatomy adapted for spore dispersal, consisting of key external and supportive structures. The pileus, a cap-like structure that forms the upper portion and often protects the spore-producing surfaces beneath it, varies in size, color, and texture across species—for instance, ranging from deep red to white and measuring up to several centimeters in diameter in certain polypores.^[7] The stipe, or stalk, supports the pileus and elevates it for efficient spore release, though it may be absent in many forms such as sessile polypores or resupinate crusts; when present, it can be central, eccentric, or lateral, as seen in genera like Ganoderma where it reaches lengths of up to 80 mm.^[7]^[18] Additional supportive features in certain species include the volva, a basal sac or cup at the stipe's base formed from remnants of a universal veil that encloses the developing basidiocarp, providing protection during early growth and commonly observed in genera such as Amanita.^[7]^[18] The annulus, a ring-like remnant of a partial veil encircling the stipe, arises from tissue that initially covers the developing hymenophore and is prominent in species like Agaricus and Armillaria mellea, aiding in species identification.^[7]^[18] These structures collectively contribute to the basidiocarp's structural integrity and ecological function in the forms where they occur. The hymenophore, the spore-bearing surface, displays significant variation in configuration to optimize spore dissemination. Common types include lamellate (gilled) structures, featuring radiating sheets as in many agarics; poroid (pored) surfaces with tube-like openings, typical of polypores like Ganoderma where tubes can extend up to 20 mm deep;^[19] hydnoid (toothed) formations with downward-projecting spines; and smooth or corticioid crusts, which lack projections and form flat, effused layers on substrates.^[7]^[18] The hymenium, the fertile layer, is located on these hymenophore surfaces.^[7] At the tissue level, basidiocarps are composed of interwoven hyphae, which are filamentous, septate (with cross-walls) and typically dikaryotic (containing two compatible nuclei per cell), often connected by clamp connections at septal pores to maintain the dikaryotic state during growth.^[7] In more complex forms, these hyphae aggregate into pseudoparenchymatous tissues resembling plant parenchyma cells, providing mechanical support through a mix of generative hyphae (thin-walled and branching) and skeletal hyphae (thick-walled and rigid), as exemplified by the trimitic systems in woody basidiocarps like those of Ganoderma.^[7] This hyphal architecture enables the basidiocarp's diverse morphologies while ensuring durability in varied environments.^[7]

Reproductive Components

The hymenium represents the fertile layer within the basidiocarp, consisting of a densely packed palisade of reproductive structures including basidia and accompanying sterile hyphae.^[20] In forms with exposed hymenophores, such as hymenomycetes, this layer is located on the surface of the hymenophore, facilitating spore production and release; in gasteroid basidiocarps, the hymenium is enclosed within the gleba, a spongy internal tissue, with spores dispersed upon maturation and rupture.^[14] Sterile hyphae within the hymenium, such as cystidia and paraphyses, play supportive roles; cystidia are elongated, often protruding cells that aid in spacing basidia, stabilizing the hymenial surface, and promoting spore discharge by influencing adhesion and vacuolization in adjacent tissues.^[14] Paraphyses, in contrast, are slender, branched hyphae that emerge alongside basidia, incorporating glycogen reserves and contributing to the structural expansion of the hymenium during development.^[14] Basidia serve as the primary reproductive cells in the hymenium, characteristically club-shaped and marking the terminal stage of the dikaryotic phase in the basidiomycete life cycle.^[20] Within each basidium, karyogamy occurs, fusing the paired nuclei from the dikaryon to form a diploid nucleus, which is immediately followed by meiosis to yield four haploid nuclei.^[14] These nuclei migrate to the apex of the basidium, where they develop into basidiospores borne on slender projections known as sterigmata, typically four per basidium in most species.^[20] Basidiospores, the haploid propagules produced by basidiomycetes, are generally uninucleate and form the dispersal units of the fungus, with characteristics varying by taxon for taxonomic identification.^[20] They are typically four per basidium and may be hyaline (colorless and translucent) or pigmented, such as golden-brown in genera like Ganoderma, with the pigmentation arising from the inner wall layer.^[21] Ornamentation on the spore surface, including smooth, verrucose (warted), or ridged patterns, further aids in species differentiation; for instance, in Coprinus cinereus, basidiospores measure approximately 9.5–13 μm × 6–7 μm and feature a multilayered wall that becomes pigmented shortly after formation.^[14]

Development

Ontogeny

The ontogeny of the basidiocarp begins with the dikaryotic secondary mycelium, which arises from the fusion of compatible monokaryotic hyphae through plasmogamy, establishing a stable dikaryotic state characterized by clamp connections that maintain paired nuclei during hyphal growth.^[14] This secondary mycelium, formed only after compatible mating types interact, serves as the precursor for basidiocarp initiation, as monokaryotic mycelia rarely fruit.^[15] In tetrapolar mating systems, prevalent in many basidiomycetes such as Coprinus cinereus and Schizophyllum commune, compatibility requires distinct specificities at both A (governing nuclear pairing via homeodomain proteins) and B (pheromone-receptor mediated) loci, with C. cinereus exhibiting approximately 160 A and 80 B specificities to promote outbreeding.^[22] Bipolar systems, found in some species like Ustilago maydis, simplify this to a single locus, but the requirement for dikaryosis remains essential for primordia formation.^[15] Initiation proceeds as localized regions of the dikaryotic mycelium aggregate into primordia, often termed the button stage, through the formation of hyphal knots—dense, interlaced clusters of undifferentiated hyphae approximately 0.2 mm in diameter.^[22] These knots emerge from intense branching and fusion of aerial hyphae, facilitated by mucilaginous secretions that promote adhesion, marking the transition from vegetative growth to organized development.^[15] Growth phases involve progressive hyphal differentiation, where hyphae specialize into sterile tissues (such as veil cells or cystidia for structural support) and fertile tissues (including prosenchymal cores that will form the hymenium), driven by upregulated genes like expansins for cell wall loosening and cerato-platanins for adhesion. In C. cinereus, this differentiation is evident in the initial globose aggregates, with glycogen accumulation providing energy reserves for expansion.^[22] Environmental cues significantly influence these early stages, with high humidity (around 90%) essential for maintaining turgor pressure and enabling hyphal elongation, while nutrient availability—particularly carbon sources—triggers aggregation by signaling nutrient depletion in the substrate.^[15] Light-dark cycles, such as 12-hour periods, regulate knot formation in the dark and primordia emergence under blue light (400–500 nm), as seen in S. commune, where low humidity can divert development toward sclerotia instead.^[22] These factors interact with genetic regulators, such as MAPK and cAMP pathways, to coordinate the transition from mycelial network to primordia.

Maturation and Spore Production

In basidiocarps, the process of maturation culminates in karyogamy and meiosis within the basidia, specialized cells typically located on the hymenium of gills, pores, or other fertile surfaces. The dikaryotic hyphae forming the basidiocarp maintain two unfused haploid nuclei per cell until reaching the basidia, where karyogamy fuses these nuclei to produce a transient diploid zygote nucleus. This fusion is often synchronized across numerous basidia, as observed in species like Coprinus cinereus, where it begins after a 24-hour prefusion phase and involves 60–85% of basidia initiating nuclear fusion nearly simultaneously.^[14] Immediately following karyogamy, meiosis occurs, involving two successive divisions (meiosis I and II) that reduce the diploid nucleus to four haploid nuclei; these migrate along narrow extensions called sterigmata to form basidiospores at their tips. The timing of meiotic divisions can vary among basidiomycetes—simultaneous in some lineages for rapid spore production, or successive in others to allow staggered maturation—ensuring genetic diversity through recombination during prophase I.^[14]^[23] As meiosis completes, the basidiocarp undergoes physical expansion and dehiscence to facilitate spore release. The pileus expands osmotically through water uptake and cell inflation, particularly in paraphyses and gill tissues, elevating the fertile layer for optimal dispersal; in C. cinereus, this correlates with rapid stipe elongation up to 80 mm in under 12 hours post-meiosis. In veiled species like Agaricus brasiliensis, rupture of the inner veil marks full maturity, exposing the gills and allowing spores to develop fully before release. Gill spacing increases during this phase to prevent interference, enabling individual spores to drop or be ejected. In many basidiomycetes, ballistospory propels spores forcibly from the basidia via a surface tension catapult mechanism: a small adhesive droplet (Buller's drop) forms at the spore's hilar appendix, swells due to evaporation, and bursts, accelerating the spore at speeds of 0.1–1.8 m/s over distances of 0.04–1.3 mm to clear the hymenium.^[14]^[24]^[25] Following spore discharge, the basidiocarp enters senescence, characterized by autolysis that degrades its tissues and recycles nutrients back to the underlying mycelium. Enzymatic breakdown, mediated by chitinases and other hydrolases, begins approximately 8 hours after spore maturation in species like C. cinereus, leading to localized cell wall degradation and eventual autodigestion of the cap and gills. This process not only facilitates spore liberation in some cases but also mobilizes nitrogen and other nutrients through internal recycling mechanisms, supporting mycelial regrowth or persistence in the substrate. In wood-decay basidiomycetes, autolysis contributes to nutrient reuse by breaking down fungal biomass, allowing absorption by the mycelium for sustained colonization.^[14]^[26]

Classification

Morphological Types

Basidiocarps exhibit a wide range of morphological forms, classified primarily by the degree of differentiation into components such as a stipe and pileus, as well as the configuration of the hymenophore—the spore-producing surface. These types reflect adaptations in spore dispersal and substrate interaction, with major categories including agaricoid, boletinoid, gasteroid, corticioid, and resupinate forms.^[27] Simpler, undifferentiated basidiocarps lack distinct stipe and cap structures, while more complex ones feature elaborated parts like a central stipe supporting a pileus.^[18] Agaricoid basidiocarps are the classic mushroom shape, characterized by a central stipe elevating a pileus with lamellate (gilled) hymenophores underneath for efficient spore release. Examples include species in the genus Agaricus, such as the common button mushroom A. bisporus, where gills radiate from the stipe attachment point.^[27]^[18] Boletinoid forms resemble agaricoids but have a poroid hymenophore consisting of tubular pores instead of gills, as seen in boletes like Boletus edulis, where the tubes form a spongy layer under the cap.^[27] Gasteroid basidiocarps are enclosed structures that retain spores internally until maturity, preventing active discharge and relying on passive release, such as through a pore or upon rupture. Puffballs like Lycoperdon perlatum exemplify this type, with a globose, powdery interior that disperses spores when disturbed.^[18]^[27] Corticioid and resupinate basidiocarps are crust-like and lie flat against the substrate, often effused or spreading indefinitely, with a smooth or wrinkled hymenophore exposed directly. These are common in wood-decaying fungi, such as Stereum ostrea in corticioid forms, where the basidiocarp adheres tightly to bark without elevation.^[27] Undifferentiated basidiocarps, such as those in jelly fungi, lack a defined stipe or pileus and instead form gelatinous, brain-like or lobed masses with an embedded hymenium. The genus Tremella, including T. mesenterica (witch's butter), produces soft, translucent fruiting bodies that absorb water and expand, facilitating spore production in a simple, non-elevated structure.^[18] In contrast, differentiated complex forms integrate stipe, pileus, and varied hymenophores, as in bracket fungi like Trametes versicolor, which grow shelf-like with poroid surfaces.^[27] Transitional forms, known as secotioid basidiocarps, bridge open agaricoid or boletinoid types and fully enclosed gasteroids, featuring a partially reduced hymenium and incomplete veil that traps some spores. Examples include Rhizopogon species, which exhibit gilled precursors evolving toward truffle-like enclosure, representing intermediate stages in morphological evolution.^[27]

Phylogenetic Context

The phylogenetic context of basidiocarps reveals a complex evolutionary history shaped by molecular data, demonstrating that fruiting body forms are often polyphyletic and result from convergent evolution rather than shared ancestry. Analyses of ribosomal DNA sequences, including nuclear small subunit (nuc-ssu) and mitochondrial small subunit (mt-ssu) rDNA, indicate that gilled agaricoid morphologies have arisen independently at least six times within homobasidiomycetes, challenging earlier assumptions of monophyly based on morphology alone.^[28] For example, similar gilled structures in orders such as Agaricales and Russulales reflect parallel adaptations, as supported by multilocus phylogenies incorporating internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and large subunit (LSU) rDNA, which place these groups in distinct clades despite superficial similarities.^[29]^[30] Early-diverging lineages in Basidiomycota exhibit simpler basidiocarp forms, providing insights into ancestral states. In the Dacrymycetes, a basal group sister to Agaricomycetes, basidiocarps are typically club-like and gelatinous, such as in Calocera species, lacking the elaborate structures seen in later branches; multilocus phylogenies using 18S, ITS, 28S, RPB1, RPB2, TEF-1α, 12S, and ATP6 genes confirm their position with stem ages estimated at 360–385 million years ago.^[31] In contrast, complex forms like those in Agaricomycotina, including mushrooms and resupinate structures, evolved later, highlighting a progression from rudimentary to diversified morphologies driven by ecological pressures.^[31] Recent phylogenomic studies since 2020 have further refined Basidiomycota subphyla, expanding classifications to include four subphyla, 20 classes, and numerous new orders and families based on comprehensive genomic datasets.^[32] These analyses, incorporating thousands of single-copy genes, demonstrate that gasteroid forms—enclosed fruiting bodies without forcible spore discharge—represent derived reductions that originated at least 123 times, primarily from pileate-stipitate ancestors, across multiple clades in Agaricomycetes; such transitions are often recent (4–50 million years ago) and associated with lower diversification rates.^[33] For instance, phylogenomic reconstructions of Nidulariaceae (Agaricales) using 1,044 single-copy genes reveal multiple independent gains and losses of persistent peridia in gasteroid-like bird's nest fungi, underscoring ongoing evolutionary lability in basidiocarp architecture.^[34]

Ecology

Functional Roles

Basidiocarps play a central role in fungal reproduction by facilitating the production and dispersal of basidiospores, which are essential for propagating basidiomycete lineages across diverse environments. One primary function is spore dispersal, achieved through multiple strategies that enhance the probability of successful colonization. In many epigeous basidiocarps, such as those of gilled mushrooms (agarics), ballistic ejection propels spores from basidia over short distances of 0.04 to 1.83 mm at speeds up to 1.8 m/s, powered by surface tension from the fusion of Buller's drop and an adaxial drop on the spore surface.^[35] This active discharge clears spores from the hymenium, preventing saturation and enabling subsequent wind dispersal, where spores are carried by air currents, with approximately 90% traveling less than 100 m but some achieving intercontinental distances under favorable conditions.^[35] For hypogeous basidiocarps, which develop underground and lack mechanisms for aerial release, spore dispersal relies on animal vectors through mycophagy; small mammals consume the fruiting bodies, and viable spores pass through their digestive systems to be deposited elsewhere, ensuring dissemination in soil environments.^[36] These strategies support high fecundity, with individual basidiocarps producing tens of billions of spores—reaching trillions in large gasteroid forms like Calvatia gigantea—to compensate for low germination rates and dispersal inefficiencies.^[35] Beyond reproduction, basidiocarps contribute to ecosystem nutrient cycling through their fungi's trophic interactions. Saprotrophic basidiomycetes, particularly white-rot species such as Phanerochaete chrysosporium, decompose complex lignocellulosic materials in dead wood and litter by enzymatically breaking down lignin and cellulose, releasing carbon, nitrogen, and other nutrients back into the soil for uptake by primary producers.^[37] This process is vital for carbon sequestration and soil fertility, as white-rot fungi mineralize a substantial portion of terrestrial lignocellulose annually.^[38] In contrast, mycorrhizal basidiomycetes, including ectomycorrhizal genera like Amanita and Russula, form symbiotic associations with plant roots, extending the absorptive hyphal network to enhance host nutrient uptake, particularly of phosphorus and nitrogen, which can constitute up to 90% of the plant's supply in nutrient-poor soils.^[39] These interactions improve plant growth and resilience while providing the fungi with photosynthates, fostering mutualistic dynamics that underpin forest productivity.^[40] Basidiocarps also serve defensive roles by housing or producing secondary metabolites that protect the fungal organism from biotic threats. These compounds, such as sesquiterpenoids and polyketides in species like Agaricus bisporus, deter herbivores—including insects and mammals—by exhibiting toxicity or repellency, reducing consumption of the fruiting body and preserving reproductive structures.^[41] Against microbial competitors, basidiocarps produce antibiotics and volatile organic compounds that inhibit bacterial and fungal rivals, maintaining spatial dominance in colonized substrates like wood or soil.^[42] Such chemical defenses are often concentrated in the cap and stipe tissues, enhancing survival during the vulnerable maturation phase.^[43]

Habitat and Distribution

Basidiocarps predominantly form in moist environments characterized by high relative humidity, often exceeding 80-90%, which facilitates spore maturation and dispersal. Many species, particularly those in temperate regions, exhibit optimal fruiting at temperatures between 15-25°C, with abundant growth triggered during rainy seasons when moisture levels rise significantly.^[44]^[45] For instance, collections of basidiomycetes in tropical and subtropical areas like India show peak basidiocarp emergence from November to January, coinciding with monsoon rains that provide the necessary humidity and substrate saturation.^[44] Additionally, fruiting is often initiated by the decay of organic substrates such as wood or litter, where enzymatic breakdown creates nutrient-rich microsites conducive to development.^[46] Globally, basidiocarps are widespread across diverse ecosystems, including temperate and tropical forests, where they contribute to wood decomposition and nutrient cycling, as well as in grasslands supporting saprotrophic species. In tropical forests of Africa, America, and Asia, polypore basidiocarps alone exhibit high diversity, with 1,902 species documented across these regions, representing over 80% endemism to specific tropical areas.^[47] Grassland habitats host several hundred preferential basidiomycete species, including litter decomposers like Mycena and dung specialists like Coprinus, thriving in nutrient inputs from grazing and low-rainfall conditions that prevent succession.^[46] Hypogeous basidiocarps, such as those in truffle-like genera, are adapted to arid or nutrient-poor soils, emerging in Mediterranean or semi-desert environments where surface conditions limit epigeous forms. Overall, Basidiomycota encompass over 20,000 described species with basidiocarps, with the highest diversity concentrated in tropical biomes.^[48] Distribution patterns of basidiocarps are influenced by regional endemism and biogeographic barriers, notably in Australasia where approximately 10.6% of Western Australian macrofungi are endemic, often tied to unique eucalypt hosts or isolated habitats. Climate change is altering these distributions, with 2020s studies documenting shifts in fruiting phenology; for example, warming temperatures have advanced fungal fruiting timing by up to two weeks in cooler regions and extended durations in some ectomycorrhizal species.^[49]^[50] These changes, driven by increased mean temperatures and variable precipitation, pose risks to species in moisture-dependent habitats, potentially reducing yield in temperate forests.^[51]

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Fungus wars: basidiomycete battles in wood decay - ScienceDirect
Wood decay basidiomycetes are central to the decomposition of recalcitrant lignocellulose, and thus to global carbon cycling. With approximately 80 Tg of carbon ...
[37]
The mycorrhizal symbiosis: research frontiers in genomics, ecology ...
Jan 31, 2024 · Mycorrhizal fungi can promote plant growth and nutrient uptake. Up to 90% of plant P and N can be acquired by mycorrhizal fungi. Some plants ...
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Mycorrhiza: a natural resource assists plant growth under varied soil ...
Apr 18, 2020 · There are two nutrient uptake pathways for roots colonized by mycorrhizae: the plant uptake pathway (PP) and the mycorrhizal uptake pathway (MP) ...
[39]
Review Fungal secondary metabolites as modulators of interactions ...
Fungal secondary metabolites drive antagonistic interactions, act as chemical shields, and may be used as defensive or offensive chemical weapons against ...Missing: basidiocarps | Show results with:basidiocarps
[40]
How fungi defend themselves against microbial competitors and ...
Sep 6, 2018 · Fungi mainly defend themselves chemically, producing toxins like secondary metabolites, peptides, and proteins, which can be stored or secreted.Missing: basidiocarps | Show results with:basidiocarps
[41]
Fungal secondary metabolite biosynthesis – a chemical defence ...
We review different approaches providing increasing evidence that some secondary metabolites may mediate resistance to antagonistic animals, reducing their ...Missing: basidiocarps | Show results with:basidiocarps
[42]
Bioprospection of Basidiomycetes and molecular phylogenetic ...
Jul 16, 2018 · Abundant growth of Basidiomycetes are prevalent in the rainy seasons where the environmental conditions such as temperature, relative humidity ...
[43]
Identification of Key Regulatory Pathways of Basidiocarp Formation ...
Oct 13, 2022 · The present study explores the basidiocarp formation biology in Pleurotus mushroom using an in silico response to the environmental factors and involvement of ...1. Introduction · 3. Results · 4. DiscussionMissing: definition Basidiomycota
[44]
[PDF] Saprotrophic Basidiomycetes in Grasslands: Distribution and Function
The several hundred basidiomycete species which are preferentially found in grassland can be placed into four functional groupings: litter decomposers, dung ...
[45]
Polypore funga and species diversity in tropical forest ecosystems of ...
Except for the 141 polypore species common to all three regions, tropical America and Africa shared 89 species, tropical America and Asia shared 64 species, and ...
[46]
The Fungi: 1, 2, 3 … 5.1 million species?
Mar 1, 2011 · More recent estimates based on high-throughput sequencing methods suggest that as many as 5.1 million fungal species exist.
[47]
Where are the short-range endemics among Western Australian ...
Aug 29, 2002 · There are 491 Western Australian (WA) basidiomycete macrofungi, most of which are found also in eastern Australia (78.4%) or overseas. Only ...Missing: basidiocarp | Show results with:basidiocarp
[48]
[PDF] Temperature affects the timing and duration of fungal fruiting ...
May 24, 2023 · Variations in temperature means and pre- cipitation totals can affect species' distribution ranges. (Chen et al., 2011), abundance rates (Chen ...<|separator|>
[49]
Fungal fruiting triggers indicate climate sensitivity in cooler regions
The optimal fruiting conditions for over one third of the species demonstrated likely sensitivity to climate warming.