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Box girder bridge

A box girder bridge is a type of bridge in which the main load-bearing elements are girders formed as hollow boxes, typically rectangular or trapezoidal in cross-section, providing exceptional torsional stiffness and resistance to both longitudinal bending and transverse distortion. These structures are commonly constructed from prestressed concrete, steel, or composite materials combining the two, and they support the deck through integrated top slabs while enclosing voids that enhance structural efficiency.^[1]^[2] The design of box girder bridges originated in the late 19th century, with the Alvord Lake Bridge in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, serving as an early concrete example completed in 1889. Modern iterations advanced significantly in the mid-20th century, particularly through post-tensioning techniques pioneered by engineer Ulrich Finsterwalder, whose 1950 Balduinstein Bridge in Germany introduced balanced cantilever construction for longer spans. By the 1960s, precast segmental methods gained prominence, enabling efficient erection for spans up to 988 feet, as demonstrated by the Stolma Bridge in Norway.^[1]^[3] Construction methods for box girder bridges vary by material and span length, including cast-in-place pouring on temporary falsework for concrete versions, often in staged sequences to manage weight, and fabrication followed by incremental launching or cable-stayed erection for steel types. Precast pretensioned concrete box girders, tensioned before casting, are favored for accelerated bridge construction on short spans up to 115 feet where site access is limited, such as over active railways. These approaches adhere to standards like the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, ensuring durability through features like grouted tendons and shear-resistant webs.^[1]^[2]^[4]^[3] Box girder bridges excel in applications requiring curved alignments or heavy loads, such as highway interchanges and railway viaducts, due to their internal redundancy, reduced dead weight, and minimal maintenance needs from enclosed components that limit corrosion exposure. Notable steel examples include the Foyle Bridge in Londonderry, UK, spanning 771 feet with a trapezoidal composite section, while concrete variants like the 1982 Houston Ship Channel Bridge illustrate their capacity for marine environments with spans exceeding 750 feet. Despite these strengths, challenges include higher initial fabrication costs for enclosed sections and the need for specialized access during inspections.^[2]^[1]^[3]

Definition and Overview

Basic Structure and Function

A box girder bridge employs hollow box-shaped girders as its primary load-bearing elements, typically featuring rectangular or trapezoidal cross-sections that support the bridge deck. These girders consist of top and bottom flanges connected by vertical or inclined webs, forming an enclosed cellular structure that acts in bending.^[2]^[1]^[5] The closed box configuration imparts high torsional rigidity to the girder, allowing it to efficiently distribute loads by resisting shear forces in the webs and bending moments across the flanges. This design enables the structure to handle both positive and negative bending moments while minimizing material use through thin webs that reduce deadweight. Unlike open-web girders, which are more prone to distortion under torsion due to their exposed framework, the box girder operates as a cohesive unit, where shear flow circulates around the closed perimeter to counteract twisting forces effectively.^[1]^[5]^[2] Vertical loads from the deck are primarily transferred downward through the webs to the bottom flange, which experiences tension or compression depending on the span location, while the top flange manages compressive stresses from the load and deck weight. Internal diaphragms further aid in load redistribution by preventing cross-sectional distortion and channeling reactions to the supports. These girders are commonly fabricated from prestressed concrete or steel to enhance their performance under these mechanics.^[1]^[2]^[5]

Applications and Uses

Box girder bridges are primarily employed to support a variety of traffic types, including pedestrians, automobiles, trucks, light rail, and heavy rail systems, owing to their structural efficiency in load distribution.^[4]^[6]^[7] These bridges are commonly utilized in highway flyovers, urban elevated structures, and railway viaducts, where their enclosed cross-section provides an aesthetic appeal and space-efficient profile that minimizes visual obstruction and maximizes headroom beneath.^[8]^[9] Their torsional rigidity further enables multi-modal applications, accommodating combined vehicular and rail traffic on the same structure.^[7] Box girder designs demonstrate suitability for medium to long spans, typically ranging from 30 to 80 meters (100 to 260 feet), making them adaptable for both urban environments with constrained spaces and rural settings requiring extended crossings over rivers or valleys.^[1] In contemporary infrastructure, box girder bridges play a key role in complex interchanges, where they facilitate efficient traffic flow at grade separations, as well as in pedestrian crossings that integrate with multimodal transit networks.^[8]^[4]

History

Early Developments

The box girder concept dates back to the mid-19th century, when British engineer Robert Stephenson designed the Britannia Bridge (1850) over the Menai Strait, using large wrought-iron tubular box sections for its 460-foot spans to provide torsional rigidity for railway traffic.^[10] Early concrete box girders appeared in the 1930s, with examples in California marking the shift to reinforced and later prestressed designs.^[11] While box girder bridges originated in 19th-century civil engineering, military developments in the early 20th century advanced portable modular designs, driven by the need for sturdy structures to support rapid troop movements. In 1925, Major Giffard Le Quesne Martel, who had been appointed head of the Experimental Bridging Establishment at Christchurch, Hampshire, in 1919, developed the modular steel box girder bridge, known as the Martel bridge, which featured prefabricated sections for quick assembly over obstacles such as rivers and trenches.^[12]^[13] These initial prototypes were rigorously tested at the establishment, demonstrating the bridge's capacity to handle heavy loads while being transportable by standard military vehicles. By 1925, the British Army formally adopted the Martel bridge as the Large Box Girder Bridge, marking it as a standard equipment for engineering units in field operations.^[13] This adoption highlighted the bridge's suitability for wartime logistics, with its all-welded steel construction allowing spans up to approximately 100 feet and load capacities exceeding 40 tons, far surpassing earlier timber or riveted alternatives. The design's modularity enabled soldiers to erect spans in hours rather than days, a critical advantage in dynamic combat environments. In 1932, the British Army introduced a scaled-down version, the Small Box Girder Bridge, optimized for lighter loads such as infantry crossings or vehicle gaps up to 30 feet. This variant maintained the core box girder principle but reduced weight and size for portability on tanks or trucks, further enhancing tactical flexibility during maneuvers. Its widespread copying by other nations underscored the innovative efficiency of Martel's approach to assault bridging. The early box girder bridges excelled in rapid deployment, often assembled by small teams without heavy machinery, which proved invaluable for wartime bridging over anti-tank ditches or flooded areas. This portability and strength contributed to their use in pre-World War II exercises and early conflicts. In recognition of these foundational contributions, in 1954 the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors awarded Martel £500 for design elements of his bridge that influenced the later Bailey bridge.^[14] These military innovations influenced later designs, such as the Bailey bridge, and contributed to the broader adoption of box girder principles in civilian infrastructure from the mid-20th century onward.^[13]

Post-War Advancements and Incidents

Following World War II, box girder bridges, particularly steel variants, experienced a surge in popularity during the 1960s for roadbuilding projects, driven by their structural efficiency in spanning long distances economically compared to traditional girder designs.^[15] This efficiency stemmed from the closed box section's superior torsional rigidity and bending resistance, enabling lighter, more slender structures suitable for highway overpasses and viaducts amid widespread infrastructure expansion in Europe and beyond.^[16] By the late 1960s, steel box girders had become a common choice for medium- to long-span bridges in the UK and internationally, facilitating rapid construction through methods like cantilever erection.^[17] This period of growth was marred by a series of catastrophic collapses during construction, highlighting vulnerabilities in the emerging design and erection techniques. On October 15, 1970, a span of the West Gate Bridge in Melbourne, Australia, buckled and fell, killing 35 workers and injuring 18 others.^[18] Less than a year earlier, on June 2, 1970, a 150-tonne section of the Cleddau Bridge over the River Cleddau in Milford Haven, UK, collapsed due to plate buckling, resulting in 4 fatalities and 5 injuries.^[19] These incidents were followed by the November 10, 1971, failure of a steel box girder bridge over the Rhine River near Koblenz, Germany, where inadequate stability led to a span collapse, claiming 13 lives and bringing the total fatalities from these three events to 52.^[15] In response to the Cleddau and subsequent failures, the UK government established the Merrison Committee in late 1970, chaired by Professor A.W. Merrison, to investigate steel box girder bridge design and construction methods.^[20] The committee's work culminated in the 1973 publication of the "Inquiry into the Basis of Design and Method of Erection of Steel Box-Girder Bridges," which issued interim design and workmanship rules (IDWR) to address critical shortcomings.^[21] These recommendations emphasized rigorous checks for buckling, welding quality, and temporary stability during cantilever construction, effectively halting new steel box girder projects until compliance was assured.^[15] The Merrison findings profoundly influenced global bridge regulations, prompting a shift toward stricter standards for fatigue assessment and lateral-torsional stability in steel structures.^[20] Adopted into British Standards (BS 5400) by 1978, the rules mandated load factor design incorporating residual stresses and imperfections, reducing fatigue-prone details, and requiring independent third-party reviews for complex spans.^[21] This regulatory evolution not only restored confidence in box girder technology but also informed international codes, such as those from the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), emphasizing construction-stage analysis to prevent similar tragedies.^[22]

Design Principles

Structural Components

The box girder bridge derives its structural integrity from a closed, hollow cross-section that efficiently resists bending, shear, and torsion. The primary components include the top and bottom flanges, vertical webs, and end diaphragms, each tailored to handle specific forces while contributing to overall stability. This configuration allows the bridge to span significant distances, typically 20 to 150 meters, by distributing loads longitudinally and transversely.^[23] The top flange, often serving as the roadway deck, primarily resists compressive forces from vertical loads and facilitates transverse load distribution across the bridge width. In many designs, it is monolithically integrated with the deck slab, enabling direct support of traffic loads and enhancing continuity for bending resistance. For instance, the top flange spans the full deck width, including cantilevered overhangs, and maintains a minimum thickness to ensure durability under live loads. The bottom flange, in contrast, handles tensile forces in positive bending regions and provides compressive resistance near supports, contributing to the box's flexural capacity and stability against overturning. Its width is typically narrower than the top flange to optimize material use while preventing local buckling.^[1]^[1]^[24] Vertical webs connect the top and bottom flanges, forming the sides of the box and primarily resisting shear forces while transferring vertical loads to the supports. These webs, often vertical or slightly inclined for aesthetic or functional reasons, also provide torsional rigidity inherent to the closed section, which minimizes twisting under eccentric loads. End diaphragms, located at the bridge ends and over piers, ensure transverse stability by distributing concentrated loads and resisting girder distortion. They act as rigid frames that anchor forces from the flanges and webs, preventing lateral movement and enhancing the structure's overall stiffness at critical points.^[1]^[23]^[24] Internal features such as transverse stiffeners and longitudinal ribs are essential for preventing buckling under compressive stresses. Transverse stiffeners, attached to the webs and flanges, increase local stability by dividing the plate elements into smaller panels that resist out-of-plane deformation. Longitudinal ribs, particularly along the flanges, further bolster this by providing continuous reinforcement against buckling, ensuring the thin-walled sections maintain their shape under load. These elements collectively allow the box girder to achieve high efficiency in long-span applications without excessive thickening.^[24]^[1] In terms of span configurations, box girders can be designed as single boxes for narrower bridges or multiple cells side-by-side for wider structures, with continuous spans using full-length members to distribute loads across multiple supports. Pier supports integrate with diaphragms to transfer vertical and horizontal forces, enabling efficient load paths in multi-span setups where end spans are often proportioned at about 75% of the main span length. This modularity supports spans from simple 100- to 250-foot segments to complex continuous arrangements, optimizing stability and economy.^[1]^[1]

Materials and Fabrication

Box girder bridges primarily utilize prestressed concrete, structural steel, and composite materials to achieve the required structural integrity and span capabilities. Prestressed concrete is favored for its high compressive strength and ability to withstand corrosive environments, making it suitable for durable, long-lasting structures. Structural steel provides superior tensile strength, enabling longer spans with reduced self-weight. Composite systems combine these materials to optimize performance, while fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) offer lightweight alternatives in specialized applications.^[1]^[2]^[25] Prestressed concrete box girders leverage the material's exceptional compressive strength, typically exceeding 40 MPa, to resist bending stresses effectively in bridge applications. This material's durability in corrosive settings stems from its low permeability when properly mixed, which minimizes ingress of chlorides and moisture that could degrade embedded reinforcement. Fabrication methods include cast-in-place pouring within formwork for continuous spans or segmental precasting in controlled factory environments, where segments are produced using match-casting techniques to ensure precise alignment during assembly. Prestressing is achieved through pretensioning, where high-strength steel tendons are tensioned before concrete casting in precast elements, or post-tensioning, where tendons are tensioned after the concrete has hardened in cast-in-place or segmental construction, to induce compressive forces that counteract tensile loads. Pretensioning is typically used for shorter spans up to 35 m (115 ft), while post-tensioning enables longer spans up to 150 m.^[1]^[4]^[26] Structural steel box girders exploit the material's high tensile strength, often around 350-500 MPa for common grades like ASTM A709, allowing for spans up to 300 meters or more with efficient material use. Steel's ductility also enhances seismic performance by permitting plastic deformation without brittle failure. Fabrication typically involves rolling steel plates to form webs and flanges, followed by automated welding in shop facilities to create closed box sections, which are then assembled on-site. Submerged arc welding is commonly employed for its precision and strength in joining thick plates, ensuring airtight cells that provide torsional rigidity.^[2]^[25]^[27] Composite materials, particularly steel-concrete hybrids, integrate the tensile advantages of steel with concrete's compressive prowess, often using steel box sections topped with concrete decks connected via shear studs for composite action. These systems reduce overall weight while enhancing stiffness, with examples including corrugated steel webs filled or topped with concrete for spans of 40-55 meters. Fiber-reinforced polymers, such as carbon or glass FRPs, are emerging for lightweight box girder variants, offering high strength-to-weight ratios (up to 7 times that of steel) and corrosion resistance, though primarily in pedestrian or short-span bridges due to higher costs. Fabrication of FRP components involves pultrusion or resin infusion processes to mold custom shapes, which can be bonded to concrete or steel elements.^[28]^[29]^[30] Corrosion protection is integral to material longevity in box girder bridges. For steel components, hot-dip galvanizing applies a zinc coating (typically 85-100 microns thick) to provide sacrificial protection, while additional epoxy or polyurethane coatings offer barrier resistance against environmental exposure, extending service life to over 75 years in moderate climates. In concrete, admixtures such as calcium nitrite inhibitors delay corrosion initiation by passivating steel reinforcement, and supplementary cementitious materials like fly ash or silica fume reduce permeability, enhancing resistance to chloride penetration in de-icing salt environments. These measures ensure the structural components, including flanges and webs, maintain their integrity over decades.^[31]^[32]^[33]^[34]

Construction Techniques

Concrete Box Girders

Concrete box girders are constructed using two primary methods: cast-in-place and segmental construction, both of which utilize post-tensioning to enhance structural performance.^[1] The cast-in-place method involves pouring concrete directly on-site within extensive temporary support systems, while segmental construction employs precast elements assembled progressively.^[35] These approaches enable the creation of continuous, efficient superstructures suitable for medium- to long-span bridges. In the cast-in-place method, construction begins with the erection of falsework, a temporary structural framework such as modular shoring towers or steel pipe towers, to support the formwork and fresh concrete until it achieves sufficient strength.^[1] Formwork, typically composed of lumber, plywood, or modular panels, is then installed to define the box girder's shape, including the bottom slab, webs, and top slab; external surfaces are finished smoothly for aesthetics, while internal voids require less stringent tolerances.^[1] Concrete is poured on-site in staged lifts—often the bottom slab and webs first, followed by the top slab—using pumps or cranes for placement, with vibration to ensure consolidation and screeding for a level surface.^[1] Post-tensioning cables, placed in parabolic-profile ducts within the webs during casting, are stressed after curing using multi-strand hydraulic jacks to apply compressive forces, typically reaching 75% of tendon capacity once concrete attains 4,500 psi strength; tendons are then grouted and anchorages sealed for corrosion protection.^[1] This method is common for spans up to 160 feet and allows full cross-sections to be formed in place, though it requires significant site access and temporary supports.^[36] Segmental construction, in contrast, involves precasting individual box girder segments off-site using short-line or long-line methods, where segments are formed adjacent to previous ones in adjustable molds or along ground-level traveling forms.^[35] These segments, typically 10-15 feet long, are transported to the site and joined longitudinally using epoxy resin at interfaces for shear transfer and post-tensioning tendons threaded through ducts to clamp them together, ensuring continuity and crack control.^[35] Erection often employs the balanced cantilever technique, where segments are added alternately from pier supports in symmetry to maintain moment equilibrium, using cranes, gantry lifters, or deck-mounted equipment; a final cast-in-place closure pour connects mid-span segments, followed by additional stressing.^[35] This method suits spans of 160-450 feet, offering faster on-site assembly and reduced environmental disruption compared to full cast-in-place builds.^[35] Formwork in concrete box girder construction frequently incorporates movable scaffolds or travelers to facilitate incremental pouring, particularly in cast-in-place or hybrid segmental applications. These systems, supported by steel cantilever trusses attached to previously completed sections, allow form travelers to advance segment by segment, enabling a production rate of one segment every 3-5 days with at least four travelers for efficiency.^[37] In segmental precasting, short-line match casting uses fixed forms against the prior segment with debonders for release, achieving up to four segments per week per form set, while geometry is verified daily via theodolite surveys and screw-jack adjustments to align with the design curve.^[37] Quality control is integral throughout, with curing processes ensuring concrete reaches design strength before stressing or load transfer. Methods include moisture retention via wet burlap or curing compounds for initial set, followed by low-pressure steam curing (heating to 120-160°F at a maximum rate of 40°F per hour) to accelerate strength gain to 70% of specified compressive values, monitored continuously with temperature recorders every 100 feet.^[38] Tendon stressing follows, applying initial forces of 10-15% to straighten strands, then final jacking to target levels (e.g., 44.73 kips per strand) using calibrated hydraulic gauges, with elongations verified within ±5% tolerance; operations are supervised by certified personnel, and records include weather, strength tests, and friction checks to confirm design loads are met without cracking.^[38]^[1]

Steel and Composite Box Girders

Steel box girders are primarily fabricated off-site in controlled shop environments to ensure precision and quality control. The process begins with cutting steel plates using computer numerical control (CNC) plasma or oxy-fuel cutting machines, which minimize distortion and allow for accurate shaping of webs, flanges, and other components.^[39] These plates are then welded into closed or open box sections, typically employing submerged arc welding (SAW) for full-penetration groove welds on thick elements, while fillet welds are used for stiffener attachments to reduce costs and time.^[39] Transverse and longitudinal stiffeners, often in the form of tee or channel sections, are added during assembly to enhance torsional rigidity and prevent local buckling; these are fitted tightly and welded after initial girder tacking, with minimum spacing of 8 inches to accommodate welding equipment.^[40]^[41] For trapezoidal box girders, fabrication often progresses from welding the top flange to the webs, followed by stiffeners and the bottom flange, allowing for better handling and welder access.^[40] On-site assembly of steel box girder sections emphasizes bolted connections for efficiency and weather resilience, though welding may be used in specific cases. Sections are joined using high-strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts, such as ASTM F3125 Grade A325 or A490, which provide tensile strengths up to 150 ksi and are preloaded to develop full splice capacity at dead load inflection points. These bolts, often galvanized for corrosion protection, are installed with Class B faying surfaces treated with inorganic zinc primer to ensure grip and minimize slippage under load. Field splices incorporate tolerances like ±¼ inch for web alignment, with clear spaces of at least ⅝ inch to facilitate bolting; cross-frames are typically shop-assembled and field-bolted to girder stiffeners for lateral stability.^[41] Welding on-site, when required, involves temporary supports and protective enclosures to shield against environmental factors, starting with flange connections before web alignment.^[41] Erection of prefabricated steel box girders relies on heavy-lift equipment to position large segments accurately over spans. Derrick cranes, capable of handling up to 1000 tons, or gantry systems are commonly deployed to lift and place sections, often in braced pairs to maintain torsional stability during hoisting.^[41] Segment lengths are limited to about 150 feet and weights to 100 tons for transportation feasibility, with progressive cantilever or launching methods used for longer spans to advance the structure incrementally.^[40]^[41] In composite box girders, the steel structure provides initial support, with the concrete deck poured post-erection to achieve hybrid performance combining steel's tensile capacity and concrete's compressive strength. Shear connectors, such as 19 mm headed studs welded to the top flanges, are installed during shop fabrication to ensure full composite action once the deck hardens; these are spaced at minimum 75 mm and up to 800 mm along the girders.^[43] The deck is cast in stages—often starting over piers and alternating with midspan pours—using permanent formwork for open-top boxes or the closed box itself as a base, with a minimum 6-inch haunch for clearance and unpropped construction between supports.^[43]^[40] This approach leverages the steel box's inherent stiffness during erection while the cured concrete slab enhances overall bending resistance and durability.^[43]

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

Box girder bridges offer enhanced torsional stiffness due to their closed cross-section, which effectively resists twisting forces and minimizes deformation under asymmetric or eccentric loads, such as those from curved alignments or uneven vehicle distribution.^[24]^[44] This structural advantage makes them particularly suitable for horizontally curved bridges, where open-section alternatives like plate girders would experience greater distortion and require additional bracing. The design's efficient load distribution enables the use of thinner deck slabs compared to traditional girder systems, as the box section better transfers shear and torsional forces across the structure, reducing the overall deadweight and material consumption.^[5]^[45] In steel box girders, this allows for slender webs and optimized plate thicknesses, while in concrete variants, post-tensioning further supports shallower profiles without compromising strength.^[43]^[1] Such material efficiency lowers the superstructure's self-weight, which in turn decreases foundation requirements and seismic loads in suitable applications.^[5] For medium-span bridges, typically ranging from 30 to 100 meters, box girders provide cost-effectiveness through the integration of precast segments, which facilitate rapid on-site assembly, reduce labor needs, and enhance construction quality control in factory settings.^[46]^[25] This approach contrasts with cast-in-place methods for other girder types, offering shorter erection times—often weeks rather than months—and minimizing traffic disruptions, thereby yielding lower lifecycle costs.^[4] The sleek, hollow profile of box girders contributes to their aesthetic appeal, enabling low-profile, streamlined designs that integrate harmoniously into urban landscapes without dominating the skyline.^[47]^[48] This elegance arises from the structure's inherent simplicity and structural efficiency, allowing for clean lines and curved forms that enhance visual appeal in city environments.^[49]^[50]

Disadvantages

Box girder bridges, particularly those constructed from steel, incur high initial costs due to the complex fabrication processes involved in producing closed-section components, which require precise welding and tight tolerances to ensure structural integrity.^[2] These costs are further exacerbated by the need for specialized labor and equipment in manufacturing large, prefabricated sections.^[51] Transportation of these oversized steel sections also poses logistical challenges and additional expenses, as they often necessitate specialized permits, escorts, and routing to avoid obstacles on roadways.^[52] The closed-box design of box girders complicates maintenance and inspections, as internal access is restricted, making it difficult to visually or physically assess corrosion, cracks, or other deterioration within the hollow sections without creating large openings that could compromise structural stiffness.^[2] This inaccessibility increases the risk of undetected issues and elevates long-term maintenance expenses, as specialized techniques like remote sensing or invasive entry are often required.^[53] Steel box girders are particularly vulnerable to fatigue under cyclic loading from traffic, where repetitive stresses can initiate and propagate cracks at weld toes, discontinuities, or distortion-prone connections, necessitating rigorous ongoing monitoring to prevent brittle fractures.^[54] Distortion-induced fatigue, accounting for over 90% of such cracks in steel bridges, arises from out-of-plane deformations that are not fully accounted for in standard design, further heightening this susceptibility in box configurations.^[54] Concrete box girders, while durable, are significantly heavier than comparable steel alternatives due to the material's density, which imposes greater demands on foundations and substructures to handle increased dead loads and seismic forces.^[55] This added weight can lead to higher foundation costs and limitations in span lengths or site conditions where soil bearing capacity is low.^[55]

Notable Examples and Case Studies

Successful Bridges

The Erskine Bridge in Scotland, completed in 1971, exemplifies the successful integration of cable-stayed elements with a steel box girder superstructure, achieving a main span of 305 meters and a total length of 1,322 meters across the River Clyde.^[56] This design provided efficient load distribution and torsional stiffness, supporting dual carriageways with a width of 31.25 meters while accommodating high-volume motorway traffic, including heavy vehicles up to 40 tonnes. Its innovative aerofoil-shaped box girder, fabricated from structural steel and supported by concrete piers up to 45 meters high, demonstrated longevity over five decades with minimal structural interventions beyond routine maintenance.^[57] The bridge's engineering merits earned it Category A listing by Historic Environment Scotland in 2018, recognizing its pioneering role in European cable-stayed bridge technology and aesthetic harmony with the landscape.^[56] The Swanport Bridge in South Australia, opened in 1979, showcases the durability of prestressed concrete box girders in a challenging riverine setting, spanning the Murray River with a total length of 743 meters and two traffic lanes.^[58] Featuring trapezoidal box sections up to 3.5 meters deep, the structure handles heavy freight loads on Highway 1, with individual spans of approximately 72 meters to support navigation and resist tidal influences in the brackish lower Murray environment.^[59] Constructed using balanced cantilever methods for the main river crossing, it has exhibited exceptional resistance to corrosion and environmental degradation, maintaining structural integrity without major repairs for over 40 years despite exposure to fluctuating water levels and salinity.^[58] This longevity underscores the material's suitability for marine-adjacent applications, contributing to its role as South Australia's longest road bridge at the time of completion and a key link in the national freight network.^[60] More recently, the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge, opened in 2018, utilizes composite steel-concrete box girders for its 55 km span, demonstrating advancements in long-span marine environments. The replacement flyover sections of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge in the United States, operational since 2013, highlight the seismic resilience of precast segmental concrete box girders in high-risk zones, forming 2.4 kilometers of viaduct approaches with typical spans of 160 meters.^[61] These multi-cell box girders, post-tensioned for enhanced ductility, support eight lanes of interstate traffic with load capacities exceeding 100 tonnes per axle group, incorporating isolation bearings and shear keys to absorb earthquake forces up to magnitude 7.0 without collapse.^[62] The design's innovation lies in its ability to accommodate 1.5 meters of lateral movement during seismic events, ensuring rapid post-quake inspectability and minimal downtime, as validated by large-scale shake-table testing.^[63] Recognized for engineering excellence, the project received the 2010 TRANNY Project of the Year award from the California Transportation Foundation and the 2014 Global Road Achievement Award from the International Road Federation, affirming its advancements in resilient infrastructure.^[61]^[64]

Failures and Safety Improvements

The West Gate Bridge in Melbourne, Australia, collapsed on October 15, 1970, during construction when a 112-meter steel box girder section buckled under its own weight, killing 35 workers.^[53] The primary cause was inadequate temporary supports and improper erection sequencing, which led to lateral-torsional buckling of the unsupported cantilever span.^[65] This incident prompted immediate redesign protocols, including stricter guidelines for temporary bracing and load distribution during staged construction of steel box girders, as outlined in subsequent royal commission findings.^[66] Similarly, the Cleddau Bridge in Wales collapsed on June 2, 1970, when a 150-tonne box girder section failed during lifting, resulting in four fatalities and five injuries.^[19] The failure stemmed from welding defects in the support stiffeners combined with overload from the erection process, causing buckling of the pier support diaphragm and loss of lateral stability.^[67] This event underscored the risks of fabrication flaws in steel components, leading to the adoption of mandatory non-destructive testing (NDT) methods, such as ultrasonic and radiographic inspections, to detect weld imperfections before assembly.^[53] In response to these and other 1970 collapses of steel box girder bridges, the UK government established the Merrison Committee in 1970, which issued its key recommendations in 1973.^[15] The committee's Interim Design and Workmanship Rules (IDWR) provided comprehensive guidelines for stability analysis, emphasizing torsional and distortional buckling under combined loads, as well as accounting for aerodynamic effects like wind-induced vibrations during construction and service life.^[20] These rules also mandated enhanced fabrication quality controls, including precise tolerances for plate alignment and welding procedures, which were incorporated into British Standards and influenced international codes for steel box girders.^[68] Contemporary safety advancements build on these lessons through advanced computational tools and inspection technologies. Finite element modeling (FEM) has become standard for predicting internal stresses and buckling modes in box girders, allowing engineers to simulate complex load paths and optimize designs prior to construction; for instance, detailed FEM analyses have been applied to retrofit existing bridges, reducing failure risks by up to 30% in vulnerability assessments.^[69] Additionally, drone-based inspections enable non-invasive monitoring of hard-to-reach areas, such as interior voids and undersides of box girders, using photogrammetry and LiDAR to detect cracks or corrosion with millimeter accuracy, thereby enhancing routine maintenance and early defect identification.^[70]^[71]

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In total, 35 workers died as a result of the collapse. A Royal Commission into the incident was set up to examine and report on the faults with the bridge.
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Cleddau Bridge disaster: 50th anniversary of fatal collapse - BBC
Jun 1, 2020 · Amid the rubble, four workers had been killed and five injured in a disaster that was to change bridge building. Now there are calls for a ...
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Merrison Revolutionised Design after 1970 UK Box Girder Collapses
The UK Merrison Committee was set up after the fatal 1970 collapses of Milford Haven and West Gate Bridges. It developed Interim Design and Workmanship Rules ( ...Missing: Goatfell Scotland fatalities
[19]
https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-52878053
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[PDF] PROPOSED DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEEL BOX GIRDER ...
Specification for Highway Bridges. Load Factor Design approach is used. In the design of compression flanges residual stresses and geometric imperfections ...
[21]
Box Girder - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
A box girder is a structural element, typically rectangular or trapezoidal, with high torsional resistance, used for spans of 20–150 m, and consists of top ...
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[PDF] Design Guidelines for Steel Trapezoidal Box Girder Systems
However, the primary advantage of box girders is the large torsional stiffness that makes the girders ideal for use in curved interchanges for which the bridge.
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[PDF] Box Girder Bridge Systems - Online-PDH
Course Description. This course provides a detailed study of the structural anatomy, function, and engineering principles behind box girder bridge systems.
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[PDF] INTRODUCTION - Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
This paper presents the experiences of Pennsylvania and Illinois with design, fabrication, inspection, load rating and maintenance of bridges constructed with ...
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[PDF] Preferred Practices for Steel Bridge Design, Fabrication, and Erection
Nov 1, 2021 · When setting the girder spacing, also consider using prestressed concrete panels to form the deck (See TxDOT standard drawing PCP ...
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Composite box girder with corrugated steel webs and trusses
Jul 1, 2018 · This kind of structure consists of a top concrete slab, corrugated steel webs and two bottom concrete-filled steel tubes connected by trusses.
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Prestressed Composite Box Girders with Steel Corrugated-Plate Webs
These girders use flexible webs, thinner plates, and corrugation for shear strength, reducing stiffeners, and have been built on spans of 40-55m.
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A Review of Fibre Reinforced Polymer Bridges - MDPI
Fibre-reinforced polymer composites (FRPs) offer various benefits for bridge construction. Lightweight, durability, design flexibility and fast erection in ...
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[PDF] Steel Bridges: Corrosion Protection - CED Engineering
In general, the performance of corrosion protection systems on a bridge is driven by: • the quality of application of protective coating systems, including ...
[30]
Corrosion Protection for Steel - American Galvanizers Association
Like paints, the hot-dip galvanized coating provides barrier protection to steel. As long as the barrier is intact, the steel is protected and corrosion will ...
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[PDF] Structure Design - Corrosion Protection Guide
The purpose of this document is to provide guidance for designers to enhance the corrosion protection measures of a bridge structure.
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[PDF] Corrosion Protection:Concrete Bridges - ROSA P
It was found that the use of a low water-cement ratio, incorporation of mineral admixture and proper selection of cement type and aggregates contribute ...
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[PDF] ASBI Design and Construction of Concrete Segmental Bridges 101 ...
These bridges can be built using either precast or cast-in-place concrete segments and are built in a similar manner to the balanced cantilever method for box ...
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[PDF] Reinforced Concrete Construction Manual, Chapter 6 - Caltrans
Jun 1, 2025 · Cast-in-place (CIP) concrete bridges are the most common type of bridges constructed by the Department. This chapter primarily reviews typical ...
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[PDF] Construction Techniques for Segmental Concrete Bridges
The collapsible inside formwork which forms the void of the box girder rolls on rails to allow re- moval of the form, enabling the segment to be lifted ...
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[PDF] PRESTRESSED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION MANUAL - NYSDOT
Apr 19, 2017 · • Have a Quality Control Manual and an implemented Quality Control Plan. ... 5.6.7 Time Allowed Between Tendon Tensioning and Concrete Placement.<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Steel Bridge Fabrication
Generally, this is accomplished using the submerged arc welding process, which remelts and incorporates the tack welds into the finished weld (Figure 11).Missing: box | Show results with:box
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[PDF] Chapter 6 Structural Steel - Bridge Design Manual M 23-50
Jun 24, 2025 · 6.0.1. Introduction. This chapter primarily covers design and construction of steel plate and box girder bridge superstructures.Missing: civil | Show results with:civil
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Design for steel bridge construction
### Summary of Design and Construction Aspects for Steel Bridges, Particularly Box Girders
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[PDF] Design Guide for Composite Box Girder Bridges
Feb 16, 2004 · Composite box girder construction offers an attractive and economic form of construction for medium span highway bridges. The torsional ...
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[PDF] Field and Computational Studies of Steel Trapezoidal Box Girder ...
Aug 20, 2000 · advantages to using trapezoidal box girders, the large torsional stiffness of the closed box section is also a major structural advantage ...
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[PDF] Economical Steel Box Girder Bridges - Transportation Research Board
Steel box girder bridges are inherently more efficient than conventional plate girders and reduce the amount of steel required for bending and shear by virtue ...
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[PDF] Testing of Multi-Performance Level Box Beam Standards
Huckelbridge et al. (1995) revealed that precast prestressed adjacent box beams have been mostly used for the construction of bridges with short and medium ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Aesthetic Guidelines for Bridge Design - MnDOT
From an aesthetic standpoint, horizontally curved alignments call for curved super- structures (curved steel girder or box girder) because they allow the ...Missing: sleek | Show results with:sleek
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[PDF] Section 23 Aesthetics - nysdot
Jan 1, 2008 · Trapezoidal steel box girders and concrete segmental superstructures are visually elegant due to their simplicity and structural efficiency. The ...
[46]
Analysis of Curved Weathering Steel Box Girder Bridges in Fire
Box girder bridges are becoming more common because of their ease of construction, pleasing aesthetics, and serviceability. Projects with curved configuration ...
[47]
Analysis and behavior investigations of box girder bridges - DRUM
Due to efficient dissemination of congested traffic, economic considerations, and aesthetic desirability horizontally curved steel box girder bridges have ...
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[PDF] WisDOT Bridge Manual Chapter 24 – Steel Girder Structures
bolts are located 4 1/2" from the flanges to provide clearance for assembly (see the AISC. Manual of Steel Constructionfor required bolt assembly clearances).
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Prefabricated Steel Bridge Systems: Final Report - ABC - Accelerated
Jul 26, 2018 · This chapter presents a background review of the historical reference and design for the current day applications of prefabricated steel bridges.
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[PDF] Engineering for Structural Stability in Bridge Construction
... bridge superstructures during construction. It is intended primarily to cover common steel and concrete multi-girder I-girder and tub, or box-girder, bridges.<|separator|>
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[PDF] Design and Evaluation of Steel Bridges for Fatigue and Fracture
This Manual covers a full range of topics related to fatigue and fracture in steel bridges, including analysis, design, evaluation, repair, and retrofit.
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[PDF] Lightweight Concrete Bridge Design Primer
lightweight concrete instead of normal-weight concrete for single cell box girder bridge. ... 1.2 DISADVANTAGES OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE FOR BRIDGES. Common ...
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Erskine Bridge (LB52482) - Portal - Historic Environment Scotland
Nov 21, 2018 · The total length including approach spans is 1322m. The aerofoil box-girder deck is supported by fourteen diamond-plan, single-shaft concrete ...
[54]
40 Years Ago: Erskine Bridge – newsteelconstruction.com
Nov 1, 2009 · The piers are constructed of concrete and are designed to flex longitudinally to accommodate movements of the bridge due to temperature changes.
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[PDF] 26373 1. BRIEF HISTORY OF MURRAY BRIDGE TRANSPORT HUB
Swanport Bridge opened. 1983. Train control moved to Adelaide. 2. DESCRIPTION. The Murray Bridge Historic Transport Hub is a significant precinct that is ...
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Temperature measurements at swanport bridge - TRID
The report presents the results of a preliminary study of temperatures within swanport bridge, South Australia. The bridge, a 3.5 M deep concrete box girder ...
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05 Dec 1974 - BRIDGE OVER MURRAY AT SWANPORT - Trove
and footings. The 743 metre--four-lane. bridge, will be the longest. road bridge ...Missing: length | Show results with:length
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San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge East Span Replacement - HNTB
Location: Oakland to San Francisco, CA ; Client: California Department of Transportation District 4 ; Awards: 2010 TRANNY Project of the Year, California ...
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[PDF] east span replacement of the san francisco-oakland bay bridge
DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS. 1. Seismic safety will be a primary consideration, maximal for all probable quake scenarios. 2. For public safety, the bridge will be ...Missing: flyover 2013 resilience
[60]
UCSD Structural Engineers Honored for Contributions to New Bay ...
Proof testing consisted of seismic dynamic large-scale testing of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge East Span's shear links, bridge deck, skyway piers, and ...
[61]
T.Y. Lin International Wins the International Road Federation's 2014 ...
Nov 19, 2014 · T.Y. Lin International Wins the International Road Federation's 2014 Global Road Achievement Award for the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge New ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] JUN 0 7 2007 LIBRARIES - DSpace@MIT
On October 15, 1970, the West Gate Bridge dramatically collapsed during the third year of its construction, killing 35 members of the workforce [6]. The bridge ...
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The Safety of Bridges - National Academy of Engineering
Jun 1, 2008 · The West Gate Bridge in Melbourne, Australia, collapsed on October 15, 1970, for a variety of reasons (Royal Commission, 1971); research by ...
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Cleddau Bridge (1970) Milford Haven, Wales
The collapse was attributed to the design of the bridge, in particular the failure of the pier support diaphragm to fulfil its function of lateral stability ...
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Session A. Discussion | Steel box girder bridges | Books Gateway ...
A. D. Holland, 1973. "Session A. Discussion", Steel box girder bridges ... stability ... Merrison Committee for dealing with warping and distortional stresses.
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Case Studies about Finite Element Modeling and Wireless Sensing ...
Mar 7, 2024 · Three Pennsylvanian bridges were studied using finite element and wireless sensor technology. A detailed finite element model of each bridge was created using ...Missing: modern safety drone<|control11|><|separator|>
[67]
[PDF] UAV-Based Remote Sensing Applications for Bridge Condition ...
May 6, 2021 · Non-destructive testing (NDT) using Unmanned Aerial. Vehicles (UAVs) have been gaining momentum for bridge monitoring in the recent years, ...
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Drone-based photogrammetric indoor inspection of box girder bridges
Aug 19, 2024 · This paper presents a case study for inspecting the interior of a concrete box girder bridge, the Strängnäs bridge. The inspection involved ...Missing: improvements finite element scholarly articles