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Submerged arc welding

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is an arc welding process that joins metals by generating heat from an electric arc formed between a continuously fed consumable electrode and the workpiece, with the arc and weld zone completely submerged beneath a layer of granular fusible flux that protects the molten pool from atmospheric contamination, stabilizes the arc, and provides slag-forming properties.^[1]^[2] The process was first patented in 1935 by the E.O. Paton Electric Welding Institute in Kiev, Ukraine, and gained prominence during World War II for its efficiency in fabricating T-34 tank hulls, enabling high-volume production of thick steel sections.^[3] Unlike manual arc welding methods, SAW operates primarily in mechanized or automatic modes, achieving thermal efficiencies up to 60% due to minimal heat loss from the submerged arc, compared to about 25% in shielded metal arc welding.^[3] This high efficiency stems from the flux's role in generating protective gases and slag without the need for external shielding gas, resulting in deep weld penetration and deposition rates that can exceed 10 kg/hour for single-wire setups.^[3]^[2] In operation, SAW employs a bare solid or composite wire electrode (typically 2-6 mm in diameter) fed at controlled speeds, while granular flux—composed of minerals like manganese oxide, silicon dioxide, and calcium fluoride—is delivered to cover the arc zone, melting partially to form slag that is easily removed post-weld.^[3] Essential equipment includes a constant-voltage or constant-current power source (delivering 300-1000 amperes), wire feeder, flux hopper and recovery system, and a tractor or gantry for linear or circumferential travel, allowing precise control over parameters such as arc voltage (28-45 V) and travel speed to optimize bead shape and minimize defects.^[3]^[2] The process is inherently suited to flat or horizontal positions due to the fluid nature of the weld pool, though tandem or multi-wire configurations enhance productivity for thicker materials up to 50 mm.^[3] SAW excels in producing high-quality welds with excellent mechanical properties, including low hydrogen content and minimal spatter, making it ideal for demanding applications in structural steel fabrication, shipbuilding, pressure vessels, offshore platforms, and large-diameter pipelines where long, continuous seams are required.^[2]^[1] Its automation reduces operator exposure to fumes and radiation, though limitations include the inability to visually monitor the weld pool and primarily restricted to ferrous materials such as carbon-manganese steels, low-alloy steels, and stainless steels, as well as some nickel-based alloys.^[3] Overall, SAW remains a cornerstone of heavy industry for its balance of speed, reliability, and cost-effectiveness in high-deposition scenarios.^[2]

Introduction

Definition and basic principles

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is an automatic or semi-automatic arc welding process that joins metals by generating an electric arc between a consumable electrode and the workpiece, with the arc submerged beneath a layer of granular fusible flux to shield the weld from atmospheric contamination and stabilize the process.^[4] The flux blanket prevents oxidation, spatter, and excessive heat loss, enabling consistent, high-quality welds primarily in flat or horizontal positions on thick sections.^[5] In its core mechanism, the electric arc forms when current flows between the continuously fed bare metal electrode and the workpiece, melting both the electrode (which provides filler metal) and the base material to create a molten weld pool.^[6] The surrounding flux melts partially to form a protective slag cover over the pool and decomposes to release shielding gases, such as carbon monoxide or other inert components, that further exclude atmospheric elements like oxygen and nitrogen.^[6] This self-shielding action, combined with the slag's role in deoxidizing the pool and removing impurities, results in a stable arc with minimal visible light or fumes compared to open-arc processes.^[4] A key advantage of SAW stems from the flux coverage, which allows for high deposition rates—up to 100 kg/h in multi-wire configurations—and deep weld penetration, making it efficient for heavy fabrication where rapid filling of large joints is required.^[7] Single-wire setups typically achieve deposition rates of 2–12 kg/h using direct current, suitable for standard butt or fillet welds, while multi-wire arrangements (such as tandem or up to five wires) increase productivity by distributing the arc across multiple electrodes, enabling rates exceeding 30 kg/h without compromising penetration depth.^[8] These principles position SAW as a high-efficiency method for automated production, prioritizing weld integrity through controlled shielding and filler addition.^[5]

Historical development

Submerged arc welding (SAW) originated in the United States during the early 1930s, developed by the National Tube Company in McKeesport, Pennsylvania, specifically to weld longitudinal seams in large-diameter pipes with higher deposition rates.^[9] The process was patented in 1930 by Boris S. Robinoff, Sumner E. Paine, and Wringnol E. Quillen under US Patent No. 1,782,316, which described an electric arc submerged under a granular flux to protect the weld and enable automated operation. The rights were later sold to Linde Air Products Company, which refined and commercialized it as "Unionmelt" welding, filing additional patents in 1935 for improved flux compositions and arc control.^[10] Independently, in the Soviet Union, automatic submerged arc welding was developed in 1939 by Yevhen Paton and his team at the E.O. Paton Electric Welding Institute in Kiev, Ukraine. This innovation, along with specialized welding fluxes and equipment, enabled high-speed welding and was prominently used during World War II for the mass production of T-34 tank hulls, significantly boosting output of thick steel sections.^[11]^[3]^[12] Following World War II, SAW saw widespread adoption in shipbuilding and heavy industry, driven by the need for automated, high-productivity welding to meet postwar reconstruction and manufacturing demands.^[13] Its ability to produce deep-penetration welds on thick plates without spatter or fumes made it ideal for fabricating hulls, pressure vessels, and structural components, significantly reducing labor and improving consistency over manual methods.^[14] Key advancements in the 1950s included the development of fused flux formulations, such as those incorporating calcium fluoride (CaF₂) for better electrical conductivity and slag detachability, enabling SAW's use on a broader range of alloys.^[15] In the 1960s, tandem arc systems emerged, utilizing multiple electrodes to increase deposition rates up to 40 kg/h while enabling higher travel speeds, particularly in pipe and vessel fabrication.^[3] By the 1980s and 1990s, integration with robotic systems enhanced precision and automation in heavy fabrication, allowing programmable control for complex geometries.^[16] Post-2000 developments focused on high-current applications and advanced multi-wire configurations, achieving deposition rates exceeding 45 kg/h for thick sections, and narrow-gap welding techniques that reduced filler metal volume by up to 60% in joints under 50 mm wide, improving efficiency for heavy plate welding.^[17]^[18]

Equipment and Setup

Key components

The key components of a submerged arc welding (SAW) system form an integrated assembly designed for automated, high-deposition welding on large structures, ensuring precise arc control, flux management, and consistent travel. These include the welding head, flux hopper and delivery system, power source, and travel mechanism, each optimized for stability and efficiency in industrial settings. The welding head serves as the core assembly that positions and directs the electrode into the flux bed. It incorporates a contact tip, typically made of copper or alloy, which guides the bare wire electrode to the workpiece while maintaining a controlled electrode stick-out distance of 25–50 mm to preheat the wire and stabilize the arc.^[19] The integrated wire feeder uses drive rolls and a motor to continuously advance the electrode at speeds up to 4–5 m/min, matching the melt rate for self-regulating operation in constant voltage modes. Oscillation mechanisms, often pneumatic or electric, enable lateral torch movement with amplitudes of 5–25 mm and frequencies of 10–50 cycles per minute, promoting uniform weld bead width and edge fusion in applications requiring broader deposits.^[5] The flux hopper and delivery system manages the granular flux to shield the arc and molten pool. The hopper, constructed from corrosion-resistant materials like stainless steel, stores flux in quantities from 10–50 kg for small setups to several hundred kilograms for continuous operations, with humidity control to avoid degradation. Metering occurs via gravity-fed valves, augers, or pneumatic dispensers that regulate flow to deposit a 25–50 mm layer ahead of the arc, ensuring complete coverage without excess spillage. Recovery integrates vacuum hoses or drag pans to collect unused flux immediately after welding, followed by sieving or magnetic separation to remove slag and fines, allowing up to 90% reuse while minimizing waste.^[19] Power sources for SAW provide the high electrical output needed for deep penetration and rapid deposition. Constant voltage DC supplies, derived from transformer-rectifiers, are standard and deliver currents from 200 A for thin wires (1.6 mm diameter) up to 1000 A for thicker electrodes (6 mm), with capabilities extending to 2000 A in tandem-wire configurations for heavy sections. AC options, using transformers with square-wave or constant current characteristics, support up to 1200 A and are preferred for applications sensitive to magnetic arc blow, maintaining arc stability through voltage regulation between 28–40 V.^[19]^[4] Travel mechanisms facilitate automated path control for the welding head assembly. Carriages or tractors, often self-propelled with electric or pneumatic drives, mount on rails, beams, or the workpiece itself to achieve linear speeds of 0.1–2 m/min or circumferential motion for vessels up to several meters in diameter. These units feature rigid frames to support the head's weight (up to 50 kg) and include encoders for precise positioning, enabling repeatable welds on plates, pipes, or tanks without manual intervention.^[19]^[5]

Flux and electrode characteristics

In submerged arc welding (SAW), the flux serves as a granular consumable that shields the arc, stabilizes its behavior, and influences the weld pool chemistry through deoxidation, slag formation, and potential alloying additions. Fluxes are typically classified by manufacturing method into fused, agglomerated (also known as bonded), and mixed types. Fused fluxes are produced by melting raw materials such as silicates and oxides, then crushing and granulating the cooled product, resulting in a homogeneous composition that provides stable arc characteristics but limited ability to add alloying elements. Agglomerated fluxes, in contrast, involve binding powdered ingredients like calcium fluoride (CaF₂), manganese oxide (MnO), and silicon dioxide (SiO₂) with silicates, followed by drying and baking; this heterogeneous structure allows incorporation of deoxidants for improved weld toughness and mechanical properties. Mixed fluxes combine fused and agglomerated varieties with additional components to tailor performance for specific applications, such as enhancing slag detachability or mechanical strength.^[20]^[21]^[15] Fluxes are further categorized by chemical activity: neutral fluxes minimize changes to silicon and manganese levels in the weld metal, making them suitable for multi-layer welds without composition shifts; active fluxes introduce deoxidizers like MnO and SiO₂ to refine the weld metal and boost toughness in single- or limited-layer applications; and alloy fluxes add elements such as carbon, chromium, or nickel to achieve specific weld metal chemistries, often paired with unalloyed electrodes. Compositions commonly include oxides (e.g., CaO, Al₂O₃, MgO) for slag formation and deoxidation, fluorides like CaF₂ for arc stabilization, and silicates for viscosity control, with the exact blend determining properties like hydrogen content and resistance to cracking. The basicity index, defined as the ratio of basic oxides (e.g., CaO + MgO) to acidic oxides (e.g., SiO₂), quantifies flux reactivity; values below 1.0 indicate acidic fluxes that promote higher oxygen potential but poorer low-temperature toughness, while indices above 1.5 denote basic fluxes that yield cleaner, tougher welds with lower oxygen and hydrogen levels.^[20]^[22]^[23] Electrodes in SAW are primarily continuous solid wires, classified under AWS A5.17 for carbon steels and A5.23 for low-alloy steels, with examples including EM12K (a mild steel wire containing approximately 0.12% carbon, 1% manganese, and 0.1-0.35% silicon) for general structural welding. Composite (cored) electrodes, denoted by 'EC' in AWS classifications like ECNi1, feature a metal sheath filled with alloying powders to enhance deposition rates and properties such as nickel content for low-temperature service. Strip electrodes, used for hardfacing or surfacing, are flat and wider (e.g., under AWS A5.9 for stainless steels), allowing higher deposition for overlay applications. Common materials include mild steel for structural joints, stainless steel (e.g., 304 or 316 grades) for corrosion resistance, and low-alloy variants for high-strength needs; diameters typically range from 2 to 6 mm, selected based on current capacity and deposition efficiency.^[24]^[25]^[26] Flux-electrode interactions critically affect weld quality, as the flux modifies the electrode's melt chemistry through element transfer and slag reactions. For instance, active fluxes increase manganese and silicon pickup from the electrode, refining inclusions and improving ductility, while basic fluxes reduce oxygen affinity to produce low-hydrogen welds with enhanced impact toughness. Flux basicity influences slag viscosity and detachment: higher indices (e.g., >1.5) yield more viscous slags that may adhere poorly at high speeds but promote finer grain structures in the weld metal; lower indices facilitate easier slag removal but can elevate oxygen levels, potentially compromising toughness. These interactions are optimized by matching flux type to electrode composition, such as pairing neutral fluxes with alloyed wires to maintain consistent chemistry across layers.^[22]^[20]^[23] Proper storage and handling of fluxes and electrodes are essential to prevent moisture absorption, which can lead to porosity, cracking, or hydrogen embrittlement in welds. Fluxes, particularly agglomerated types, should be stored in sealed, original packaging at temperatures of 20 ± 10°C and relative humidity ≤70%, with a shelf life up to 5 years unopened; once exposed, unused portions must be rebaked at 350 ± 25°C for at least 4 hours and held at 150 ± 25°C in drying cabinets. Electrodes require dry, indoor storage to avoid corrosion, often in heated dispensers; any moisture-contaminated flux can be reconditioned up to twice by heating at 255–345°F, but excessive exposure necessitates disposal to ensure weld integrity.^[27]^[21]^[28]

Welding Process

Operational steps

Submerged arc welding begins with pre-weld setup, where the joint is prepared by cleaning the edges and fitting the workpieces accurately to ensure proper alignment. For thicker plates exceeding 16 mm, beveling is applied to achieve full penetration, while square grooves suffice for thinner sections up to approximately 16 mm; backing bars may be used for open root joints to support the weld pool.^[29]^[30] A granular flux bed is then applied over the joint area, typically at a depth of 25-50 mm, either manually or via a hopper system to create a protective blanket ahead of the arc.^[31]^[32] Initiation of the weld involves striking the arc between the continuously fed electrode and the workpiece, often using a scratch method by touching the electrode to the base metal, a high-frequency technique with steel wool under the flux cover, or retract/fuse-start systems to establish the arc without exposing it to the atmosphere. The flux immediately begins to melt, forming a slag layer that shields the arc and molten pool while generating protective gases.^[29]^[30] During execution, the welding head or workpiece travels continuously along the joint at speeds typically ranging from 0.5 to 2 m/min, with the electrode fed automatically to maintain the arc as the flux melts partially to protect the weld and the unmelted portion is recovered for recycling. The process proceeds in a flat or horizontal position, building the weld bead progressively while the flux stabilizes the arc and deoxidizes the molten metal.^[29]^[6]^[33] Termination occurs by gradually ramping down the current and stopping the wire feed to avoid crater cracks, followed by allowing the weld and slag to cool and solidify. Post-weld, the slag is removed by chipping, peeling, or abrasion, as it forms a glass-like layer that easily detaches, and unused flux is sifted and recycled for efficiency.^[5]^[30] Finally, the weld undergoes visual inspection and non-destructive testing (NDT) methods, such as ultrasonic or radiographic examination, to detect defects like porosity or lack of fusion.^[6]^[29]

Process variables and control

In submerged arc welding (SAW), the primary process variables include welding current, arc voltage, wire feed speed, travel speed, and electrode extension, each influencing weld bead geometry, penetration, and overall quality. Welding current typically ranges from 300 to 1000 amperes or higher, up to 2000 amperes in heavy applications, as it directly controls the electrode melt rate and heat generation; higher currents increase penetration depth but risk burn-through if excessive. Arc voltage, maintained constant at 25 to 40 volts, primarily affects arc length and bead width, with higher values producing wider, flatter beads that enhance gap bridging but may lead to arc instability or increased flux consumption. Wire feed speed, ranging from 0.8 to 10.2 meters per minute, determines the current draw and deposition rate, as faster speeds elevate amperage to match the electrode consumption. Travel speed, often 0.5 to 1.5 meters per minute, governs the time the arc interacts with the base material; slower speeds deepen penetration and widen the bead, while faster speeds reduce heat accumulation but can cause undercutting or porosity. Electrode extension, or stick-out, is typically 25 to 38 millimeters, with longer extensions preheating the wire to boost deposition rates at the expense of penetration due to reduced current density at the arc.^[29]^[34]^[7]^[35]^[36] Heat input, a critical parameter for controlling weld microstructure and minimizing distortion, is calculated using the formula Q = \frac{V \times I \times 60}{S \times 1000} in kilojoules per millimeter, where V is arc voltage in volts, I is current in amperes, and S is travel speed in millimeters per minute; this yields values often between 1.0 and 3.5 kJ/mm for controlled SAW applications. Higher heat input enhances penetration and fusion but promotes greater distortion through thermal expansion and slower cooling rates, potentially leading to residual stresses; conversely, lower input reduces distortion but may compromise joint integrity in thicker sections. Electrode polarity selection further refines these effects, with direct current electrode positive (DCEP) providing the deepest penetration due to concentrated arc energy on the workpiece, while direct current electrode negative (DCEN) yields shallower penetration and higher electrode melt-off rates suitable for surfacing.^[37]^[38]^[39]^[35]^[36] Process control in SAW relies on feedback systems to ensure arc stability, where sensors monitor arc voltage fluctuations and automatically adjust wire feed speed to maintain consistent arc length and prevent instability from excessive current or flux variations. Electrode oscillation, with amplitudes of 5 to 25 millimeters, is employed to widen the weld bead and improve sidewall fusion in multi-pass applications, controlled via programmable systems that synchronize frequency and dwell time for uniform coverage. Power sources operate in constant voltage (CV) mode for smaller electrodes (≤2.4 mm) to self-regulate arc length or constant current (CC) mode for larger wires (≥4 mm) to handle high-duty cycles, often integrated with digital interfaces for precise parameter adjustment.^[35]^[34]^[40]^[34] Modern SAW setups incorporate monitoring technologies such as sensors to regulate flux depth—ideally just sufficient to cover the arc (typically 25 to 50 millimeters)—preventing porosity from shallow coverage or poor slag detachment from excess depth. Advanced systems use artificial intelligence (AI) and Internet of Things (IoT) sensors for real-time defect detection, analyzing arc signals, images, or acoustic data to identify issues like porosity or cracks during welding, enabling immediate parameter corrections for enhanced quality control.^[35]^[41]^[42]

Applications and Materials

Suitable materials

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is primarily suitable for carbon steels and low-alloy steels, where it excels in joining thick sections with high deposition rates. Stainless steels and nickel-based alloys are also compatible, allowing for applications requiring enhanced corrosion resistance or high-strength properties. However, the process is limited to ferrous materials and select nickel alloys, as it is not effective for high-carbon steels, which can lead to excessive brittleness in the weld metal, or reactive metals like aluminum, titanium, and magnesium, due to the flux's inability to provide adequate protection against oxidation in these non-ferrous compositions.^[43]^[44]^[45]^[30] The ideal thickness range for SAW is typically 6 to 25 mm for single-pass or initial layers on plates, with multi-pass techniques enabling effective welding of sections up to 100 mm or thicker without significant distortion. For thinner materials below 3 mm, edge preparation is often unnecessary up to about 12.7 mm, but beveling becomes essential for deeper penetrations in heavier gauges to ensure sound fusion. This capability makes SAW particularly advantageous for heavy plate fabrication, where deep penetration and minimal dilution are required.^[30]^[29]^[46] Weldability in SAW depends on matching the flux composition to the base metal's alloy content to control element transfer and achieve desired mechanical properties, such as toughness and strength. For high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels commonly used in pipeline construction, fluxes doped with oxides like manganese or titanium ensure proper alloying and microstructure refinement in the weld deposit.^[45]^[47] In special cases, SAW supports clad welding for improved corrosion resistance, employing strip electrodes—typically 60 mm wide by 0.5 mm thick—to overlay corrosion-resistant alloys like stainless steel onto carbon or low-alloy steel substrates. This technique deposits multiple layers to form a protective cladding, enhancing durability in harsh environments without compromising the base material's structural integrity.^[48]^[49]

Industrial uses

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is extensively employed in heavy fabrication for creating longitudinal and circumferential seams in pressure vessels, boilers, and pipes, where its high deposition rates and deep penetration ensure robust, high-quality joints suitable for demanding pressure-containing applications.^[50] In pipe manufacturing, SAW aligns with standards like API 5L for line pipes, enabling the production of large-diameter, thick-walled pipes used in oil and gas pipelines through processes such as longitudinal submerged arc welding (LSAW).^[51] This application leverages SAW's ability to handle heavy plates efficiently, minimizing defects in critical infrastructure components.^[52] In shipbuilding and offshore construction, SAW is a primary method for welding hull plating and fabricating wind turbine towers, capitalizing on its high productivity for thick structural sections. For ship hulls, it provides stable arcs and superior joint quality in downhand positions, facilitating the assembly of large panels that withstand marine environments.^[53] In offshore wind projects, SAW is used for circumferential and longitudinal seams in tower sections, often with tandem or multi-wire setups to achieve narrow-gap welds and support the growing demand for renewable energy infrastructure.^[54] These uses highlight SAW's role in high-deposition scenarios, where it reduces production time for oversized components.^[55] SAW plays a vital role in structural steel fabrication for girders and bridges, offering consistent welds on heavy beams and plates that enhance load-bearing capacity. In bridge construction, it is commonly applied to join flange-to-web connections in plate girders, as outlined in steel bridge fabrication guidelines, ensuring durability against dynamic loads.^[56] A notable example is the reconstruction of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, where submerged arc welding was utilized for critical seams in support structures, contributing to seismic resilience in this high-profile project.^[57] SAW is commonly used in nuclear component manufacturing for pressure vessel welds due to its reliability in producing low-hydrogen, high-integrity joints that meet stringent safety codes. For railcars, post-2010 advancements in SAW automation have optimized underframe and sidewall welding, boosting throughput in mass production while maintaining quality for transportation durability. Additionally, hybrid variants combining SAW with laser beam technology have advanced since the 2020s, supporting welds up to 50 mm thick for enhanced productivity in structural applications.^[58]^[59]^[60] These developments underscore SAW's adaptability to specialized, high-volume sectors.^[61]

Performance Characteristics

Advantages

Submerged arc welding (SAW) offers exceptionally high productivity due to its elevated metal deposition rates, which can reach up to 40 pounds per hour with a single wire and exceed 100 pounds per hour in tandem configurations, enabling faster completion of welds compared to manual processes. These rates are typically 5 to 10 times higher than those achievable with shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), significantly reducing labor requirements and overall production time in high-volume applications.^[62]^[63] The process delivers superior weld quality through the protective layer of flux, which shields the arc and molten pool from atmospheric contamination, resulting in welds with consistent mechanical properties, uniform microstructure, and enhanced ductility. Flux coverage minimizes spatter entirely and stabilizes the arc, promoting deep penetration and fusion without defects like porosity or inclusions. Additionally, the flux's composition effectively limits hydrogen absorption in the weld metal, substantially lowering the risk of hydrogen-induced cracking, particularly in high-strength steels.^[64]^[65]^[61] Economically, SAW excels in automated setups ideal for long, straight seams, such as those in heavy plate fabrication, where mechanization ensures high operating factors and repeatable results with minimal operator intervention. Flux recovery systems further enhance cost efficiency by recycling up to 90% or more of the unused flux, reducing material waste and disposal expenses while maintaining process consistency.^[66]^[67] From an environmental perspective, SAW generates far fewer fumes and no visible arc light or radiation exposure, as the flux envelops the entire welding zone, improving workplace air quality and operator safety compared to open-arc methods like gas metal arc welding.^[62]

Limitations and challenges

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is primarily limited to flat and horizontal positions due to the large molten weld pool and the need for granular flux to cover the arc, making it unsuitable for vertical or overhead welding without significant modifications.^[68]^[69]^[70] This positional constraint restricts its application in complex geometries or structures requiring multi-position welds.^[71] The process demands a rigid setup with specialized equipment, such as flux delivery and recovery systems, leading to high initial costs that can be prohibitive for small-scale operations.^[70]^[72] Additionally, the bulky nature of SAW equipment reduces portability, rendering it impractical for field repairs or on-site applications where mobility is essential.^[70]^[72] SAW is most efficient for longer seams, as shorter seams diminish the advantages of its mechanized, continuous operation.^[72] Defect risks in SAW include slag inclusions and incomplete fusion, which can arise from misadjusted parameters such as excessive travel speed, insufficient heat input, or improper flux coverage.^[68] These issues are exacerbated by contaminants like moisture in the flux or arc instability, potentially compromising weld integrity if not carefully managed.^[68]^[69] Effective SAW operation necessitates skilled operators for precise parameter control and ongoing flux management to prevent contamination from poor-quality or improperly stored flux.^[71]^[69] Maintenance of the flux and equipment is critical, as any lapses can lead to inconsistent arc behavior and reduced weld quality.^[71]

Safety and Variations

Health and safety measures

Submerged arc welding (SAW) involves several primary hazards, including exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the arc, despite the flux coverage that partially shields it; electrical shocks from high-voltage equipment; and inhalation of flux dust, which often contains silica and poses risks of respiratory irritation or long-term lung damage.^[73]^[74]^[75] Fume and gas exposure in SAW primarily arises from emissions including manganese, which can cause neurological effects like manganism upon chronic inhalation, and fluorides, which act as respiratory irritants and may lead to fluorosis (bone disease) with prolonged exposure.^[73]^[76] To mitigate these, OSHA requires adequate ventilation, such as local exhaust systems positioned near the arc to capture fumes, ensuring airborne concentrations remain below permissible exposure limits (e.g., 5 mg/m³ (TWA) for total particulates not otherwise regulated and 5 mg/m³ (ceiling) for manganese).^[77]^[78]^[79] As of 2025, while OSHA's PEL for manganese remains 5 mg/m³ (ceiling), NIOSH recommends a REL of 1 mg/m³ (TWA, respirable) and 3 mg/m³ (STEL), and ACGIH a TLV of 0.02 mg/m³ (TWA, respirable) and 0.1 mg/m³ (inhalable) to better protect against neurotoxic effects.^[80]^[81] Operators must wear appropriate protective equipment, including auto-darkening helmets with suitable optical filters to guard against residual UV radiation and arc eye, respirators (such as NIOSH-approved N95 or P100 for metal fumes) when ventilation is insufficient, and insulated gloves, fireproof clothing, and boots to prevent electrical shocks and burns.^[73]^[82] Training is essential for safe flux handling to avoid dust generation and ingestion, emphasizing proper storage, spill cleanup, and avoidance of halogenated solvents near the weld site to prevent toxic gas formation.^[73]^[75] Emergency protocols address fire risks from hot slag and flux, which can exceed 1000°C and ignite nearby combustibles, requiring fire-resistant barriers, extinguishers (Class D for metals), and a designated fire watch for at least 30 minutes post-welding.^[82] Arc flash prevention involves grounding equipment, using insulated tools, and de-energizing circuits during maintenance to eliminate shock hazards, with immediate medical attention for any exposure incidents.^[74]^[83]

Process variants

Submerged arc welding (SAW) has evolved through various process variants to address specific challenges in deposition rates, joint geometries, and material thicknesses. Tandem and multi-wire SAW configurations employ multiple electrodes to enhance productivity and weld quality. In tandem SAW, two electrodes are arranged in series, allowing for independent control of current and voltage to achieve higher welding speeds of up to 3 meters per minute while maintaining deep penetration and consistent bead profiles.^[84] Multi-wire SAW extends this by using three or more electrodes, which increases metal deposition rates by 50-100% compared to single-wire setups, resulting in narrower heat-affected zones (HAZ) due to distributed heat input and reduced total energy per unit length.^[85] These variants are particularly effective for long, continuous welds in heavy fabrication, minimizing distortion and improving mechanical properties in high-strength steels.^[86] Narrow-gap SAW is designed for welding thick sections, typically exceeding 50 mm, where traditional wide-groove methods would require excessive filler material and multiple passes. This variant uses a narrow joint preparation, often 10-20 mm wide, combined with electrode oscillation to ensure sidewall fusion and reduce filler volume by up to 70%.^[87] Laser-guided oscillation enhances precision in narrow-gap SAW by stabilizing the arc and controlling the electrode path, preventing lack of fusion defects in high-thickness plates like those in pressure vessels.^[88] The process achieves full penetration in a single or few passes, lowering costs and heat input for applications in heavy industry.^[89] Electrogas welding (EGW) and electroslag welding (ESW) represent upright adaptations of SAW principles for vertical joints in heavy sections, such as shipbuilding and storage tanks. EGW utilizes a gas shield and consumable guide tubes to confine the molten pool, enabling vertical-up progression at rates of 10-30 mm per minute for plates up to 100 mm thick, with the arc providing localized melting.^[90] In contrast, ESW relies on a molten slag pool to conduct heat and melt filler wire, achieving even higher deposition for sections over 150 mm without an active arc after initiation, making it suitable for single-pass vertical welds in carbon and low-alloy steels.^[91] Both variants offer economic advantages over multi-pass SAW for tall joints, though they require precise flux management to control solidification.^[92] Recent innovations since 2015 have integrated lasers with SAW in hybrid configurations to improve precision and efficiency in demanding sectors like automotive and aerospace. Hybrid laser-SAW combines a leading laser beam for keyhole formation with trailing arc deposition, enabling deeper penetration and reduced HAZ widths by 20-30% in high-strength steels used for chassis components.^[93] This post-2015 development, often employing fiber lasers, supports narrow-gap welding of thick plates with minimal distortion, facilitating lightweight structures in aerospace alloys.^[94] The synergy enhances gap tolerance and weld consistency, positioning hybrid SAW as a bridge between traditional arc processes and advanced laser techniques.^[88]

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Equipment for Submerged Arc Welding - TWI Global
The submerged-arc welding (SAW) process is similar to MIG where the arc is formed between a continuously-fed wire electrode and the workpiece, ...
[19]
SAW Flux Types: A Guide to Submerged Arc Welding Fluxes - ESAB
Nov 20, 2024 · In Submerged Arc Welding (SAW), flux plays a critical role in protecting the weld pool, stabilizing the arc, and influencing the final weld ...
[20]
Submerged Arc Welding: How to Select Flux - Hobart Brothers
A good rule of thumb is to select a flux with the lowest basicity that will still provide sufficient mechanical properties for the in-service weld.
[21]
The role of flux in submerged arc welding performance
Apr 29, 2024 · All fluxes have an associated basicity index value that falls between 0.5 and 4.0, with the values below 1.0 being acidic and those above 1.0 ...
[22]
The effect of flux chemistry on element transfer in Submerged Arc ...
Selected fluoride based flux compositions cover a wide range of basicity index (BI) values of 0.5–3.0.
[23]
Submerged Arc Welding Consumables - Part 3 - TWI Global
AWS uses a dual flux/wire designation. Flux starts with 'F', 'S' if slag. Wires have 'E' for bare, 'L', 'M', 'H' for manganese. Example: F6P5-EM12K-H8.
[24]
Understanding the AWS Certificate - Lincoln Electric
Classification provides a standard for identifying welding consumables, their minimum tensile strength and usability. A complete explanation of each portion of ...
[25]
[PDF] Submerged Arc Welding - Hobart Brothers
All values are approximate. Approximate Wire Feed Speeds and Deposition Rates. Deposition Rate Comparison: 1/8 in. (3.2mm) Diameter. 400 A. 500 A. 600 A. 700 A.
[26]
Handling and Storage of Welding Fluxes - ESAB US
To maintain the as-delivered moisture content, as long as possible, the handling and storage of the flux must be done according to the following requirements.
[27]
[PDF] Storage and Handling - Welding Products
Submerged arc welding fluxes absorb moisture with the amount of moisture absorbed being dependent upon the atmospheric conditions and time of exposure. Most ...
[28]
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW): Working Process, Equipment, Parts ...
Jun 7, 2020 · Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a welding process where the tubular electrode is fed continuously to join two metals by generating heat between electrode and ...
[29]
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) - Weld Guru
Jan 22, 2024 · Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a process in which the joining of metals is produced by heating with an arc or arcs between a bare metal electrode or electrodes ...
[30]
A Practical Guide to Submerged Arc Welding
Submerged Arc Welding is a fusion welding process where the arc is struck beneath a blanket of granular flux. That flux isn't just for show—it shields the weld ...
[31]
[PDF] Submerged Arc Welding: - Parameters and Variables
Submerged arc welding (SAW) equipment consists of a welding power source, the wire feeding mechanism with the control system, the welding torch or the.
[32]
Submerged Arc Welding - Arcraft Plasma
Wire feed speed is automatically controlled to equal the rate at which the electrode is melted, thus arc length is constant (similar to MIG/MAG - constant ...<|separator|>
[33]
Variables that Affect Weld Penetration - Lincoln Electric
The welding variable that has the greatest effect on the degree of weld penetration is current (measured in amperage or amps).
[34]
How to calculate heat input in welding and its impact on NDT
May 27, 2025 · Heat Input Calculation Formula Heat Input (kJ/mm) = (VxIx60) / (S x 1000) × Efficiency Where: V = Voltage (Volts) I = Current (Amperes) S = ...
[35]
[PDF] Heat Input & Interpass temperature during welding
Submerged Arc Welding (Under powder). 1.0. Manual Metal Arc ... Typical heat input values for controlled heat input welding will tend to be ~1.0-~3.5kJ/mm.
[36]
Weld Distortion - Lincoln Electric
The weld made with the higher heat input generally results in a greater amount of distortion. (note: I don't want to use the words "excessive" and "more than ...
[37]
[PDF] The effect of the parameters of submerged arc surfacing with ...
Those relations remain practically unchanged with increasing amplitude of oscillation. ... amplitude А=25 mm and welding speed of Vn=7 m/h. [4] Goloborodko ...Missing: range | Show results with:range<|separator|>
[38]
Real-Time Defect Detection in Submerged Arc Welding using AI and ...
Apr 6, 2025 · In this work, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and Internet of Things (IoT) sensors to enable the real-time detection of defects in SAW is explored.Missing: flux | Show results with:flux
[39]
[PDF] Real-Time Defect Detection in Submerged Arc Welding using AI and ...
In this work, the use of artificial intelligence. (AI) and Internet of Things (IoT) sensors to enable the real-time detection of defects in SAW is explored.Missing: flux depth
[40]
Submerged Arc Welding - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
This welding process is usually applied to carbon steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels, and nickel-based alloys. Deep weld penetration and thick materials ...
[41]
Is submerged arc welding the right process for you? - The Fabricator
Sep 22, 2017 · SAW is best-suited for carbon and low-alloy steels, but it can be used for stainless steel and nickel-based alloys as well. And while SAW of ...
[42]
Submerged Arc Welding on Low Alloy Steels - Hobart Brothers
The majority of low alloy steels that companies submerged arc weld range from ½-inch thick or more (some applications can be greater than four inches), and ...
[43]
[PDF] Metal Core Wires & Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding
Welded metal thickness ranges from a minimum of 1/16" (1.6mm) up to unlimited for single pass welds and unlimited metal thickness on multi-pass welds using ...<|separator|>
[44]
(PDF) Investigation on flux design for submerged arc welding of high ...
Aug 7, 2025 · This study aims at the design, development and optimization of flux for submerged arc welding of high-strength low-alloy steel.Missing: matching | Show results with:matching
[45]
General Explanation of Strip Cladding - ESAB
Jul 9, 2024 · Strip cladding is a specialized welding technique that plays a crucial role in enhancing the durability, corrosion resistance, and performance of industrial ...
[46]
[PDF] 10262: CORROSION RESISTANCE OF NICKEL ALLOYS AND ...
Overlay welding of carbon and low-alloy steels with corrosion resistant alloys is a widely-used process for corrosion protection today.
[47]
submerged arc welding, steel pipe welding technology
Sep 7, 2022 · Submerged arc welding (SAW) technology is suitable for heavy industrial applications such as pipelines, pressure vessels and storage tanks ...
[48]
All You Need to Know: API 5L Specification for Line Pipe
Oct 6, 2024 · LSAW Pipes: Manufactured by welding the seam using submerged arc welding, ideal for larger diameter pipes and high-strength applications.
[49]
Submerged Arc Welding Basics - Centerway Steel Co., Ltd
Dec 27, 2024 · The Submerged Arc Welding process is ideal for the critical applications of piping, pressure vessels and tanks, railroad track fabrication ...
[50]
Common Welding Methods And Weld Defects In Shipbuilding Industry
May 24, 2019 · Submerged arc welding is the most commonly used downhand welding method in the shipbuilding industry, owing to its arc stability and quality of joint.
[51]
Tower Welding - Windtech International
Oct 1, 2009 · The primary welding process for both long seams and girth seams is submerged arc welding (SAW). This process uses at least one electric arc ...Missing: shipbuilding hull
[52]
Improving deposition rates with submerged arc welding
Mar 26, 2015 · SAW commonly is used in demanding heavy industrial applications such as pressure vessel, wind tower and railcar fabrication, shipbuilding, ...
[53]
[PDF] Steel Bridge Fabrication
Generally, this is accomplished using the submerged arc welding process, which remelts and incorporates the tack welds into the finished weld (Figure 11).
[54]
[PDF] Welding
Jul 2, 2007 · The round seams were also welded with the subarc method. San francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge. Welding plays a crucial role in the success of these.Missing: bridges | Show results with:bridges
[55]
Nuclear Reactor Pressure Vessel Welds: A Critical and Historical ...
Commonly used arc welding techniques for nuclear applications include submerged arc welding (SAW) and gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) [29], [65], [66], [67].
[56]
Consider Submerged Arc Welding to Improve Productivity
The SAW process is well-suited to demanding heavy industrial applications, such as pipe, pressure vessel and tank, railcar manufacturing and heavy construction/ ...
[57]
Submerged Arc welding: A complete guide - Codinter Americas
Apr 1, 2024 · Basic Components of a Submerged Arc System · Power Source: Provides the electrical energy to create and maintain the arc. · Wire Feeder: Delivers ...Missing: nuclear | Show results with:nuclear
[58]
Submerged Arc Welding Can Greatly Improve Deposition Rates
Jun 1, 2015 · The biggest advantage of Submerged Arc welding is its high deposition rates, which can significantly impact productivity and efficiency.
[59]
[PDF] ME3393 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES - STUCOR
Tungsten arc welding - Gas metal arc welding – Submerged arc welding – Electro slag ... Weld metal deposition rates are 5 to 10 times as compared to SMAW process ...
[60]
Basics of Submerged Arc Welding Fluxes
Jan 11, 2022 · The primary purpose of the welding flux in submerged arc welding is to protect the weld puddle from contamination.
[61]
Submerged Arc Welding Advantages and Disadvantages - senlisweld
May 13, 2024 · Lack of Versatility · High Initial Investment · Limited to Ferrous Metals · Limited Accessibility · Cleaning and Waste Management · Flux Handling and ...Missing: reactive | Show results with:reactive
[62]
Is Submerged Arc Welding the Right Process for You?
The submerged arc welding (SAW) process has the potential to substantially improve deposition rates and productivity, and to provide repeatable weld quality.
[63]
Resources Recovered Calculator | Weld Engineering Co.
Recoverable flux varies with type of welding procedure from 50% to over 90%. (These factors are estimates only.)
[64]
Submerged Arc Welding Quality Issues - FABTECH
Mar 1, 2020 · The main disadvantage of submerged arc welding is that it can be used only in the flat or horizontal welding positions (test positions 1G or 2G ...Missing: limitations | Show results with:limitations
[65]
Submerged Arc Welding Overview - Vern Lewis Welding Supply, Inc.
Aug 29, 2023 · Disadvantages and Limitations of SAW · The welder is essentially welding blind since the weld is submerged under the flux and not visible.Missing: reactive | Show results with:reactive
[66]
Pros and Cons of Submerged Arc Welding: An In-Depth Analysis
Sep 9, 2024 · Versatility in Materials: SAW is compatible with a wide range of materials, including carbon steels, stainless steels, and nickel-based alloys.
[67]
Submerged Arc Welding: Advantages and Disadvantages - Motofil
Jul 12, 2021 · Submerged arc welding is widely used in various sectors of industry but, like any welding process, it has its set of advantages and ...
[68]
Advantages and Disadvantages of Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Oct 16, 2024 · 1) Limited to flat and horizontal welds · 2) Requires joint preparation · 3) Bulk and mobility issues · 4) High initial setup costs · 5) Difficulty ...Missing: repairs | Show results with:repairs
[69]
[PDF] SUBMERGED ARC WELDING FLUXES - Linde
Where fume levels exceed the recognised exposure limits, respiratory protection may be required in the form of a Class P2 (metal fume) respirator. Personal ...
[70]
Welding Safety FAQs - Electric Shock
A: The primary voltage shock - at 115 volts to as high as 600 volts - is very hazardous because it is much greater voltage than the welder secondary (or welding) ...
[71]
[PDF] SDS – Sub-Arc and Electroslag Fluxes Revision 12 Issue Date - Airgas
Jan 1, 2014 · Electric arc welding may create one or more of the following health hazards: Eye Contact: Arc rays (ultraviolet light) can cause eye injury.
[72]
[PDF] Evaluation of Exposure to Crystalline Silica, Welding Fume ... - CDC
Manganese concentrations on welders ranged from 5.5 µg/m3 to 88 µg/m3, while iron oxide concentrations (as iron) ranged from 19 µg/m3 to 240 µg/m3 (Table 2).
[73]
https://static.prd.echannel.linde.com/wcsstore/ZA_AFROX_Industrial_Ntl_Store/Attachment/Corporate/MSDSheets/Submerged_Arc_Fluxes_tcm266-27765.pdf
[74]
[PDF] Controlling Hazardous Fume and Gases during Welding | OSHA
Prolonged exposure to welding fume may cause lung damage and various types of cancer, including lung, larynx and urinary tract. . Health effects from certain ...
[75]
https://www.airgas.com/msds/005368.pdf
[76]
Improve Safety for Submerged Arc Welding Applications!
Mar 5, 2025 · Conductive elements are present with which the welder may make accidental contact during the welding process, causing potential electrical shock ...
[77]
[PDF] Multiple-Electrode Submerged Arc Welding Process with Low Heat ...
A new SAW process which can reduce heat input of 25% due to its high deposition rate and deep penetration is performed with multiple electrode SAW using small.Missing: narrower | Show results with:narrower
[78]
(PDF) Multiwire submerged arc welding of steel structures
Aug 7, 2025 · The assembly of large structures made out of thick steel plates requires a welding process bywhich multiple wires can be used simultaneously ...Missing: narrower | Show results with:narrower
[79]
Submerged arc welding optimization - The Fabricator
Nov 10, 2009 · Suitable for welding various materials and plate thicknesses, submerged arc welding is considered an economical, efficient process.Pipe Welding · Notes · Is Submerged Arc Welding The...Missing: structure feeder oscillation
[80]
Development of automation and monitoring methods for narrow-gap ...
Oct 28, 2024 · Ultra narrow gap welding is possible by using a laser as a heat source. However, laser welding has the problem of lower deposition efficiency ...Missing: guided | Show results with:guided
[81]
Laser beam submerged arc hybrid welding - AIP Publishing
Nov 21, 2018 · In addition, beam oscillation (frequency: 100 Hz; amplitude: 1.5 mm) was switched on for the test with a joint gap width of 1 and 2 mm. For ...
[82]
Ultra-Narrow Gap Fiber Laser Conduction Welding Technology for ...
Jan 5, 2022 · The 304 stainless steel thick plates were welded by using the ultra-narrow gap fiber laser conduction welding with filler wire in this study.Missing: guided | Show results with:guided
[83]
https://blog.xiris.com/blog/bid/330928/improve-safety-for-submerged-arc-welding-applications
[84]
Electroslag Welding - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Electroslag welding is a single-pass process for thick materials using molten slag to melt filler metal and workpieces, typically in a vertical position.
[85]
Electroslag Welding vs. Submerged Arc Welding (ESW vs. SAW)
Submerged Arc Welding is a widely used welding process wherein an arc is generated between a continuously fed electrode and the workpiece. However, unlike ...
[86]
A look at laser hybrid welding in the automotive industry
Oct 5, 2016 · Laser hybrid welding, which is also called laser brazing, combines the best of laser beam welding and the gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process.
[87]
Combining Hybrid Laser Arc Welding and Submerged Arc ... - EWI.org
Apr 23, 2021 · EWI has recently developed a new method for joining thick steel plate by combining the hybrid laser arc welding and the submerged arc ...Missing: 2015 | Show results with:2015