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CSS Alabama

CSS Alabama was a screw sloop-of-war commissioned into the Confederate States Navy in 1862, constructed clandestinely at the John Laird and Sons shipyard in Birkenhead, England, for commerce raiding against United States shipping during the American Civil War.^[1]^[2] Commanded by Captain Raphael Semmes, a veteran Confederate naval officer, Alabama embarked on a global cruise spanning 75,000 nautical miles across the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans.^[3]^[4] Over nearly two years of operations from August 1862 to June 1864, Alabama captured or bonded 65 Union merchant vessels and whalers, burning most to deny their use to the Northern economy and war effort, making her the most successful Confederate raider in terms of prizes taken.^[5]^[6] Her tactics emphasized speed, surprise, and the use of disguise, avoiding prolonged engagements with Union warships until her final battle.^[1] Alabama's career ended on June 19, 1864, when Semmes challenged the USS Kearsarge to combat off Cherbourg, France, resulting in Alabama's rapid sinking after a fierce hour-long exchange of broadsides, with Semmes' crew suffering heavy casualties and many survivors rescued by nearby vessels.^[7]^[5] The ship's construction in British yards despite official neutrality sparked the Alabama Claims, a major diplomatic dispute resolved by international arbitration in 1872, in which Britain paid the United States $15.5 million in compensation for Alabama's depredations and similar raiders.^[8] This outcome reinforced principles of neutrality and due diligence in maritime law, influencing future international relations.^[8]

Design and Construction

Technical Specifications

The CSS Alabama was a wooden-hulled, screw sloop-of-war with barkentine rigging, designed for speed and long-range cruising as a commerce raider. Her hull was constructed of oak and teak, copper-sheathed for protection against marine growth, enabling extended operations without frequent docking.^[9] Key dimensions included a length overall of 213 feet 8 inches, an extreme beam of 32 feet, a depth of hold of 18 feet, and a fully loaded draft of 15 feet. Displacement reached 1,438 tons when fully loaded.^[9] Alternative measurements cite a deck length of 220 feet with the same beam and loaded draft.^[3] Propulsion combined sail and steam power. She featured two direct-acting, horizontal condensing engines with twin cylinders, rated at 300 horsepower total, driving a single lifting screw propeller that could be hoisted clear of the water for sailing efficiency. Four boilers supported steam operations, with a coal capacity of 285 tons allowing for extended voyages. Under steam alone, she achieved about 10 knots; combined sail and steam yielded up to 13 knots, with a designed maximum of 12 knots and ordinary service speed of 10 knots.^[9]^[3]

Category	Details
Armament	1 × 7-inch (100-pounder) Blakely rifled pivot gun (forecastle); 1 × 8-inch (68-pounder) smoothbore pivot gun (quarterdeck); 6 × 32-pounder broadside guns on wheeled carriages
Crew Complement	Approximately 110 to 144 personnel, including 24 to 25 officers and 85 to 120 enlisted seamen

Building Process and Secrecy

The construction of hull number 290, later the CSS Alabama, was commissioned by Confederate States naval agent James Dunwoody Bulloch from John Laird Sons and Company at their Birkenhead Iron Works shipyard, across the Mersey River from Liverpool, England. On 1 August 1861, Bulloch signed a contract for £47,500 to build a fast steamer ostensibly for mercantile service in the East Indies and Pacific trade, concealing its intended role as a commerce raider to circumvent Britain's neutrality proclamation of 13 May 1861 and the Foreign Enlistment Act of 1819, which prohibited equipping belligerent warships in neutral ports.^[10] The Lairds, whose firm had pioneered iron-hulled steamships since the 1820s, employed approximately 200 workers in a process emphasizing speed and dual-use design: an iron frame with reinforced upper decks for potential gun mounts, a powerful 300-horsepower engine driving a screw propeller, and auxiliary sail rigging, all completed without installing armaments or overt military fittings.^[11]^[12] Secrecy was enforced through minimal documentation, verbal instructions to trusted personnel, and the vessel's anonymous designation as "number 290" until its launch as the Enrica on 15 May 1862, after which it underwent engine trials in the Irish Sea. Bulloch closely supervised quality, rejecting substandard materials and insisting on enhancements like a retractable smokestack to mimic a merchant profile at sea, while armaments—six 32-pounder smoothbores and one 7-inch rifled pivot gun—were procured separately through Confederate banking firm Fraser, Trenholm and Company and stored off-site for later shipment.^[10]^[13] U.S. Minister Charles Francis Adams lodged protests with British Foreign Secretary Lord Russell, suspecting Confederate intent based on the ship's speed (up to 13 knots) and hull strength exceeding typical merchants, but lacked conclusive evidence of armament, allowing the Enrica to slip from Liverpool on 28 July 1862 under cover of a feigned trial voyage, evading detention orders issued too late.^[13] This evasion succeeded partly due to sympathetic local officials and the Lairds' pro-Southern leanings, as John Laird himself held parliamentary seats and defended the project publicly.^[12]

Commissioning and Departure

Outfitting and Armament

![Captain Raphael Semmes near the 110-pounder gun aboard CSS Alabama][float-right] The CSS Alabama, constructed at the Laird shipyard in Birkenhead as the ostensibly merchant vessel Enrica to circumvent British Foreign Enlistment Act restrictions, departed Liverpool on July 29, 1862, without her armament or Confederate officers aboard.^[3] Provisions, gun carriages, ammunition, small arms, clothing, and coal were procured separately by Confederate agent James Dunwoody Bulloch and transported via tenders to avoid detection.^[3] Upon reaching Terceira in the Azores around mid-August, the ship rendezvoused with supply vessels, including a tender from which the crew hoisted the guns aboard over several days.^[11] Commander Raphael Semmes and his officers joined at this location, where the vessel was formally commissioned as CSS Alabama on August 24, 1862.^[3] This outfitting transformed the 220-foot screw sloop into a fully equipped commerce raider, with her battery emphasizing range and mobility for extended operations.^[2] The primary armament comprised eight muzzle-loading cannons: a single 7-inch Blakely rifled 100-pounder pivot gun mounted forward for long-range fire, a 68-pounder (8-inch) smoothbore pivot gun aft, and six 32-pounder smoothbore broadside guns arranged three per side.^[2] ^[14] This configuration, lighter than Union equivalents, prioritized speed over heavy broadsides, aligning with her role in disrupting enemy merchant shipping.^[15] The guns were supplemented by small arms such as rifles and pistols for boarding parties, though the main battery proved decisive in her 64 prizes over 22 months.^[3]

Initial Voyage from Britain

The screw sloop Enrica, built at the Laird shipyard near Liverpool, departed the River Mersey on July 29, 1862, under the command of Captain James D. Bullock, a Confederate agent, though officially captained by a British master to maintain the fiction of a commercial vessel.^[3] ^[16] Unarmed and flying British colors, she carried a predominantly British crew of about 90 men, supplemented by a small cadre of Confederate officers in civilian guise, and embarked under the pretext of engine trials in the Irish Sea to evade scrutiny from British customs and neutralist enforcers alerted to suspicions of her purpose.^[3] To further disguise intentions, local dignitaries and ladies were invited aboard for a brief excursion before she cleared the harbor, after which she steered southward across the Atlantic, covering approximately 1,200 nautical miles to the rendezvous at Praia da Vitória on Terceira Island in the Portuguese Azores archipelago.^[3] The Enrica arrived at Terceira around August 10, 1862, anchoring in neutral Portuguese waters where British authorities could not intervene, allowing the transfer of armament from the accompanying steamer Agrippina, which had departed London earlier with six long 32-pounder guns, one 110-pounder rifled pivot gun, one 68-pounder smoothbore pivot gun, and munitions smuggled out of UK ports. Commander Raphael Semmes, appointed captain, had sailed separately from Liverpool on August 13 aboard the chartered steamer Bahama with James Dunwoody Bulloch, reaching Terceira on August 20 to oversee fitting-out; the Bahama also delivered additional crew and supplies, enabling the vessel's transformation.^[3] Over the next few days, the guns were hoisted aboard and secured, the British crew was mustered and offered the choice to enlist under the Confederate States Navy—with most accepting after addresses emphasizing the privateer's legal status under international maritime law—or to depart on neutral transports.^[3] On August 24, 1862, Semmes formally commissioned the vessel as CSS Alabama in the sheltered harbor, hoisting the Confederate ensign and reading the commission to the assembled officers and crew of 149 men, marking the completion of her covert departure from Britain and the start of operations as the Confederacy's most effective commerce raider.^[3] The initial voyage succeeded due to the speed of the 1,040-ton steamer—capable of 13 knots under sail and steam—and precise coordination among Confederate agents, despite Union diplomatic protests to London that failed to prompt timely detention.^[3] From Terceira, Alabama departed eastward, burning her first prize, the whaler Ocmulgee, on September 20 near the Azores to initiate depredations on Union shipping.^[3]

Operational Raids

Atlantic and East Indies Campaigns

Following its commissioning on August 24, 1862, off Terceira in the Azores, CSS Alabama commenced operations in the eastern Atlantic, targeting Union merchant shipping to disrupt commerce. Under Captain Raphael Semmes, the raider captured and burned nine whaling vessels near the Azores between September 5 and 18, 1862, including the Ocmulgee, Starlight, and Elisha Dunbar, releasing crews on parole after removing supplies.^[3] These early successes yielded valuable whale oil and provisions while avoiding prolonged engagements.^[17] By early October 1862, Alabama shifted northward to the waters off Newfoundland, capturing the grain-laden Brilliant on October 3 and eight additional vessels over the month, such as the Manchester and Lafayette, most of which were burned after offloading cargo.^[3] Continuing southward, the ship intercepted the T.B. Wales on November 8, 1862, and burned it, before arriving at Martinique on November 18 amid Union naval presence.^[17] In December, Alabama seized the steamer Ariel on December 7 off Cuba, releasing it on bond due to its passenger load and the cruiser's own mechanical issues, then underwent brief repairs at Jamaica.^[3] Entering the Gulf of Mexico in January 1863, Alabama engaged and sank the USS Hatteras on January 11 off Galveston, Texas, in a brief night action that resulted in two Confederate casualties and captured 130 Union sailors.^[3] Subsequent Caribbean operations through February and March yielded further prizes, including the burned Golden Rule on January 26 off Haiti, Palmetto on February 3, and Kingfisher on March 23 off Brazil after shifting southward.^[3] Off the Brazilian coast, Alabama captured eleven vessels between March and June 1863, notably converting the Conrad into the prize tender CSS Tuscaloosa on June 20; these actions netted coal, provisions, and bonds totaling significant value in disrupting Union trade routes.^[3] After coaling at Fernando de Noronha in April and reaching Cape Town on August 15, 1863, Alabama departed on September 24 for the East Indies, crossing the Indian Ocean—a voyage of nearly 4,500 miles—while evading Union pursuers.^[3] In November 1863, the raider entered the Strait of Sunda, burning the Amanda on November 6 and Winged Racer, then captured and destroyed the Contest in the Java Sea on November 11.^[17] Continuing into the Strait of Malacca in December, Alabama burned the Sonora and Highlander on December 26, focusing on whalers and merchantmen to maximize economic impact with minimal risk.^[17] By January 1864, operations extended to the Arabian Sea, where the Emma Jane was burned on January 14 off India's west coast, concluding the East Indies phase before heading to France for repairs.^[17] These campaigns accounted for over 20 prizes, compelling Union shipowners to insure vessels at premiums rising up to 10 percent and reroute trade, though Alabama's light armament limited direct confrontations with warships beyond the Hatteras engagement.^[3]

Indian Ocean and Pacific Operations

Following its stop at Cape Town, South Africa, the CSS Alabama departed on September 24, 1863, for an extended cruise across the Indian Ocean toward the East Indies, covering nearly 4,500 miles.^[3] The vessel passed St. Paul's Island on October 12, 1863, en route to the Sunda Strait.^[3] In early November, Alabama captured and destroyed the bark Amanda on November 6 near the Sunda Strait, carrying hemp and sugar; the clipper Winged Racer on November 10 in the Straits of Sumatra, loaded with sugar, hides, and jute; and the clipper Contest on November 11 off the Gaspar Strait in the Java Sea, with Japanese goods.^[3] These actions marked the ship's entry into Southeast Asian waters bordering the Pacific, though it did not fully cross into the open Pacific Ocean.^[9] Alabama arrived at Singapore on December 21, 1863, where it coaled and encountered British reluctance amid shifting Confederate fortunes.^[3] Continuing operations in the Straits of Malacca, it burned the ship Texas Star on December 24 with rice cargo, and the ships Sonora and Highlander on December 26, both in ballast.^[3] On January 14, 1864, near Anjenga, India, the ship Emma Jane was captured and burned.^[3] Over six months in the Indian Ocean and adjacent seas, Alabama took only six Union vessels, reflecting a decline in Northern merchant shipping due to prior raids and Union countermeasures.^[9] Crews from captured ships were generally paroled and landed at neutral ports without loss of life.^[3] Facing hull fouling, armament wear, and sparse prizes, Captain Raphael Semmes opted to return westward across the Indian Ocean toward Europe rather than pressing further into the Pacific.^[9]

Final Engagement

Arrival in Cherbourg and Preparations

After nearly twenty-two months of continuous operations, during which CSS Alabama had captured or destroyed sixty-five Union merchant vessels, the cruiser arrived in Cherbourg, France, at 12:30 p.m. on June 11, 1864.^[3]^[1] Captain Raphael Semmes, whose health had deteriorated from prolonged exposure and strain, immediately sought docking privileges from French maritime authorities to address the ship's critical condition: extensive fouling of the hull from marine growth, loss of copper sheathing exposing the fastenings to corrosion, and worn rigging and boilers requiring overhaul.^[3]^[15] French neutrality protocols, enforced by Vice Admiral Roze, the Préfet Maritime, permitted limited repairs but prohibited extensive refitting that could enhance the vessel's war-making capacity or allow indefinite stay; Alabama was authorized to coal or repair, but not both extensively, and ordered to depart promptly thereafter.^[18] Semmes reported to Confederate Flag Officer Samuel Barron in Paris, noting the vessel's vulnerability while docked and the strategic embarrassment posed by the Union sloop-of-war USS Kearsarge, which arrived off Cherbourg on June 14 to blockade the harbor entrance.^[5]^[19] Over the ensuing days, preparations focused on essential maintenance and combat readiness: coaling to replenish fuel stocks depleted by the transatlantic approach, gunnery drills to sharpen crew proficiency after months without shore facilities, and minor adjustments to armament and powder amid restricted dockyard access.^[19] Semmes, recognizing the blockade's constraint on evasion and buoyed by high crew morale despite the ship's frailties, resolved to sortie and engage Kearsarge rather than submit to internment or futile flight, with final drills concluding by June 18.^[5]^[15]

Battle with USS Kearsarge

On the morning of June 19, 1864, CSS Alabama, under Captain Raphael Semmes, departed Cherbourg harbor after repairs and coaling, escorted partway by the French ironclad Couronne, to challenge the blockading USS Kearsarge commanded by Captain John A. Winslow.^[19] The Alabama mounted one 7-inch Brooke rifle, one 8-inch smoothbore, and four 32-pounder smoothbores, while the Kearsarge carried two 11-inch Dahlgren smoothbores, four 32-pounders, and one 30-pounder Parrott rifle, with the latter featuring improvised chain armor disguised under wooden planking.^[18] Semmes, aware of his ship's worn condition after nearly two years at sea, sought a decisive engagement to break the blockade rather than risk internment.^[15] The duel commenced around 10:57 a.m. in international waters visible from the French coast, with Alabama firing the first broadside as the ships closed to about 1,000 yards.^[5] Both vessels maneuvered in elliptical courses, Alabama circling to port while Kearsarge steamed to starboard, enabling the Union sloop to maintain a tighter radius and rake the Confederate raider's stern.^[7] Over the approximately 70-minute engagement, Alabama discharged around 370 rounds at a rapid rate, scoring perhaps 28 hits on Kearsarge, but most proved ineffective against the hidden armor, with one unexploded shell lodging in the sternpost.^[7] ^[20] In contrast, Kearsarge fired 173 deliberate shots, inflicting critical damage including a hit below the waterline from an 11-inch shell that exploded in Alabama's coal bunker, causing rapid flooding.^[7] An attempt by Alabama to ram failed due to her slowing speed.^[21] By 12:40 p.m., Alabama listed heavily and struck her colors, but Semmes ordered abandonment as the ship settled rapidly.^[21] Of Alabama's 149 crew, nine were killed and 21 wounded in the action, with an additional 19 drowning during the sinking, for total losses of 68; Kearsarge suffered three wounded.^[20] The British yacht Deerhound, present as an observer, rescued Semmes and 40 others, conveying them to England and preventing their capture, a point of later diplomatic contention.^[5] Kearsarge rescued about 40 survivors, including First Lieutenant John Kell.^[5] Semmes attributed the defeat to Kearsarge's unforeseen armor and his own ship's deteriorated state, not tactical error.^[15] The wreck lies off Cherbourg, explored in subsequent archaeological efforts.^[22]

Command and Crew

Key Officers and Leadership

The CSS Alabama was commanded by Raphael Semmes, who received his commission as commander in the Confederate States Navy and took charge of the vessel upon its outfitting in Liverpool, England, on August 24, 1862.^[23] Semmes, born in 1809 in Charles County, Maryland, had served as a lieutenant in the United States Navy from 1826 until his resignation in 1860 following Southern secession, bringing extensive experience from the Mexican-American War and prior naval commands.^[3] Prior to the Alabama, he had successfully led the CSS Sumter on commerce-raiding cruises in 1861–1862, capturing eighteen Union merchant vessels before the ship was blockaded in Gibraltar.^[3] Serving as Semmes' executive officer and first lieutenant was John McIntosh Kell, who handled daily ship operations, crew discipline, and tactical execution during engagements.^[23] Kell, a Georgia native and former U.S. Navy officer, had previously acted as first lieutenant on the Sumter, fostering a close professional rapport with Semmes that contributed to the Alabama's operational cohesion over its 22-month cruise.^[24] Under their leadership, the officer corps—comprising approximately 24 Confederate Navy personnel—emphasized rigorous training and adaptability, enabling the capture or destruction of 65 Union vessels despite the multinational crew's occasional disciplinary challenges.^[23] Key supporting officers included Surgeon Francis L. Galt, who managed medical care for the crew amid prolonged voyages and combat injuries, including during the final engagement with USS Kearsarge on June 19, 1864; First Assistant Engineer William P. Brooks, overseeing the ship's steam propulsion and machinery critical to its speed and endurance; and Second Lieutenant Richard F. Armstrong, who assisted in gunnery and boarding operations.^[23] These leaders operated under Semmes' strategic direction, which prioritized evasion of Union warships while maximizing economic disruption through targeted raids, reflecting a doctrine of asymmetric naval warfare.^[25] Semmes' command style, informed by his legal training and naval expertise, maintained high morale and effectiveness until the ship's sinking, after which he and surviving officers were rescued and paroled.^[23]

Crew Composition and Conditions

The CSS Alabama's officer corps consisted primarily of Confederate States Navy personnel, numbering approximately 24, including Captain Raphael Semmes and his executive officer, First Lieutenant John McIntosh Kell.^[9]^[14] These officers were drawn from Southern naval experience, providing leadership for the commerce raider's operations from her commissioning on August 24, 1862, until her sinking on June 19, 1864.^[9] The enlisted crew totaled around 120-125 seamen at typical strength, achieving a full complement of 145-150 by incorporating recruits from neutral ports and select personnel from captured Union vessels.^[9]^[26] Initial manning in the Azores included 83 British seamen transferred from support vessels, with the overall crew reflecting a multinational makeup dominated by British subjects from the British Isles, supplemented by sailors from various seafaring nations, including a notable contingent of captured American (Yankee) tars.^[27]^[14]^[10] This composition arose from necessity, as Confederate agents in Liverpool recruited locally to evade British neutrality laws, yielding a force skilled in seamanship but diverse in allegiance.^[9] Crew conditions emphasized incentives like double wages paid in gold coin and shares of prize money from burned or bonded vessels, which sustained enlistments despite the raider's prolonged 22-month cruise without dry-dock access.^[9] Living quarters were cramped on the 1,050-ton sloop, with duties involving constant sail adjustments, gunnery maintenance, and the labor-intensive burning of prizes under threat of Union pursuit, yet the crew suffered no deaths from disease and only one from accidental causes over the voyage.^[28]^[20] Resource constraints, including limited coal (285 tons for roughly 10 days of steaming) and deteriorating powder quality, compounded fatigue, leading to declining morale and near-mutinous behavior by mid-1864 as the hull fouled and drills lapsed.^[9]^[29]^[26]

Strategic Impact

Damage to Union Commerce

The CSS Alabama, under Captain Raphael Semmes, operated as a commerce raider from August 1862 to June 1864, capturing or destroying more than 60 Union merchant vessels with a combined value of approximately $6 million in ships and cargoes.^[22] ^[30] These actions included burning 55 ships outright to prevent recapture and bonding or releasing others after extracting valuables and prisoners.^[31] The raider's targets spanned sailing merchantmen, whalers, and traders, encountered across the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, with notable concentrations in whaling grounds off the Azores and in the East Indies.^[29] Direct depredations peaked in 1862–1863, with 28 prizes taken in 1862 alone, many in the eastern Atlantic and South Atlantic en route to distant stations.^[32] In the Indian Ocean, Alabama destroyed vessels carrying goods like spices, cotton, and guano, while in the Pacific, it targeted American whalers, sinking ships such as the Virginia on November 4, 1862, after removing crew and supplies.^[22] These losses represented a fraction of total Union tonnage but inflicted targeted blows on export-oriented commerce, including grain shipments from New York and California gold transports.^[33] Beyond immediate destruction, Alabama's operations elevated Union marine insurance premiums from 1–2% to as high as 10% by mid-1863, as underwriters accounted for the raider's unpredictable strikes.^[29] This cost escalation, combined with fear of capture, prompted American shipowners to transfer over 700,000 tons of shipping to foreign flags, primarily British, eroding U.S. maritime capacity and increasing reliance on neutral carriers for wartime trade.^[34] The need to deploy Union warships for convoy protection and hunter-killer patrols further strained naval resources, indirectly amplifying the blockade's enforcement costs despite Alabama's limited fleet impact.^[35]

Role in Confederate Asymmetric Warfare

The Confederate States Navy, outnumbered and outbuilt by the Union fleet, adopted commerce raiding as its primary asymmetric warfare strategy to inflict economic attrition without seeking decisive battles.^[36] This doctrine, articulated by Secretary of the Navy Stephen R. Mallory, prioritized fast, heavily armed cruisers like the CSS Alabama to prey on Union merchant shipping worldwide, aiming to raise insurance premiums, drive vessels under foreign flags, and divert Northern warships from enforcing the Anaconda Plan's blockade.^[37]^[35] Commissioned on August 24, 1862, under Captain Raphael Semmes, the Alabama executed this strategy with exceptional effectiveness during its 22-month cruise, capturing or destroying 65 Union merchant ships and whalers across the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans.^[22]^[5] These prizes, valued at roughly $6 million in 1860s dollars, included high-value targets like oil-laden whalers from New England ports, which Semmes systematically burned after removing crews to maximize psychological and material impact.^[22] By employing deception—such as hoisting neutral flags until close range—and leveraging superior speed and armament, the raider avoided Union naval patrols, striking isolated traders and then vanishing into international waters.^[3] The Alabama's operations compelled the Union to reflag approximately 800,000 tons of its merchant tonnage under neutral registries, crippling domestic shipping participation and escalating freight costs.^[38] This forced the deployment of over a dozen Union cruisers to hunt Confederate raiders, diluting blockade enforcement along the Confederate coast and indirectly supporting Southern export efforts through less vigilant patrols.^[35] While the overall Confederate raiding campaign sank fewer than 300 vessels—insufficient to shatter Northern commerce—the Alabama alone accounted for nearly a quarter of these losses, underscoring how a single vessel could amplify asymmetric leverage against a materially superior adversary.^[39]^[11]

Legal and Diplomatic Repercussions

Violations of Neutrality and Alabama Claims

The construction of the CSS Alabama at the Birkenhead shipyard of Laird, Sons and Company, beginning in 1861 under Confederate agent James Dunwoody Bulloch, was conducted under the guise of a merchant vessel to evade Britain's Foreign Enlistment Act of 1819, which prohibited the outfitting of warships for belligerents in neutral ports.^[8] The vessel, initially named Enrica, was launched on May 15, 1862, amid growing suspicions from U.S. Minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams, who warned British Foreign Secretary Lord John Russell as early as October 1861 that the ship was intended as a Confederate commerce raider rather than a legitimate commercial steamer.^[8] British authorities, despite receiving detailed intelligence including affidavits from shipyard workers attesting to the vessel's military fittings like reinforced decks for guns, declined to detain it, citing insufficient evidence of armament at the time.^[8] On July 28, 1862, the Enrica cleared Liverpool customs for sea trials, departing without onboard guns or Confederate crew, which technically complied with the letter of neutrality proclamations issued by Britain on May 13, 1861, recognizing both Union and Confederate sides as belligerents.^[8] It proceeded to the Azores, where on August 24, 1862, it received artillery, ammunition, and officers including Commander Raphael Semmes, commissioning as the CSS Alabama and commencing raids on Union merchant shipping.^[8] The United States maintained that this sequence constituted a substantive violation of neutrality, as British officials had "due diligence" obligations under customary international law to prevent the ship's conversion into a cruiser of war when facts indicated probable hostile use, a standard derived from precedents like the 1854 Caroline affair emphasizing effective prevention of threats from neutral territory.^[40] Following the Civil War, the United States formalized these grievances as the Alabama Claims in diplomatic correspondence starting in 1865, seeking compensation not only for the Alabama's destruction of 65 Union vessels valued at over $6 million in direct losses but also for related raiders like the Florida and Shenandoah facilitated by British laxity.^[8] Negotiations culminated in the Treaty of Washington on May 8, 1871, submitting the disputes to arbitration by a five-member tribunal in Geneva, Switzerland, with rules including the "three rules of Washington" stipulating that neutrals must use due diligence to prevent their territory from being used as a base for belligerent operations.^[40] The U.S. argued indirect damages such as prolonged war costs and insurance spikes, but the tribunal confined awards to verifiable direct losses from ship and cargo sinkings.^[8] On September 14, 1872, the tribunal ruled that Britain had breached neutrality regarding the Alabama by failing to seize it upon clear evidence of its destined belligerent character, though it exonerated Britain on some other vessels due to timely interventions; the award mandated payment of $15,500,000 in gold to cover claims from the Alabama, Florida, and Shenandoah.^[40] Britain paid the sum in June 1873, averting potential rupture in Anglo-American relations and establishing precedents in international law, such as the requirement for neutrals to proactively investigate suspicious vessel armaments rather than awaiting overt violations.^[8] This outcome underscored causal links between neutral territorial facilitation and wartime damages, influencing subsequent codifications like the 1907 Hague Conventions on neutrality.^[40]

Influence on International Maritime Law

The Alabama Claims, arising from the construction of CSS Alabama in British yards at Birkenhead and its departure from Liverpool on July 28, 1862, without interception despite known belligerent intent, led the United States to assert that Great Britain violated international neutrality duties by failing to prevent the outfitting of a Confederate commerce raider.^[8] The claims encompassed direct losses from Alabama's captures of 65 Union merchant vessels between 1862 and 1864, totaling over $6 million in vessel and cargo values, plus indirect damages estimated at $1 billion for enhanced Union insurance rates and trade disruptions.^[8] This dispute highlighted ambiguities in maritime neutrality, particularly neutrals' obligations to monitor shipbuilding and armament that could augment belligerent naval power at sea.^[41] Under the Treaty of Washington, signed May 8, 1871, the parties agreed to arbitrate before a five-member tribunal in Geneva, comprising representatives from the United States, Britain, Switzerland, Brazil, and Italy.^[42] Article VI of the treaty articulated three rules of neutrality, deemed declarative of existing international law by the tribunal: first, neutrals must deploy due diligence to prevent their ports from serving as bases for naval hostilities; second, equivalent diligence to bar the departure of vessels equipped or armed for commerce raiding; and third, immediate seizure and prevention of re-use for any vessel that had already breached neutrality.^[40] The arbitrators, issuing their award on September 14, 1872, upheld these rules, finding Britain's lax enforcement—such as ignoring warnings from U.S. diplomats and allowing Alabama's armament at sea—constituted negligence, though rejecting indirect damages claims.^[40] Britain was ordered to pay $15.5 million in gold, disbursed by 1874.^[8] This ruling established key precedents in international maritime law by codifying neutral states' proactive duties toward belligerent warships, shifting from passive non-interference to active prevention of maritime threats like raiders.^[41] It affirmed that neutrals bear responsibility for foreseeable harm from vessels departing their jurisdiction, influencing prohibitions on assisting commerce destroyers, which undermined traditional cruiser warfare by raising risks for shipbuilders in neutral ports.^[43] The arbitration's success promoted institutionalized dispute resolution, directly inspiring the 1899 Hague Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes and the Permanent Court of Arbitration, while the neutrality rules informed Hague Convention XIII of 1907 on naval neutrality, which expanded bans on belligerent use of neutral waters for warship repairs or augmentation.^[41] These developments curtailed asymmetric naval strategies reliant on neutral complicity, as seen in later conflicts where states enforced stricter port controls to avoid liability for raider-induced damages.^[43]

Wreck and Legacy

Discovery and Archaeological Efforts

The wreck of CSS Alabama was discovered on November 7, 1984, by the French Navy minesweeper La Circe during training exercises approximately seven miles off Cherbourg, France, in the English Channel at a depth of approximately 58 meters (190 feet).^[22] ^[44] Commander Max Guérout, then on active duty with the French Navy, confirmed the site's identity through subsequent dives and historical correlation.^[22] ^[44] In response, the Association CSS Alabama was established in 1988 to organize systematic exploration, leading to a 1989 bilateral agreement between the United States and France forming a joint scientific committee; the wreck, as Confederate property, is legally owned by the U.S. but lies in French territorial waters, necessitating cooperative protocols.^[22] ^[45] Initial French-led efforts from 1988 to 1995 utilized submersibles, suction dredges, deflectors, and diver teams to map the site and conduct test excavations, recovering around 200 objects despite persistent issues like 4-knot currents, low visibility, and sediment accumulation up to 3 meters thick.^[45] ^[44] A 1995 accord granted the U.S. Naval Historical Center (now part of the Naval History and Heritage Command) supervisory authority over U.S. interests.^[22] The U.S. Department of Defense Legacy Resource Management Program sponsored a major joint investigation from June 19 to July 16, 2000, involving American and French archaeologists, volunteer divers, and Navy support; methods included high-resolution side-scan sonar for mosaicking, induction dredges, airlifts, lift bags, and underwater videography, though weather canceled six of 18 planned dive days and equipment malfunctions (e.g., pump failures) limited progress.^[44] This effort documented hull degradation and recovered 19 artifacts, including a Fawcett, Preston & Co. 32-pounder cannon.^[44] Further expeditions followed, with 2002 operations employing remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) to retrieve the ship's bell, and 2005 work prioritizing hull photogrammetry, crew quarters excavation, and additional mapping to assess structural integrity amid ongoing natural deterioration.^[22] Persistent challenges, including unpredictable weather, depth constraints on diver operations, and the site's burial under shifting sands, have shaped a cautious approach emphasizing non-invasive documentation over aggressive recovery to preserve the remains.^[22] ^[44]

Artifacts, Preservation, and Historical Significance

Numerous artifacts have been recovered from the wreck of CSS Alabama since its discovery in 1984 by the French Navy minehunter La Circe off Cherbourg, France.^[2] These include ordnance such as 7-inch cast-iron Britten rifled shells stored in wooden boxes, 32-pounder cannonballs with accompanying wooden crates, and artillery pieces like a 32-pounder smoothbore gun raised in 2003 and a 7-inch Blakely rifled pivot gun recovered in 1994.^[46]^[47]^[48] Domestic items, such as crew mess dishes, and structural remnants further document shipboard life and operations.^[49] Major recovery efforts occurred during joint French-U.S. expeditions in 2000–2001, yielding over 300 items under U.S. Navy oversight, with additional artifacts transferred to the Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC) in subsequent years.^[50]^[51] Preservation of these artifacts employs specialized techniques to combat marine corrosion, including electrolytic reduction and desalination at facilities such as Texas A&M University's Conservation Research Laboratory, France's Archeolyse International Underwater Conservation Lab, Clemson's Warren Lasch Conservation Center (handling items since 2001 for the U.S. Navy), and the Maryland Archaeological Conservation Laboratory (treating ceramics in 2007).^[2]^[49]^[50] The NHHC curates the primary collection, ensuring long-term stability through controlled environments and ongoing analysis, while select pieces like the 32-pounder gun are displayed at the Museum of Mobile on loan from the U.S. Navy.^[2]^[52] International agreements facilitated these efforts, recognizing the wreck as U.S. property under 1907 Hague Convention principles, though French collaboration was essential for access.^[53] These artifacts hold historical significance as primary evidence of Confederate commerce raiding tactics, revealing details of Alabama's armament, ammunition storage, and adaptations for extended voyages, which disrupted over 65 Union merchant vessels between 1862 and 1864.^[46]^[54] They provide insights into crew conditions, supply chains, and battle damage from the June 19, 1864, engagement with USS Kearsarge, including shell impacts and structural failures that led to the sinking.^[55] Beyond naval history, the collection underscores advancements in underwater archaeology and cultural heritage preservation for sunken warships, influencing protocols for sites like USS Monitor and emphasizing empirical documentation over speculative narratives.^[53] Public exhibits and digital archives enhance accessibility, fostering understanding of 19th-century maritime technology and asymmetric warfare without reliance on biased institutional interpretations.^[56]

Flags and Symbolism

Naval Ensigns and Banners

The CSS Alabama employed the national flags of the Confederate States as its primary naval ensigns during its service from 1862 to 1864. Upon formal commissioning on August 24, 1862, in the Azores, the vessel flew the First National Flag, known as the "Stars and Bars," which consisted of three horizontal stripes—red, white, red—with a blue canton bearing a circle of white stars (initially seven, expanded to thirteen as states seceded).^[3] This flag was raised amid cheers from the crew and accompanying vessel CSS Bahama, marking the ship's entry into Confederate naval operations.^[3] In response to battlefield confusions between the Stars and Bars and the U.S. flag, the Confederate Congress adopted the Second National Flag, or "Stainless Banner," on May 1, 1863. The Alabama, operating as a commerce raider on extended voyages, transitioned to this design, which featured a white field symbolizing purity with a red canton containing a blue saltire (St. Andrew's cross) outlined in white and adorned with thirteen white stars.^[57]^[58] This ensign was hoisted at the stern, while a similar canton served as the naval jack at the bow to signify the ship's nationality during engagements.^[59] The Stainless Banner remained the Alabama's ensign through its final cruise, including stops at Cape Town and Singapore. During the Battle of Cherbourg against USS Kearsarge on June 19, 1864, a wool-bunting Second National ensign—measuring 40 by 65 inches—was flown from the spanker gaff until severed by enemy fire; Captain Raphael Semmes ordered the battle flag struck after sustaining critical damage.^[60]^[58] Surviving relics, including this battle ensign and associated boat flags, attest to the flag's use and have appeared in auctions and collections, underscoring its role in Confederate maritime symbolism.^[57] The ship also displayed a commissioning pennant from the main mast, an elongated variant echoing the national flag to denote active commission.^[61] These banners facilitated identification, signaling, and morale among the multinational crew, though their white field occasionally prompted temporary disguises as neutral merchantmen to approach prizes undetected.^[59]

Surviving Relics

Several artifacts from the CSS Alabama have been recovered from its wreck site off Cherbourg, France, where the vessel sank on June 19, 1864, following its engagement with USS Kearsarge. The United States Naval History and Heritage Command's Underwater Archaeology Branch holds over 500 such items, encompassing ordnance like three cannons, structural components such as hull fragments, and personal effects including ceramics, bottles, dishes, and components of flushing toilets, reflecting crew daily life during the ship's 22-month cruise.^[2] These were primarily retrieved during expeditions in the 1980s through 2000s, with conservation ongoing at Clemson University's Warren Lasch Conservation Center since 2001 to stabilize iron, wood, and organic materials exposed to 140 years of seawater corrosion.^[50] Notable ordnance relics include a 7-inch Blakely rifled pivot gun, salvaged from the wreck and preserved at La Cité de la Mer museum and aquarium in Cherbourg, which armed the ship's forward battery and exemplifies the vessel's commerce-raiding capabilities.^[48] A 32-pounder smoothbore cannon, recovered by French and American divers in 2003, was transferred to the Museum of Mobile in Alabama in 2010, joining other loaned artifacts like cannonballs and wooden ammunition storage boxes excavated around 2001.^[52]^[62] The ship's bell, among hundreds of items raised in 2002 by the Naval Historical Center, provides direct evidence of the vessel's identity and operational history.^[2] Additional preserved examples include a 7-inch cast-iron Britten explosive shell stored in its original wooden box, recovered intact from the site and held by the Naval History and Heritage Command, illustrating Confederate munitions logistics.^[46] In 2014, over 30 further artifacts were accessioned by the Command, including hull planking and rigging elements, underscoring ongoing efforts to document the raider's material culture without disturbing the in-situ wreck, which remains a protected archaeological resource under French and U.S. agreements.^[51] These relics, analyzed through non-destructive techniques like X-radiography, contribute to understanding 19th-century naval engineering and Confederate shipbuilding adaptations from British merchant hulls.^[50]

References

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