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Cable-stayed suspension bridge

A cable-stayed suspension bridge, also known as a hybrid cable-stayed suspension bridge, is a composite bridge type that merges the structural systems of traditional cable-stayed and suspension bridges, utilizing diagonal stay cables anchored directly from pylons to the deck for primary support in shorter span sections, while main suspension cables span between pylons with vertical hangers to bear the load in the central main span, thereby achieving enhanced rigidity and spanning capabilities beyond those of either system alone.^[1]^[2] This design typically incorporates tall A-frame or H-shaped concrete pylons, often exceeding 300 meters in some designs, steel or composite box girders for the deck, multiple stay cables fanning out from each pylon, and parallel main cables with diameters around 700 mm, often arranged in a transition zone where the support systems overlap to optimize force distribution.^[1] The hybrid configuration addresses limitations of pure cable-stayed bridges, such as excessive pylon height for ultra-long spans, and suspension bridges, such as higher material costs from extensive cabling, by leveraging the stiffness of stay cables in side spans and the spanning efficiency of suspension elements in the center.^[2] Developed as a modern solution for super-long spans over 1,000 meters, these bridges offer superior overall stiffness, reduced internal forces under loading, improved aerodynamic stability against wind, and economic benefits through minimized anchorage requirements and material use.^[1]^[2] Notable examples include the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge (Third Bosphorus Bridge) in Turkey with a 1,408-meter main span completed in 2016, and the Tongling Yangtze River Third Bridge in China, the world's first double-decker cable-stayed suspension bridge with a 988-meter main span opened in November 2025, demonstrating their application in crossing major waterways with heavy traffic loads.^[1]^[3]

Overview

Definition

A cable-stayed suspension bridge is a hybrid structural system that integrates the design principles of both cable-stayed and suspension bridges. In this configuration, diagonal stay cables extend directly from towers (pylons) to the bridge deck, providing support similar to a cable-stayed bridge, while main suspension cables are draped over the towers, anchored at the ends, and connected to the deck via vertical suspenders, akin to a traditional suspension bridge.^[4]^[5] The core purpose of this hybrid design is to optimize load distribution across very long spans, where pure cable-stayed or suspension systems may prove inefficient due to limitations in stiffness, stability, or material requirements. By employing cable-stayed elements primarily for the side spans and suspension components for the central main span, the bridge achieves enhanced overall rigidity, reduced pylon heights, and minimized anchorage demands, thereby lowering construction costs and material usage for spans exceeding 1000 meters.^[4]^[5] In a basic schematic, the towers serve dual roles by supporting both the stay cables and the main suspension cables; the deck is suspended from the main cables via vertical hangers in the central span while being directly anchored to the diagonal stays in the side spans, creating a seamless transition zone that distributes forces effectively.^[4] Often abbreviated as a CSS or HCSS bridge, this hybrid form emerged in the late 20th century as an innovative solution for ultra-long spans, with early conceptual developments documented in engineering analyses from the 1990s onward.^[5]

Comparison to Other Bridge Types

Cable-stayed suspension bridges, also known as hybrid bridges, achieve main spans exceeding 1400 meters by leveraging the tensile strength of suspension cables for the central portion and the direct support of cable-stayed elements for shorter side spans, enabling efficient load transfer across extended distances. For example, the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge in Turkey incorporates this hybrid configuration with a central span of 1408 meters. In comparison, pure suspension bridges like the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in Japan reach 1991 meters but require more extensive main cables and higher costs for stabilizing side spans. Pure cable-stayed bridges, such as Russia's Russky Bridge with a 1104-meter span, are typically limited to around 1000 meters due to escalating cable tensions and pylon demands beyond that length.^[6]^[7]^[8] These hybrids demonstrate superior efficiency in material use, with reduced tower heights and cable volumes relative to pure suspension designs; conceptual analyses for 3600-meter spans show hybrid towers at approximately 369 meters tall, compared to 407-621 meters for traditional suspension bridges, while halving suspension cable forces through integrated on-deck pylons. Additionally, hybrids provide greater stiffness than pure cable-stayed bridges for ultra-long spans, minimizing deck deformations under live loads and improving aerodynamic stability. This combination results in 10-15% overall material savings, making them more economical for ambitious projects.^[9] Cable-stayed suspension bridges are ideally applied in multi-span environments with variable loading conditions, such as urban corridors or seismically prone areas, where their adaptable cable layout optimizes force distribution and enhances resilience. In contrast, arch bridges are suited to shorter spans up to 575 meters, as exemplified by China's Pingnan Third Bridge, due to compression limitations over greater distances. Truss bridges, while versatile for medium spans, become disproportionately heavy and material-intensive for long-distance crossings beyond 500 meters, lacking the tensile efficiency of cable-supported systems.^[10]^[11]

History

Early Concepts

The development of cable-stayed suspension bridges traces its roots to 19th-century innovations aimed at enhancing the stability of long-span suspension structures. John A. Roebling pioneered a hybrid system that integrated diagonal stay cables with traditional parabolic main suspension cables and stiffening trusses to distribute loads and resist deformation, particularly from wind forces. This approach was first applied in smaller-scale projects like the 1845 Pittsburgh Aqueduct Bridge with 162-foot spans and culminated in the iconic Brooklyn Bridge, completed in 1883 with a 1,595-foot main span, where the stays carried approximately 25-35% of the deck load to improve rigidity.^[12]^[13] Theoretical advancements further refined these hybrid concepts in the late 19th century. In the late 19th century, French engineer Albert Gisclard designed the Cassagnes Bridge (Pont de Cassagne), a hybrid structure completed in 1908 with a 156-meter main span, combining inclined stay cables directly supporting the deck with vertical suspender cables from the main suspension cables, creating a more efficient load transfer mechanism than pure suspension designs. This blending addressed limitations in flexibility and material efficiency for spans around 100 meters, laying conceptual groundwork for future integrations of stayed and suspended elements.^[14]^[15] Into the 20th century, hybrid systems saw sporadic experimental use in smaller-scale and temporary applications, reflecting cautious adoption amid evolving engineering practices. The post-war resurgence of pure cable-stayed designs in Europe, exemplified by the Strömsund Bridge in Sweden—completed in 1955 with a 183-meter span and designed by Franz Dischinger—provided empirical validation of stay cable efficacy for stiffening, indirectly inspiring hybrid adaptations by demonstrating reduced material needs and improved deck support.^[16] A pivotal recognition of hybrid benefits emerged following the 1930s, particularly after the 1940 collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge due to aerodynamic instability, which underscored vulnerabilities in lightly stiffened suspension spans. Engineers increasingly valued diagonal stays in hybrids for augmenting torsional rigidity and wind resistance without excessive truss depth, influencing mid-century proposals for long-span designs where pure suspension alone proved insufficient. This shift marked hybrids as a viable evolution for safer, more resilient structures in wind-prone environments.^[16]^[17]

Modern Developments

The development of cable-stayed suspension bridges saw a revival in the late 20th century, propelled by advancements in computer-aided design (CAD) and finite element analysis that enabled precise optimization of hybrid structural systems. These computational tools allowed engineers to simulate intricate interactions between suspension and cable-stayed elements, addressing challenges in load distribution and dynamic stability for extended spans. Conceptual proposals during this period, such as those for the Strait of Messina (1988) and Gibraltar Strait (1990), demonstrated the feasibility of hybrids to surpass the span limits of pure suspension or cable-stayed designs, achieving potential lengths up to 3,600 meters with reduced material use.^[9]^[18] Key technological drivers included innovations in cable materials, notably parallel-wire strands (PWS) composed of high-strength galvanized steel wires arranged in parallel formation, which offer superior tensile capacity and corrosion resistance compared to traditional twisted strands. These advancements, combined with finite element modeling, permitted hybrids to extend beyond the typical 1,000-meter limit of cable-stayed bridges by leveraging suspension cables for central spans and stays for lateral support, resulting in 10-15% material efficiency gains for spans from 750 to 3,600 meters.^[9]^[19] A landmark 21st-century implementation is the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge in Istanbul, Turkey, opened in 2016 with a record 1,408-meter main span as the longest hybrid to date. This structure integrates seismic dampers within its 322-meter towers—featuring hydraulic pistons with a ±920 mm stroke—to counteract wind-induced vibrations and earthquake forces, alongside high-strength 1,960 MPa steel strands in its 176 stay cables, some exceeding 500 meters in length.^[6] Adoption of these hybrids has concentrated in Asia and Europe for ambitious mega-projects, where their blend of stiffness and span capability suits seismic-prone and high-traffic corridors. By 2025, several such bridges have been realized, including the Tongling Yangtze River Third Bridge in China, opened on November 6, 2025, as the world's first double-decker hybrid for road and rail traffic, with research advancing sustainable alternatives like carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites for partial suspension elements, enabling conceptual designs for spans over 3,000 meters while reducing weight and environmental impact.^[20]^[21]

Design and Components

Structural Elements

The towers, or pylons, of cable-stayed suspension bridges are typically configured in A-shaped or H-shaped forms to provide robust support for both the main suspension cables and the inclined stay cables.^[22] These structures are often taller than those in pure cable-stayed bridges, reaching heights of up to 322 meters, as seen in the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, to accommodate the extended main span.^[23] Materials commonly include reinforced concrete for durability and mass, or steel for lighter, more flexible designs, with the pylons founded on deep concrete shafts embedded into bedrock for stability.^[24]^[23] The deck, or girder, serves as the primary roadway surface and is generally constructed as a composite steel-concrete slab, which is lighter and more efficient than the heavier decks found in traditional suspension bridges. This design spans the distance between the towers, typically featuring edge beams that facilitate attachments for the stay cables and vertical hangers from the main cables. In examples like the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, the deck employs an aerodynamically streamlined steel orthotropic box girder, measuring up to 59.4 meters wide to support multi-lane traffic and rail corridors.^[16]^[25]^[23] Anchorages and abutments consist of massive concrete blocks designed to secure the ends of the main suspension cables, often positioned underwater, buried, or keyed directly into rock formations to act as counterweights. These structures distribute the cable forces over a large area, with side spans incorporating additional stayed supports to minimize the load on the primary anchors. In the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, the anchorages are integrated into the ground approaches and firmly embedded in rock to ensure long-term anchorage integrity.^[24]^[23] Integration of these elements occurs through specialized connections, such as saddles mounted atop the towers to route and support the main cables as they drape across the span. Vertical hangers, often steel pipes, link the main cables to the deck, while stay cables attach directly to the edge beams, creating a cohesive framework that combines suspension and stayed systems without independent cable anchoring in the deck.^[24]^[23]

Cable Configurations

Cable-stayed suspension bridges employ a dual cable system that integrates the primary load-bearing characteristics of suspension bridges with the stiffening effects of cable-stayed designs. The main suspension cables form the core of this system, draped in parabolic curves from massive anchorages at each end, passing over the towers, and supporting the deck in the central span via vertical suspenders. These cables, which can reach diameters up to 1 meter, are constructed from high-strength steel wires—typically galvanized or coated for corrosion resistance—bundled into parallel wire strands and compacted into robust ropes. For instance, the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge features main suspension cables with a diameter of 731 mm, each comprising multiple strands of zinc-coated steel wires.^[26]^[27] Complementing the suspension cables, the cable-stay elements provide targeted reinforcement, particularly in the side spans, with diagonal or fanned stays extending from the tops of the towers to attachment points along the deck edges. These stays are commonly arranged in harp patterns, where cables run parallel from the tower, or fan patterns, where they radiate outward at varying angles for optimized load distribution. With lengths typically ranging from 200 to 500 meters, the stays—such as the 176 units in the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, the longest exceeding 500 meters and containing up to 151 strands—are pre-stressed during installation to counterbalance dead loads, minimize deflections, and enhance overall rigidity.^[6]^[28] The hybrid nature of these bridges is evident in their zoning approach, where the central 50-70% of the main span relies primarily on the suspension cables and vertical hangers for support, while the outer side spans transition to cable-stay dominance to reduce the effective span length and cable tensions. Transition zones between these regions feature hybrid attachments, such as combined suspender and stay connections to the deck, which help minimize bending stresses and ensure smooth force transfer. This configuration, as seen in conceptual designs for super-long spans, allows the suspension portion to handle the longest unsupported section while stays stiffen the approaches.^[9] Cable configurations in these bridges also exhibit variations, such as single-plane stays, where all cables align in a single vertical plane per side for simplicity, versus multi-plane arrangements that distribute stays across multiple planes to improve torsional resistance and aerodynamic performance. The sag in the main suspension cables, critical for determining cable tension and span efficiency, follows the parabolic approximation derived from static equilibrium under uniform vertical loading. For a cable of span L subjected to a uniform load per unit length w, the maximum sag f at midspan satisfies f = \frac{w L^2}{8 T}, where T is the horizontal component of cable tension. This relation emerges from solving the differential equation of the cable curve, \frac{d^2 y}{dx^2} = \frac{w}{T}, with boundary conditions y(0) = y(L) = 0, yielding the parabolic profile y(x) = \frac{w x (L - x)}{2 T} and maximum sag f = \frac{w L^2}{8 T}.^[9]^[29]

Engineering Principles

Load Transfer Mechanisms

In hybrid cable-stayed suspension bridges, the load transfer mechanisms integrate elements of both suspension and cable-stayed systems to efficiently distribute forces from the deck to the supporting structures. In the central span, vertical loads from the deck are primarily transferred through suspenders to the main suspension cables, which operate under tension and convey these forces to the towers. These main cables typically assume a parabolic profile under uniform loading, facilitating efficient tensile load carrying across the longest span.^[30] In the side spans, deck loads are transferred directly via diagonal stay cables to the towers, providing inclined tensile support that resolves both vertical and horizontal components of the forces. Transition regions between the central and side spans combine these paths, where suspenders and stays interact to blend the load distribution, ensuring smooth force handover and minimizing localized stresses. Backstay forces in the side spans, arising from the inclined stays, are balanced by reactions at the anchorages, which resist the horizontal pull through massive concrete blocks or earth anchors embedded in the ground.^[30]^[31] The equilibrium of horizontal forces in the suspension cables is governed by the horizontal component of tension, denoted as H, which balances the vertical loads across the span. For the parabolic main cable under a uniform vertical load w per unit length over span length L with sag f, this component is given by

H = \frac{w L^2}{8 f}.

This equation derives from the moment equilibrium of the cable: considering the cable as a funicular shape, the bending moment at the midspan is zero, and the vertical deflection curve y(x) = \frac{w x^2}{2 H} (from integrating the cable's curvature under load) at x = L/2 yields f = \frac{w (L/2)^2}{2 H}, solving for H provides the formula. In hybrid designs, H is computed separately for dead and live load contributions (H_d and H_l), then combined via compatibility conditions at cable-tower interfaces to ensure overall static equilibrium.^[30] Dead loads, primarily from self-weight of the deck, towers, and cables, dominate the total loading, with live loads from traffic and wind acting as secondary influences. The hybrid configuration reduces unbalanced bending moments in the deck compared to pure suspension or cable-stayed designs by optimizing the interplay between suspenders and stays, which distributes forces more evenly and limits secondary effects like girder deflection.^[32]^[31] Finite element method (FEM) models are commonly used to simulate these load transfer paths, accounting for the nonlinear behavior of cables and interactions between components, though detailed implementation varies by software such as MIDAS Civil.^[30]

Stability Considerations

Hybrid cable-stayed suspension bridges, also known as hybrid bridges, leverage the flexibility of suspension systems with the inherent rigidity of cable-stayed configurations to enhance overall structural stiffness. This combination mitigates excessive deflections under live loads, achieving deflection-to-span ratios as low as L/630 for main spans exceeding 1400 m, surpassing standard limits of L/500 and providing superior performance compared to pure suspension bridges.^[4] Modal analysis is essential in design to determine natural frequencies, ensuring dynamic stability through damping and other measures to avoid resonance with wind or pedestrian-induced excitations, thereby maintaining overall stability.^[9] Aerodynamic stability is critical for these slender, long-span structures, where wind forces can induce flutter—a self-excited oscillation leading to catastrophic failure. Design incorporates streamlined deck profiles with fairings to minimize drag and lift derivatives, elevating the flutter critical speed well above typical design wind velocities. Accurate prediction relies on detailed wind tunnel testing to account for mode coupling and three-dimensional effects.^[33]^[34] Seismic performance benefits from the distributed load paths in hybrid systems, which reduce peak accelerations at critical joints compared to concentrated hanger loads in pure suspension bridges. Viscous or metallic dampers installed at cable-deck connections dissipate energy during earthquakes, limiting transverse and longitudinal displacements by up to 50% in benchmark models.^[35] Fatigue life is extended due to more uniform stress distribution across stay cables and hangers under cyclic traffic loads, with hybrid configurations showing lower vulnerability in bonding zones than traditional suspension designs, potentially doubling service life under equivalent exposure.^[36] Ongoing structural health monitoring employs load cells, strain gauges, and vibration sensors at cable anchors to track real-time tension variations, typically ranging from 1000 to 5000 kN per stay, enabling early detection of imbalances or degradation.^[37] These systems integrate data from fiber optic and acoustic emission sensors for comprehensive assessment, supporting predictive maintenance in dynamic environments.

Construction Methods

Erection Processes

The erection of cable-stayed suspension bridges follows a phased sequence to ensure structural stability during construction, beginning with the completion of foundations and abutments to support the overall load. These foundational elements, typically consisting of large-diameter shafts or blocks anchored into bedrock, are installed first to provide a stable base for subsequent superstructure work. Once foundations are in place, the towers are erected using slip-forming techniques for the concrete segments, allowing continuous pouring and forming as the structure rises; for instance, in the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, towers reaching 322 meters in height were built with sliding formwork up to 200 meters and climbing formwork thereafter.^[38]^[23] Following tower completion, the main suspension cables are installed using aerial spinning methods, where parallel wire strands are prefabricated and compacted on-site via catwalks equipped with hauling and tramway systems suspended between the towers. This process involves drawing thousands of high-strength wires—such as approximately 20,000 per cable in typical large-scale applications—across the span and compacting them into the final cable profile, with precise tensioning to achieve the required sag.^[38]^[23] In hybrid designs like the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, the main cables comprise 113 prefabricated parallel wire strands per cable in the main span (and 122 in the side spans), each consisting of 127 wires, installed concurrently with initial deck elements to support progressive assembly.^[38] The deck is then erected primarily through balanced cantilever methods from each tower, where prefabricated segments are lifted by derrick or floating cranes and guided into position by temporary stay cables to maintain alignment and stability. These temporary stays, often equipped with hydraulic damping masts to mitigate wind-induced oscillations, support the growing cantilevers until they meet at mid-span; the central closure segment is installed last, followed by the addition of permanent suspenders to transfer loads to the main cables.^[6]^[23] Permanent stay cables, numbering 176 in the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge and installed in stages with initial tensioning at 75-95% of final force, are stressed progressively to adjust for deck deflections and ensure even load distribution.^[6]^[38] Construction timelines for major hybrid bridges typically span 3-5 years, with the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge achieving completion in 36 months from 2013 to 2016 through parallel workflows on towers, cables, and deck segments. Challenges during erection include aligning cable tensions across phases, requiring iterative adjustments via stressing operations to control sag and prevent uneven loading on the evolving structure.^[38]^[6] Safety protocols are integral, particularly during cable installation and segment lifting, where operations are restricted under wind speeds exceeding 20 m/s to avoid aerodynamic instabilities; wind tunnel testing of construction stages informs these limits, supplemented by real-time monitoring with accelerometers and dehumidification to protect against environmental risks.^[39]^[23]

Material and Fabrication Techniques

Cable-stayed suspension bridges, as hybrid structures combining elements of both cable-stayed and suspension systems, rely on advanced materials to handle complex load distributions and environmental exposures. The primary load-bearing cables are typically fabricated from high-strength galvanized steel wires with tensile strengths ranging from 1770 to 1960 MPa, arranged in parallel-strand configurations to optimize strength and flexibility.^[40]^[18] These wires are produced in specialized factories where multiple strands—often 7-wire or 19-wire—are twisted or aligned parallel, then encased in high-density polyethylene (HDPE) sheathing to provide corrosion resistance and facilitate installation.^[41]^[42] The HDPE extrusion process seals the bundle, often incorporating wax or grease fillers between strands to inhibit moisture ingress and enhance durability.^[43] Towers and deck components in these bridges predominantly use high-performance concrete with compressive strengths of C60 or higher (≥60 MPa), reinforced with steel composites to achieve the necessary stiffness and load-bearing capacity for spanning long distances.^[44] This concrete is cast in precast segments or on-site forms, incorporating high-strength steel rebar or prestressing tendons to form composite sections that resist tensile stresses.^[44] Steel elements, such as tower legs and deck girders, are fabricated using carbon and low-alloy steels welded according to the AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code, which specifies procedures for fracture-critical applications to ensure weld integrity under dynamic loads.^[45]^[46] Recent innovations include trials of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) in stay cables since the 2010s, aimed at reducing self-weight by up to 80% compared to steel while maintaining high tensile strength, as demonstrated in experimental installations on cable-stayed structures.^[47]^[48] Corrosion protection extends beyond galvanizing the steel wires—with zinc coatings typically 200-400 g/m²—to include dehumidification systems that maintain relative humidity below 40% inside cable voids, targeting service lives exceeding 120 years for the entire structure.^[40]^[49] These systems involve factory-installed vents and on-site blowers to circulate dry air, minimizing electrochemical corrosion in harsh environments.^[50] Quality control during fabrication emphasizes non-destructive testing (NDT) methods, particularly ultrasonic testing, to detect internal flaws in welds and cable strands before assembly.^[51] Probes emit high-frequency sound waves through the material, measuring reflections to identify cracks or voids with resolutions down to 1 mm, ensuring compliance with bridge codes and preventing premature failures.^[52] In erection, these materials support pre-stressing techniques to tension cables and adjust alignments post-installation.^[46]

Notable Examples

Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge

The Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, also known as the Third Bosphorus Bridge, serves as the third crossing over the Bosphorus Strait in Istanbul, Turkey, linking the European district of Garipçe to the Asian district of Poyrazköy. Opened on August 26, 2016, it spans a total length of 2,164 meters with a main span of 1,408 meters, making it the longest hybrid cable-stayed suspension bridge in the world at the time of completion. The structure features a single-level deck 59 meters wide, accommodating eight lanes of highway traffic and a double-track railway, designed to handle both passenger and freight rail services.^[53]^[54]^[55] Key design elements include two A-shaped towers reaching heights of 322 meters on the European side and 318 meters on the Asian side, constructed from reinforced concrete. The bridge employs 176 stay cables for stiffening, with lengths ranging from 154 to 597 meters and diameters of 225 to 315 millimeters, complemented by two main suspension cables of 723 millimeters in diameter in the main span (752 millimeters in side spans), each comprising 113 to 122 strands and weighing a total of 12,882 tonnes. Seismic resilience is achieved through a performance-based design incorporating pendulum-type isolators, enabling the structure to withstand earthquakes with return periods up to 2,475 years without collapse, including resistance to events equivalent to magnitude 7.5 in the region.^[38]^[6]^[56] Construction was led by a consortium including Turkey's Ictas Construction and Italy's Astaldi, in partnership with other firms such as ICA and Hyundai Engineering & Construction, under a build-operate-transfer model with a total cost of approximately $3 billion. The deck was erected using incremental launching for steel segments weighing up to 840 tonnes each, combined with lifting via derrick and gantry cranes for concrete approaches, completing the project in 36 months. This hybrid configuration enhances load distribution for the combined road-rail use, setting a record for the longest such span until surpassed by later projects.^[57]^[58]^[53] The bridge significantly alleviates traffic congestion on the existing Bosphorus crossings, the 1973 Boğaziçi Bridge and 1988 Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, by diverting northern and commercial traffic, including rail freight to Europe via Greece. As a critical component of the Northern Marmara Motorway, it supports Istanbul's urban expansion and economic connectivity while demonstrating advancements in hybrid bridge engineering for seismic zones.^[55]^[53]

Tongling Yangtze River Bridge

The Tongling Yangtze River Third Bridge, located in Anhui Province, China, is the world's first double-decker hybrid cable-stayed suspension bridge designed for both road and rail traffic. Opened on November 6, 2025, it features a main span of 988 meters and a total length of approximately 11.8 kilometers, accommodating six lanes of highway on the upper deck and double-track railway on the lower deck.^[21]^[59] The design integrates cable-stayed elements in the side spans with suspension cables in the central span, supported by H-shaped concrete towers. This configuration provides enhanced stiffness and aerodynamic stability, suitable for the seismic and wind-prone Yangtze River region. The bridge incorporates advanced ecological measures to protect the nearby Tongling River Dolphin National Nature Reserve.^[60] Construction, led by China Railway Engineering Corporation, utilized prefabricated segments and cable spinning techniques, completing the project to facilitate high-speed rail and freight transport across the Yangtze. As of November 2025, it exemplifies recent advancements in hybrid bridge technology for multi-modal transport.^[61]

Advantages and Limitations

Structural Benefits

Cable-stayed suspension bridges, or hybrid designs, leverage the long-span capacity of suspension systems and the inherent stiffness of cable-stayed configurations to achieve superior structural performance for spans in the range of 1200 to 2000 meters.^[36] This combination allows for more efficient load transfer, resulting in 10-15% savings in structural steel compared to pure suspension bridges, primarily through optimized cable arrangements that minimize material requirements for hangers and main cables.^[9] The integrated cable layout promotes uniform stress distribution across the deck and pylons, which mitigates fatigue accumulation in critical components under cyclic loading.^[62] From an economic perspective, these hybrids facilitate accelerated construction timelines of 2-4 years, as seen in the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, which spanned 1408 meters and opened after three years of work, versus the 5-10 years often required for comparable pure suspension bridges like the Akashi Kaikyo.^[38] Redundant load paths inherent in the dual-cable system enhance overall durability, reducing long-term maintenance costs by distributing forces more evenly and minimizing localized wear.^[1] Performance advantages include greater vertical and lateral stiffness, enabling deflection limits better than 1/800 of the span under live loads, which supports lighter decks without compromising serviceability.^[63] Aerodynamic efficiency is improved through streamlined steel box girders, providing better resistance to wind-induced vibrations.^[38] In seismic and high-wind zones, the design offers enhanced damping and flexibility, with the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge engineered to withstand gusts up to 300 km/h—more than double typical regional maxima—and earthquake intensities one-third higher than nearby benchmarks.^[38]^[2] Environmentally, the reduced steel volume and lighter deck configuration decrease the material footprint by 10-15%, lowering embodied carbon emissions during production and erection while maintaining structural integrity.^[9]

Design Challenges

One of the primary design challenges in cable-stayed suspension bridges arises from the transition zones between the cable-stayed and suspension sections, where abrupt changes in structural behavior can lead to significant stress concentrations. These zones often exhibit sudden variations in mechanical performance, potentially increasing local bending moments and deflections by up to 20-30% compared to uniform sections, necessitating careful detailing to prevent fatigue or cracking.^[1]^[64] To address these issues, advanced finite element modeling (FEM) is essential for optimization, enabling engineers to simulate load distribution and refine geometries to minimize overdesign factors that could otherwise inflate material use by 10-15%. Such models allow for iterative analysis of cable pretensioning and pylon stiffness, ensuring balanced force transfer across the hybrid system.^[63]^[9] Cost trade-offs further complicate the design, as the integration of custom cables tailored to varying span requirements elevates initial engineering fees due to specialized fabrication and testing.^[65]^[66] Additionally, without robust protection measures like HDPE sheathing or dehumidification systems, the cables remain vulnerable to corrosion, which can reduce service life by decades in aggressive environments.^[65]^[66] Hybrid configurations are generally not suited for spans under 500 meters, where the added complexity offers little advantage over pure cable-stayed designs and may result in inefficient material utilization. Erection phases also pose risks, particularly in high-wind conditions, as partially assembled decks and cables can experience amplified aerodynamic instabilities, potentially delaying construction or requiring temporary bracing.^[67]^[68] Modern solutions include phased modeling approaches that progressively refine designs from conceptual to detailed stages, coupled with post-2020 AI-optimized configurations using machine learning algorithms like Gaussian process regression to predict optimal cable forces and reduce computational time by up to 50%. For instance, the world's first double-decker cable-stayed suspension bridge in China, with a 988-meter main span opened in 2025, incorporates such optimizations for combined road and rail traffic.^[69]^[70]^[71]^[72]^[21] Incorporating redundant stays enhances failure tolerance, allowing the structure to redistribute loads after a single cable loss without progressive collapse, as demonstrated in simulations of long-span prototypes.^[69]^[70]^[71]^[72]

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Jun 4, 2025 · “Optimum design analysis of hybrid cable-stayed suspension bridges. ... “Technical innovation of Xihoumen cable-stayed suspension bridge.” In Proc ...
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[PDF] Analysis of Cable Stay Bridge with A ,Y and H Pylon Configuration
We have considered various cases along with dead load & live load for the different cable arrangement with H, A and Y shape tower for analysis by using. Staad- ...
[20]
[PDF] Title: Third Bosphorus Bridge-An Overview
The main cable anchorages and ground approaches act as counterweights and are keyed into the rock. The concrete side spans include intermediate pier supports ...
[21]
[PDF] Structural Analysis and Redesign of a Cable-Stayed Suspension ...
Design Procedure. For the design of the cable stayed suspension bridge, the details of the existing bridge were collected from the respective Panchayath office.
[22]
Hybrid Cable-Stayed Bridge Analysis | PDF | Wire - Scribd
The thesis analyzes cable-stayed suspension hybrid bridges. It provides background on cable-stayed bridges and their increasing popularity. It discusses the ...
[23]
Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge | D.S. Brown - YouTube
Oct 4, 2023 · The Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge has 731 mm diameter cables (Cableguard thickness 45 mil x 2 = 90 mil applied thickness) and was built in 2016 ...
[24]
[PDF] Cable-supported bridges (Hänge-, Spannband - Concrete
May 12, 2023 · Among the first major cable-stayed bridges were the Albert bridge in London (1873, span 122 m) and the Stefanik Bridge in Prague (1868-1949,.
[25]
Historical Development of Cable-Stayed Bridges | Vol 98, No 9
Feb 1, 2021 · The development of cable-stayed bridges is traced from 1784 to the present. The first modern cable-stayed bridge, the Stromsund Bridge, was completed in 1955 ...
[26]
Cable Sag Calculator | SkyCiv Engineering
1. Determine the weight per unit length in Newtons: · 2. Use the parabolic approximation for sag: · y = (w * (L/2)²) / (2 * T) · y =(1.54 N/m * (5m)²) / (2 * 500 N).
[27]
A Novel Analytical Model for Structural Analysis of Long-Span ...
The hybrid cable-stayed suspension bridge is used to combine the advantages of cable-stayed and suspension bridges and hence has a broad prospect for ...
[28]
Optimum design analysis of hybrid cable-stayed suspension bridges
Aug 6, 2025 · A hybrid bridge with both cable-stayed and suspension systems is a collaboration of a cable-stayed bridge and a suspension bridge, which, with ...
[29]
Methods to correct unstrained hanger lengths and cable clamps ...
Sep 15, 2018 · A suspension bridge ... The stiffening girder accounts for the largest proportion, usually about 75%, of the total dead load of a bridge.
[30]
Full article: A Simple Analytical Approach to the Aeroelastic Stability ...
Jan 8, 2010 · Abstract. This paper deals with the aeroelastic stability problem of long-span cable-stayed bridges under an approaching crosswind flow.
[31]
Aerodynamic stability of cable-stayed-suspension hybrid bridges
Aug 6, 2025 · The aerodynamic stability of long-span suspension bridge under erection, particularly at early erection stage, is more problematic than in the ...Missing: considerations | Show results with:considerations
[32]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0141029617335964
[33]
Effects of key parameters of hybrid cable-stayed suspension bridge ...
Effects of key parameters of hybrid cable-stayed suspension bridge on the fatigue resistance of side hangers in bonding zones. Author links open overlay panel
[34]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245534102_Aerodynamic_stability_of_cable-stayed-suspension_hybrid_bridges
[35]
[PDF] Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge Osman Gazi Bridge (3rd ... - e-mosty
anchor the deck back to the towers. 44 of the 56 segments were lifted by these cranes extending the cantilevers over 500 metres. Assembly works on the. Asian ...
[36]
[That Year Series 2024] June, October, November
Dec 18, 2024 · The main cable consists of 127 prefabricated parallel wire ... #Hyundai E&C#Third Bosphorus Bridge#Yavuz Sultan Selim Köprüsü#Marina One#Penang ...
[37]
[PDF] Wind on Bridges During Construction: An Erection Engineer's ...
AASHTO GUIDE SPECIFICATION FOR WIND LOADS ON BRIDGE DURING CONSTRUCTION ... • Wind speed = 20 to 30 mph (typically based on crane operation). Inactive Work ...
[38]
Development of High Strength Galvanized Steel Wire for Bridge Cable
Sep 7, 2025 · Based on these findings, the galvanized wires with tensile strength of 1960 MPa for 5mm diameter and 1770 MPa for 7mm diameter have been ...Missing: yield | Show results with:yield
[39]
Freyssinet stay cable system - Strands
Strands are the main components of Freyssinet Parallel Strand System (PSS) cables, and are often referred to as main tensile elements.
[40]
[PDF] HDPE sheathed stay cable strands | Bekaert
Strands that support a 100 year bridge life. Bekaert's HDPE sheathed strands are designed and produced to meet the 100 year design life of cable stay bridges.
[41]
[PDF] SPECIAL SPECIFICATION 4604 Stay Cables
Coat and fill the strands and interstices that are extruded through high density polyethylene (HDPE) sheath with petroleum wax. C. Ability to remove and replace ...
[42]
High Performance Concretes in the Elorn Bridge
Sep 1, 1993 · Two grades of high-strength concrete--namely C60/ psi and C80/ psi--are used in the towers. For the first time in France--and perhaps in the ...
[43]
AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5:2025 Bridge Welding Code | AWS
This updated edition of the D1.5M/D1.5 standard provides the welding requirements for bridges made from carbon and low-alloy constructional steels.
[44]
[PDF] Bridge Welding Reference Manual - Federal Highway Administration
The reference manual explains welding specifications governing highway structures, namely the AASHTO/AWS D1. 5/D1. 5M “Bridge Welding Code” (AASHTO/AWS, 2015) ...
[45]
Application study on the first cable-stayed bridge with CFRP cables ...
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) has many excellent properties, such ... It is especially suitable for using as stay cables of cable-stayed bridges.Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[46]
Life-Cycle Cost Analysis of Long-Span CFRP Cable-Stayed Bridges
Apr 25, 2022 · This paper presents the economic comparison between long-span cable-stayed bridges using CFRP cables and the corresponding steel cable-stayed bridges through ...
[47]
[PDF] Main Cable Corrosion Protection by Dehumidification - DS Brown
This paper describes the development of corrosion protection of steel bridge components by dehumidification over the last 40 years and in particular the ...
[48]
Suspension Bridge Cable Dehumidification - Structure Magazine
... life of 100+ years, it is necessary to provide active corrosion protection in the form of cable and anchorage dehumidification. Installing cable ...
[49]
Nondestructive Testing: Bridge Testing - NDT.net
Aug 6, 2007 · Both ultrasonic and radiographic testing are used to inspect steel bridges during fabrication to ensure weld quality. Automated Ultrasonic ...Missing: ultrasound | Show results with:ultrasound
[50]
[PDF] Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation of Steel Bridges
The NDE methods discussed in this paper include visual inspection, eddy current method, radiographic testing, and manual and automated ultrasonic testing. The ...
[51]
Northern Marmara Motorway and Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge - Webuild
The central span, 1,408 metres in length, stretches between the two A-shaped pylons and is built of steel with segments measuring 24 metres in length and ...
[52]
None
### Summary of Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge Structural Health Monitoring System
[53]
Turkey opens bridge between continents in megaproject drive
Aug 26, 2016 · Turkey opened one of the world's biggest suspension bridges on Friday, the latest megaproject in a $200 billion building spree that ...
[54]
Seismic Isolation of the Yavuz Sultan Selim (3rd Bosphorus) Hybrid ...
Sep 17, 2017 · To carry freight railway traffic over its main span of 1408 meters – a record for a railway bridge – the design envisaged the use of pendulum ...Missing: total | Show results with:total
[55]
Consortium wins third Bosphorus bridge deal | Global Highways
A consortium formed by ICTAS of Turkey and the Italian firm Astaldi has won a tender to build a third suspension bridge over Istanbul's Bosphorus.
[56]
2016: Turkey's year of mega-projects - Daily Sabah
Jan 2, 2017 · Istanbul's Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, which cost nearly $3 billion to construct through the build-operate-transfer finance model, opened on Aug.Missing: consortium | Show results with:consortium
[57]
[PDF] STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES UNDER ...
Compared to a pure suspension system the hybrid system should lead to material savings due to the following two features: 1. The load carried by the stay ...<|separator|>
[58]
Parameter Study and Optimization of Static Performance for a Hybrid ...
Nov 3, 2024 · Parameter Study and Optimization of Static Performance for a Hybrid Cable-Stayed Suspension Bridge. by. Zhou Peng.
[59]
Static Behaviour of Cable‐stayed Suspension Bridge with Transition ...
Aug 9, 2025 · The bridge typology is based on the combination of both cable-stayed and suspension systems. The theoretical formulation is based on a continuum ...
[60]
The cost of the suspension bridge design is what ... - Quora
May 4, 2016 · We charged between 5% and 10% of structure cost, that are values coincident with those suggested by the Guide for good bridge design practice.
[61]
[PDF] NCHRP Synthesis 353 – Inspection and Maintenance of Bridge Stay ...
NCHRP Synthesis 353 is about the inspection and maintenance of bridge stay cable systems, a synthesis of highway practice.
[62]
[PDF] Investigation of Corrosion Protection Systems for Bridge Stay Cables
A number of bridges with these inclined stays failed, thus diminishing confidence in this form of construction. The failures are now attributed mainly to ...
[63]
Bridge Cables - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
For large span bridges longer than 500 m, the cable-stayed bridge and the suspension bridges are promising solutions. A cable-stayed bridge is the successor ...
[64]
Investigation on aerodynamic stability of long-span suspension ...
The aerodynamic stability of long-span suspension bridge under erection, particularly at early erection stage, is more problematic than in the final state.
[65]
Cable Force Optimization in Cable-Stayed Bridges Using Gaussian ...
This paper proposes an optimization method for cable-stayed bridge cable forces, integrating Gaussian process regression (GPR) with an enhanced whale ...
[66]
Artificial Intelligence in Bridge Engineering and Management with ...
Jul 10, 2025 · The findings indicate substantial advancements in AI techniques, demonstrating notable improvements in resource optimization, risk prediction ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[67]
[PDF] redundancy in long-span bridges for risk mitigation in a multi
This report presents the results of a study on the redundancy and robustness of long-span cable-supported bridges in the event of sudden loss of single or ...
[68]
Progressive Collapse Behavior of a Long-Span Cable-Stayed ...
Jul 13, 2023 · The simulation results show that the prototype bridge exhibits good robustness against failure of a single stay cable. When multiple cables are ...