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Capnography

Capnography is a non-invasive monitoring technique that measures the concentration or partial pressure of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in exhaled respiratory gases, providing both numerical values of end-tidal CO₂ (ETCO₂) and a graphical waveform known as a capnogram.^[1] This method reflects the adequacy of ventilation, pulmonary blood flow, and CO₂ elimination, with ETCO₂ typically approximating arterial CO₂ levels (PaCO₂) within 4-5 mm Hg under normal conditions.^[2] It has become the standard of care for confirming endotracheal tube placement and monitoring ventilation during general anesthesia, procedural sedation, and critical care scenarios.^[3] The capnogram waveform consists of distinct phases: Phase I represents dead-space gas with zero CO₂ during early exhalation; Phase II is the rapid upstroke as alveolar gas mixes in; Phase III forms the alveolar plateau, where ETCO₂ is measured at its peak; and Phase IV is the inspiratory downstroke returning to baseline.^[2] Abnormal waveforms can indicate issues such as airway obstruction (prolonged upstroke), hypoventilation (elevated ETCO₂), or esophageal intubation (absent or flat waveform).^[4] Devices employ infrared spectroscopy for CO₂ detection, available in mainstream (sensor at the airway) or sidestream (aspirated gas sampling) configurations, with sidestream being more versatile for non-intubated patients.^[4] Clinically, capnography enhances patient safety by detecting respiratory depression up to four minutes before pulse oximetry desaturation, reducing hypoxia risk by approximately 31% during sedation.^[2] It is recommended by guidelines from organizations like the American Society of Anesthesiologists for moderate to deep sedation and by the American Heart Association for CPR quality assessment.^[3] In non-intubated settings, such as postoperative care or emergency transport, it aids in identifying apnea or hypopnea, particularly in high-risk patients like those with obstructive sleep apnea or opioid use.^[4] Historical development traces back to infrared analyzers in the 1930s, with widespread clinical adoption following 1991 guidelines establishing it as essential in anesthesia.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition and Physiological Basis

Capnography is defined as the continuous, noninvasive monitoring of the partial pressure or concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in exhaled respiratory gases, with a primary focus on end-tidal CO₂ (EtCO₂), the maximum CO₂ level at the end of expiration. This technique provides a real-time graphical display known as a capnogram, reflecting ventilatory status breath by breath.^[1]^[5] The physiological basis of capnography stems from the body's CO₂ dynamics. CO₂ is generated as a metabolic byproduct during cellular aerobic respiration, where oxygen combines with glucose and other substrates to produce energy, water, and CO₂. In the bloodstream, CO₂ is transported mainly as bicarbonate ions (about 70%, formed via carbonic anhydrase converting CO₂ and water to H₂CO₃, which dissociates into HCO₃⁻ and H⁺), dissolved CO₂ (roughly 10%), and carbaminohemoglobin (approximately 20%, where CO₂ binds to hemoglobin's amino groups). Elimination occurs in the lungs, where CO₂ diffuses across the alveolar-capillary membrane from blood (PaCO₂ ≈ 35-45 mmHg) to alveolar air (≈ 40 mmHg) during expiration, driven by the partial pressure gradient.^[6]^[1]^[5] Central to this process are alveolar ventilation—the effective exchange of gases in the alveoli (calculated as VA = VE - VD, where VE is minute ventilation and VD is dead space)—and dead space ventilation, which comprises anatomical dead space (non-gas-exchanging conducting airways, ≈150 mL in adults) and physiological dead space (ventilated but underperfused alveoli). EtCO₂ serves as a surrogate for arterial PaCO₂, with a normal PaCO₂-EtCO₂ gradient of 2-5 mmHg in healthy individuals, reflecting efficient ventilation-perfusion matching; wider gradients indicate mismatches like increased dead space. Clinically, capnography confirms endotracheal tube placement by verifying exhaled CO₂ presence, evaluates ventilation adequacy by tracking EtCO₂ trends, and enables early detection of hypoventilation (rising EtCO₂ >45 mmHg) or hyperventilation (falling EtCO₂ <35 mmHg).^[1]^[5]^[6]

Historical Development

The foundations of capnography trace back to 19th-century experiments in gas analysis. In 1801, John Dalton formulated the law of partial pressures, establishing the principle that the total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of its components, which became essential for understanding respiratory gas dynamics. Building on this, physicist John Tyndall demonstrated in the 1860s that carbon dioxide absorbs infrared radiation, laying the groundwork for spectroscopic measurement techniques in exhaled gases. In the early 20th century, John Scott Haldane developed one of the first CO₂ analyzers, advancing the quantitative measurement of respiratory gases.^[7] These early insights into gas composition and optical properties set the stage for later quantitative monitoring of carbon dioxide in clinical settings. Advancements accelerated in the 20th century with the development of precise CO2 sensors. Concurrently, Karl Friedrich Luft pioneered modern infrared capnography in 1943 with the creation of the URAS (Ultrarod Absorption) device, a non-dispersive infrared analyzer specifically designed for low-concentration CO2 detection in respiratory gases. Initial clinical applications emerged in the 1950s, with increasing adoption in anesthesia during the 1970s, where capnography was used to monitor end-tidal CO2 during mechanical ventilation, marking the transition from laboratory tools to bedside use. Key milestones in the 1980s and beyond drove widespread integration into practice. The American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) mandated capnography as a standard for confirming endotracheal tube placement and monitoring ventilation during general anesthesia in 1986, significantly enhancing patient safety in operating rooms. By the late 1980s, capnography was routinely combined with pulse oximetry in multi-parameter monitors, facilitating comprehensive respiratory assessment. Adoption extended to emergency medical services in the 1990s, where portable devices became standard for out-of-hospital intubation confirmation and resuscitation monitoring. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) established capnography device requirements in 1993 with ISO 9918, promoting uniformity in accuracy and performance. Post-2000 developments refined sampling methods, with sidestream techniques—using remote sensors for versatile, low-flow aspiration—gaining prominence over mainstream approaches for non-intubated patients, exemplified by Oridion's Microstream technology introduced in 1997 and optimized in subsequent years for enhanced reliability in diverse clinical environments.

Technology

Instrumentation and Devices

Capnography instrumentation primarily consists of two main types: sidestream and mainstream devices. Sidestream capnographs aspirate a small continuous sample of respiratory gases (typically 50-250 mL/min) through a sampling line to a remote analyzer, allowing for non-invasive monitoring in non-intubated patients via nasal cannulas or masks.^[8] In contrast, mainstream capnographs employ an in-line sensor positioned directly at the airway, such as on the endotracheal tube connector, providing immediate measurement without gas diversion.^[8] Devices are also categorized as portable or stationary; portable units, often sidestream-based, are compact and battery-powered for use in emergency medical services (EMS) or transport, while stationary systems integrate into operating room or ICU monitors for fixed clinical environments.^[9] Key components include CO2 sensors, displays, and patient interfaces. The primary sensor technology is infrared spectroscopy, which detects CO2 concentration by measuring absorption of infrared light at approximately 4.26 μm wavelength, though mass spectrometry—ionizing and separating gas molecules by mass-to-charge ratio—serves as an alternative in some multi-gas systems.^[8] Displays typically show numerical end-tidal CO2 (EtCO2) values in mmHg or kPa alongside real-time waveforms on integrated screens. Adapters facilitate connections, such as nasal cannulas with integrated sampling lines for spontaneous breathing patients or specialized endotracheal tube connectors with T-pieces for intubated cases, ensuring secure and low-dead-space sampling.^[10] Setup involves connecting the device to patient breathing circuits: for sidestream, attaching the sampling line to the airway adapter and ensuring the analyzer is positioned away from the patient with proper scavenging of aspirated gases; for mainstream, securing the sensor cuvette directly in the circuit. Calibration includes a zeroing procedure by exposing the sensor to room air (0% CO2) for 15-20 seconds to establish baseline, followed by optional span calibration using a known CO2 concentration gas mixture. Response times differ by type, with mainstream offering near real-time detection (rise time <100 ms) and sidestream introducing a transport delay of 100-500 ms plus rise time, depending on tubing length and flow rate.^[11]^[12] Modern capnography devices incorporate advanced features for enhanced utility. Many integrate seamlessly with mechanical ventilators, automatically syncing EtCO2 data to ventilation parameters. Wireless portability is common in EMS-oriented models, enabling tetherless monitoring via Bluetooth connectivity to central stations. Additionally, multi-gas analyzers extend beyond CO2 to measure oxygen, nitrous oxide, and volatile anesthetics using combined infrared and paramagnetic sensors, supporting comprehensive perioperative gas analysis.^[13]^[8]

Measurement Principles

Capnography primarily relies on infrared (IR) spectroscopy to detect and quantify carbon dioxide (CO₂) in respiratory gases, as CO₂ molecules exhibit strong absorption of IR light at a wavelength of 4.26 μm. In this non-dispersive IR method, a light source emits IR radiation through a sample chamber containing the respiratory gas, and a photodetector measures the transmitted light intensity. The degree of absorption is directly proportional to the CO₂ concentration, enabling real-time monitoring. This technique is favored for its specificity, as the 4.26 μm band is relatively isolated from absorption by other common gases like oxygen or nitrogen.^[14]^[15] The quantitative relationship in IR spectroscopy follows the Beer-Lambert law, which describes how light absorption depends on the properties of the absorbing material:

I = I_0 e^{-\epsilon c l}

Here, I is the intensity of transmitted light, I_0 is the incident light intensity, \epsilon is the molar absorptivity coefficient specific to CO₂ at 4.26 μm, c is the CO₂ concentration, and l is the optical path length through the sample. Modern capnographs apply this law computationally to convert measured absorption into CO₂ levels, often displayed as waveforms over time. Calibration against known CO₂ concentrations ensures accuracy, typically within ±2 mmHg or ±0.2% for clinical devices.^[16]^[17] Alternative detection methods exist but are less prevalent in routine capnography. Mass spectrometry ionizes gas molecules in a vacuum and separates them based on their mass-to-charge ratio, allowing precise identification and quantification of CO₂ alongside other gases; however, it requires complex, expensive equipment often shared across multiple operating rooms. Electrochemical sensors, which generate electrical signals via CO₂-induced chemical reactions at an electrode, are infrequently used due to baseline drift from electrolyte degradation and sensitivity to environmental changes, limiting their reliability for continuous monitoring.^[8]^[18] CO₂ measurements in capnography are expressed either as partial pressure (EtPCO₂ in mmHg) or volumetric concentration (EtCO₂ in %), with conversion necessary for clinical interpretation. The relationship accounts for total atmospheric pressure and water vapor saturation at body temperature (47 mmHg): EtPCO₂ (mmHg) = EtCO₂ (%) × (P_atm - 47) / 100, where P_atm is the barometric pressure (typically 760 mmHg at sea level). This adjustment ensures equivalence, as partial pressure reflects the effective tension driving gas exchange, while concentration is directly measured by sensors.^[16]^[14] Measurement accuracy can be compromised by several factors, necessitating built-in compensations. Temperature variations alter gas density and IR absorption coefficients, requiring sensors to incorporate thermistors for real-time correction to standardize readings at 37°C. Humidity introduces interference through water vapor absorption near the CO₂ band or condensation in sampling lines, often mitigated by hydrophobic filters or drying chambers in sidestream systems. Sensor drift, a progressive calibration shift over hours to days due to optical component aging or contamination, demands periodic zeroing and calibration with reference gases to maintain precision within clinical tolerances of ±0.2 kPa.^[16]^[19]

Waveform Interpretation

Normal Capnogram Characteristics

The normal capnogram in healthy individuals displays a rectangular waveform that graphically represents carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentrations during the respiratory cycle, providing insights into ventilation and gas exchange efficiency.^[1] This waveform is characterized by distinct phases corresponding to inspiration and expiration, with a baseline near zero during inspiration and a rise to end-tidal CO₂ (EtCO₂) levels during exhalation.^[1] The overall shape is nearly square, oscillating at the respiratory rate, and reflects the sequential elimination of anatomical dead space gas followed by alveolar gas.^[1] The capnogram is divided into five phases. Phase 0 denotes the inspiratory baseline, where inspired gas devoid of CO₂ maintains a flat line at approximately 0 mmHg.^[1] Phase I follows as the initial portion of exhalation, expelling dead space gas from the airways with no CO₂, resulting in a continued flat segment at baseline.^[1] Phase II represents the rapid, exponential upstroke as alveolar gas mixes with residual dead space gas, causing a steep rise in CO₂ concentration.^[1] Phase III forms the alveolar plateau, a relatively flat segment where CO₂ levels stabilize as pure alveolar gas is exhaled, reaching the EtCO₂ peak of 35-45 mmHg.^[1] Phase 0' marks the abrupt return to baseline at the onset of the next inspiration.^[1] Key parameters of the normal capnogram include the EtCO₂ value, which quantifies the maximum CO₂ at the end of expiration; the respiratory rate, typically 12-20 breaths per minute in adults; the slope of Phase II, which is steep and exponential, often with an alpha angle (transition to Phase III) approaching 100-110° for a sharp rise; and the consistency of Phase III plateau height across cycles, indicating stable alveolar ventilation.^[1]^[20] These features ensure the waveform's reliability as a monitor of normal pulmonary function.^[1] Quantitative norms for a healthy capnogram encompass an EtCO₂ of 35-45 mmHg, reflecting arterial CO₂ partial pressure under normal conditions; a Pa-EtCO₂ gradient of 2-5 mmHg, accounting for minor alveolar dead space; and inspired CO₂ below 2 mmHg, confirming no rebreathing.^[1]^[21] Normal variations include a slight upward slope in Phase III during spontaneous breathing, attributable to continued CO₂ diffusion from blood to alveoli throughout expiration, contrasting with the flatter plateau in controlled mechanical ventilation.^[20] EtCO₂ values also decrease at high altitudes due to lower barometric pressure and hyperventilation responses, potentially dropping to around 25 mmHg above 3,000 meters.^[22]

Abnormal Waveform Patterns

Abnormal capnography waveforms deviate from the standard phases observed in a normal capnogram, where Phase 0 represents inspiration at baseline, Phase I the dead-space gas exhalation, Phase II the rapid upstroke of mixed gas, Phase III the alveolar plateau with end-tidal CO₂ (EtCO₂) at 35–45 mmHg, and Phase 0' the return to baseline. These deviations reflect underlying pathophysiological processes affecting ventilation, perfusion, or equipment integrity.^[20]^[23] Hypoventilation manifests as elevated EtCO₂ levels exceeding 45 mmHg, often with a prolonged Phase III due to delayed CO₂ elimination from inadequate alveolar ventilation. In cases of airway obstruction, the waveform assumes a "shark-fin" appearance, characterized by a slanted, upward-curving Phase III as expiratory flow resistance prolongs the rise in CO₂ concentration. This pattern arises from reduced tidal volume or respiratory rate, leading to CO₂ accumulation in the lungs.^[24]^[25]^[20] Conversely, hyperventilation produces low EtCO₂ values below 35 mmHg, with a steep Phase II upstroke and a reduced or absent alveolar plateau (Phase III) due to excessive CO₂ washout. The waveform narrows as rapid, deep breaths accelerate alveolar emptying, minimizing the time for CO₂ equilibration. This reflects increased minute ventilation relative to CO₂ production.^[23]^[24]^[25] Rebreathing is indicated by an inspired CO₂ level above 2 mmHg, causing a gradual rise in the baseline that does not return to zero during inspiration. This occurs when CO₂ is not fully cleared from the breathing circuit, such as from an exhausted absorber, resulting in progressive EtCO₂ elevation and a "crescendo" waveform. The pattern signals inefficient gas exchange, increasing the risk of hypercapnia.^[20]^[23]^[26] Esophageal intubation leads to an abrupt loss of the waveform after possibly a few initial detections, flattening the trace as no pulmonary CO₂ is delivered to the detector. This sudden absence distinguishes it from gradual declines, stemming from misplacement of the airway device outside the trachea.^[25]^[24]^[20] Bronchospasm produces a "scooped" or shark-fin shaped Phase III, with a gradual, sloped rise instead of a flat plateau, due to uneven alveolar emptying from airway constriction. The increased expiratory resistance delays CO₂ exhalation from affected lung regions, altering the waveform's contour.^[23]^[25]^[20] Low cardiac output results in a gradual decrease in EtCO₂ over successive breaths, reflecting diminished pulmonary perfusion and reduced CO₂ transport to the alveoli. The waveform amplitude diminishes without shape distortion, as systemic hypoperfusion limits CO₂ delivery.^[24]^[23]^[20] Artifacts include small oscillations superimposed on Phase III from cardiac pulsations, caused by heartbeat-induced pressure changes in the pulmonary vasculature, and intermittent baseline shifts from loose connections disrupting gas flow. These do not alter EtCO₂ but introduce noise in the trace.^[20]^[23]^[25] Diagnostic thresholds for abnormalities include EtCO₂ below 10 mmHg indicating severe circulatory compromise such as cardiac arrest. In obstructive processes like bronchospasm, the Phase II upstroke slope decreases (shallower angle), contributing to the shark-fin shape. These metrics provide quantitative cues for waveform analysis.^[20]^[23]^[24]

Clinical Applications

Anesthesia and Perioperative Monitoring

Capnography plays a central role in anesthesia by confirming endotracheal intubation through either colorimetric devices, which detect exhaled CO2 via color change, or quantitative waveform capnography, which verifies tracheal placement by displaying persistent CO2 waveforms within six breaths, distinguishing it from brief esophageal intubation signals.^[27]^[28] During controlled mechanical ventilation under general anesthesia, continuous capnography monitors end-tidal CO2 (EtCO2) levels to ensure adequate alveolar ventilation and detect hypoventilation early, while sudden drops to zero EtCO2 indicate circuit disconnections or leaks, allowing prompt intervention to prevent hypoxia.^[29]^[30] In procedures involving anesthetics, capnography tracks CO2 dynamics during laparoscopy, where CO2 insufflation increases absorption and risks hypercapnia; vigilant monitoring guides minute ventilation adjustments to maintain normocapnia and avoid acidosis or hemodynamic instability.^[31] Opioids administered perioperatively can induce hypoventilation, and capnography provides real-time detection of rising EtCO2 or waveform prolongation, enabling timely reversal to mitigate respiratory depression.^[32] Perioperative adjustments include baseline EtCO2 recalibration for patient positioning; for instance, the Trendelenburg position can elevate EtCO2 due to reduced venous return and ventilation-perfusion mismatch, necessitating increased ventilator rates.^[33] During post-operative emergence, capnography monitors for residual effects like hypoventilation, supporting safe extubation by confirming return to spontaneous breathing with stable EtCO2 waveforms.^[34] The American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) has mandated continuous capnography for all patients under general anesthesia since its 1986 Standards for Basic Anesthetic Monitoring, emphasizing its role in verifying ventilation efficacy.^[35] Under general anesthesia, target EtCO2 is typically maintained at 30-40 mmHg to balance ventilation and avoid extremes of hypocapnia or hypercapnia.^[36]

Emergency Medicine and Resuscitation

In emergency medicine, capnography serves as the gold standard for confirming endotracheal tube placement, particularly in pre-hospital and emergency department settings where rapid airway management is critical. Detection of end-tidal CO₂ (EtCO₂) greater than 10 mmHg reliably rules out esophageal intubation, as esophageal placement typically yields no sustained CO₂ waveform due to the absence of pulmonary gas exchange.^[37] This method outperforms clinical auscultation or chest rise visualization alone, reducing misplacement errors that can compromise ventilation during resuscitation. Capnography is also applied to supraglottic airways, such as laryngeal masks, where persistent EtCO₂ waveforms confirm effective gas exchange and guide adjustments for optimal seal and positioning.^[38] During cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), quantitative waveform capnography monitors EtCO₂ as a surrogate for pulmonary blood flow, reflecting the efficacy of chest compressions in delivering oxygenated blood to the lungs. Effective compressions maintain EtCO₂ levels above 10-20 mmHg, with values below 10 mmHg signaling inadequate perfusion and prompting technique optimization, such as deeper or faster compressions.^[37] A sudden rise in EtCO₂ exceeding 40 mmHg often indicates return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC), providing an early, non-invasive cue for pulse checks even before palpable signs.^[37] Persistent EtCO₂ below 10 mmHg after 20 minutes of CPR predicts poor outcomes with high sensitivity, guiding decisions to continue or terminate efforts.^[38] In trauma scenarios and patient transport, capnography aids in detecting life-threatening conditions like tension pneumothorax and hypovolemia through characteristic decreases in EtCO₂. For tension pneumothorax, progressive waveform flattening and EtCO₂ dropping below 35 mmHg result from impaired venous return and reduced cardiac output, with rapid EtCO₂ elevation post-decompression confirming intervention success.^[39] Hypovolemia similarly presents with low EtCO₂ waveforms due to diminished pulmonary perfusion, often below 25 mmHg, correlating with hemodynamic instability and higher mortality risk in pre-hospital trauma patients.^[40] These applications extend to ambulance transfers, where portable capnography devices enable continuous monitoring to detect deteriorations en route. The American Heart Association (AHA) integrated capnography into Advanced Cardiovascular Life Support (ACLS) protocols starting in 2010, recommending its use for ongoing airway verification and CPR quality assessment in intubated patients.^[41] This was reinforced in subsequent guidelines, emphasizing quantitative waveform capnography over colorimetric devices for real-time feedback. In emergency medical services (EMS), compact, battery-powered devices like the EMMA capnograph facilitate seamless integration into transport protocols, providing rugged, sidestream sampling for EtCO₂ trends without interrupting care.^[42]

Critical Care and Mechanical Ventilation

In intensive care units (ICUs), capnography serves as a vital tool for optimizing mechanical ventilation by providing real-time feedback on end-tidal CO₂ (EtCO₂) levels, enabling clinicians to adjust parameters such as tidal volume and fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO₂) to prevent complications like auto-positive end-expiratory pressure (auto-PEEP) or barotrauma.^[43] For instance, targeting an EtCO₂ of approximately 30 mmHg during initial post-intubation ventilation often aligns with a normal arterial partial pressure of CO₂ (PaCO₂) range of 35-45 mmHg, allowing for safe titration of ventilator settings while minimizing lung injury.^[27] This approach facilitates early detection of ventilation-perfusion mismatches through continuous waveform analysis, promoting lung-protective strategies in critically ill patients. Volumetric capnography enhances ventilation optimization by enabling breath-by-breath calculation of dead space ventilation, quantified as the dead space-to-tidal volume ratio (Vd/Vt) using the Bohr-Enghoff equation: Vd/Vt = (PaCO₂ - PECO₂)/PaCO₂, where PECO₂ represents mixed expired CO₂ partial pressure.^[44] This metric helps assess alveolar dead space and guide adjustments to reduce ineffective ventilation, particularly in patients with heterogeneous lung pathology, thereby improving CO₂ elimination efficiency without relying solely on arterial blood gases (ABGs).^[45] During weaning from mechanical ventilation and sedation management, capnography monitors patient readiness by evaluating waveform stability and detecting signs of ventilator dyssynchrony, such as clefts or notching in Phase III of the capnogram, which indicate asynchronous breathing efforts.^[28] A stable EtCO₂ waveform with consistent plateau phases signals adequate respiratory drive and CO₂ clearance, serving as a noninvasive adjunct to traditional weaning criteria and reducing the need for frequent ABGs.^[46] In cases of suspected hypercapnia during spontaneous breathing trials, capnography can prompt timely interventions, though it typically underestimates PaCO₂ (with a gradient of 2-5 mmHg), necessitating confirmatory blood gas analysis when discrepancies are suspected.^[47] In specific ICU scenarios like acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), capnography supports permissive hypercapnia strategies by tracking EtCO₂ trends to tolerate elevated PaCO₂ levels (typically 45-55 mmHg or higher) while limiting tidal volumes to 4-6 mL/kg predicted body weight, with elevated Vd/Vt ratios (>0.60) prognostic of poorer outcomes.^[44] For sepsis, fluctuating EtCO₂ values often reflect increased intrapulmonary shunting and ventilation-perfusion imbalances, prompting adjustments in positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) to optimize oxygenation and CO₂ removal.^[48] Capnography integrates effectively with ABG analysis to monitor the PaCO₂-EtCO₂ gradient, where differences exceeding 5-10 mmHg signal increased dead space or shunting, guiding fine-tuning of ventilator support.^[43] The American Association for Respiratory Care (AARC) recommends routine capnography use in mechanically ventilated patients for ongoing assessment (grade 2B evidence), emphasizing its role in enhancing safety and efficiency in ICU management.^[43]

Diagnostic Applications

Respiratory and Airway Assessment

Capnography serves as a vital diagnostic tool for assessing respiratory conditions, particularly in evaluating airway patency and lung function through analysis of end-tidal CO₂ (EtCO₂) levels and waveform morphology. By measuring the partial pressure of CO₂ in exhaled breath, it provides non-invasive insights into ventilation-perfusion matching, dead space ventilation, and expiratory dynamics, enabling early detection of abnormalities in patients with suspected pulmonary issues.^[38] In airway disorders, capnography identifies characteristic waveform changes that reflect obstructed or irregular airflow. Bronchospasm, often seen in acute asthma exacerbations, produces a "shark-fin" waveform with a progressively sloped Phase III due to heterogeneous alveolar emptying and delayed CO₂ exhalation from varying time constants in the airways.^[49] Aspiration events can manifest as a prolonged Phase II, where the transition from dead space to alveolar gas mixing is extended, indicating partial airway blockage or retained secretions.^[24] Upper airway obstruction, such as from foreign body aspiration or laryngospasm, typically results in an absent or undetectable alveolar plateau (Phase III), as exhalation is curtailed before full alveolar gas elimination.^[50] For lung parenchymal diseases, capnography highlights ventilation inefficiencies through quantitative and qualitative metrics. In chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and emphysema, an elevated dead space to tidal volume ratio (Vd/Vt >0.6) is common, reflecting increased physiologic dead space from alveolar destruction and air trapping, often accompanied by a sloped Phase III due to uneven ventilation distribution.^[51] Pneumonia presents with variable EtCO₂ readings, stemming from regional ventilation-perfusion mismatches caused by consolidated lung segments, leading to fluctuating CO₂ elimination during expiration.^[52] Quantitative diagnostics using capnography further aid in pinpointing specific pathologies. An EtCO₂ to PaCO₂ gradient greater than 5 mmHg signals increased alveolar dead space, a hallmark of conditions like pulmonary embolism where reduced pulmonary perfusion impairs CO₂ exchange.^[53] Additionally, capnodynamic indices, derived from volumetric capnography, quantify changes in end-expiratory lung volume during recruitment maneuvers, helping clinicians evaluate alveolar recruitment and optimize mechanical ventilation in acute respiratory distress.^[54] In pediatric and neonatal populations, capnography requires age-specific interpretations due to physiological differences. Normal EtCO₂ values range from 35 to 45 mmHg in neonates, young children, and adults, owing to similar alveolar ventilation mechanics despite higher metabolic rates in younger patients.^[55] It is particularly useful for apnea monitoring in these vulnerable groups, as abrupt cessation of the capnogram waveform signals respiratory pauses, allowing prompt intervention to prevent hypoxemia.^[56]

Cardiovascular and Metabolic Evaluation

Capnography serves as a non-invasive indicator of circulatory status by reflecting pulmonary blood flow and cardiac output, with end-tidal CO₂ (EtCO₂) levels typically decreasing in states of hypoperfusion. In patients experiencing shock or hypotension, low EtCO₂ values (e.g., below 30 mmHg) often signal inadequate tissue perfusion, as reduced cardiac output limits CO₂ delivery to the lungs for exhalation.^[38]^[57] This threshold correlates with hemorrhagic shock stages, where EtCO₂ below 30 mmHg indicates moderate to severe hypovolemia, serving as an early perfusion marker during resuscitation efforts.^[57] Additionally, waveform oscillations or a "curly" appearance in the expiratory phase can correlate with diminished pulse pressure variations in low-output states, highlighting pulsatile flow inconsistencies due to hypovolemia or vasoconstriction.^[58] In cardiac events, capnography distinguishes true pulseless electrical activity (PEA) from pseudo-PEA by revealing a flat waveform despite electrocardiographic activity, indicating absent pulmonary perfusion and confirming the need for aggressive intervention.^[59] For pulmonary embolism, a sudden drop in EtCO₂ occurs with preserved ventilation, resulting from increased dead space ventilation and mismatched ventilation-perfusion ratios that impair CO₂ elimination.^[38] This abrupt decline prompts immediate diagnostic evaluation, as it reflects obstructed pulmonary blood flow without primary respiratory compromise.^[60] Capnography also links to metabolic derangements, where compensatory mechanisms alter CO₂ dynamics. In diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperventilation driven by metabolic acidosis typically lowers EtCO₂ below 25 mmHg, providing a rapid bedside screen for acidosis severity; values above 30 mmHg effectively rule out the diagnosis with high sensitivity.^[61] Hypothermia reduces CO₂ production and slows alveolar emptying, manifesting as a prolonged or delayed rise in Phase II of the waveform, with overall EtCO₂ depression reflecting metabolic slowdown.^[62] Advanced applications of volumetric capnography enable cardiac output estimation through the Fick principle, where cardiac output approximates CO₂ elimination rate divided by the arteriovenous CO₂ content difference (VCO₂ / (CvCO₂ - CaCO₂)), with PaCO₂ and PvCO₂ gradients informing mixed venous-arterial differences non-invasively.^[63] In sepsis, declining EtCO₂ trends inversely correlate with rising lactate levels (correlation coefficient -0.42), predicting mortality and guiding fluid resuscitation by indicating tissue hypoperfusion before overt hemodynamic instability.^[64] This relationship underscores capnography's role in monitoring metabolic distress, where persistent low EtCO₂ signals ongoing anaerobic metabolism and poor prognosis.^[65]

Limitations and Considerations

Sources of Error and Artifacts

Capnography measurements can be distorted by various technical, patient-related, and environmental factors, leading to inaccurate end-tidal CO2 (EtCO2) readings and unreliable waveforms. These errors may result in erratic patterns, falsely elevated or reduced values, or complete signal loss, potentially compromising clinical decision-making. Understanding these sources is essential for ensuring reliable monitoring. Technical errors primarily arise from device-related issues. Sensor malfunction, including drift, can cause gradual inaccuracies in CO2 detection over time; for instance, in infrared-based systems, uncorrected drift may lead to deviations exceeding acceptable limits during prolonged use. Sampling line occlusion, often due to kinks, moisture, or secretions, produces erratic or absent waveforms by impeding gas flow to the analyzer. Calibration failure exacerbates these problems, as improper zeroing to room air or use of known CO2 concentrations results in baseline shifts and overall measurement bias. Patient factors contribute to dilution or incomplete sampling of exhaled CO2. In non-intubated patients, mouth breathing dilutes EtCO2 by entraining ambient air, leading to lower readings compared to nasal-only exhalation. Leaks around masks or airway interfaces cause significant underestimation of EtCO2, as exhaled gas escapes without reaching the sensor, potentially altering ventilation assessments. Environmental influences further complicate accuracy. High humidity promotes condensation in sampling lines, particularly in sidestream systems, clogging the tubing and triggering occlusion alarms or waveform loss. At high altitudes, reduced barometric pressure affects gas analyzer performance, potentially causing EtCO2 underestimation due to altered partial pressure dynamics. Nitrous oxide interference in infrared capnographs produces falsely elevated CO2 readings stemming from overlapping absorption spectra. Mitigation strategies focus on preventive maintenance and verification. Regular calibration and line inspections minimize technical errors, while using water traps or dehumidifying materials like Nafion tubing prevents condensation buildup. Alternative sampling sites, such as sealed nasal-oral interfaces, reduce dilution from mouth breathing. Cross-verification with arterial blood gas analysis confirms EtCO2 accuracy when artifacts are suspected.

Clinical Guidelines and Future Directions

Clinical guidelines emphasize the integration of capnography as a standard tool for confirming endotracheal intubation across various healthcare settings. The American Heart Association (AHA) provides a Class I recommendation for using waveform capnography to verify and continuously monitor correct endotracheal tube placement during cardiac arrest and advanced life support, citing its 100% specificity in clinical trials and observational studies (as of 2025).^[66] Similarly, the AHA endorses persistent capnographic waveforms with ventilation as the preferred method for intubation confirmation in all hospital environments, including emergency departments and intensive care units.^[67] In nursing practice, the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses (AACN) protocols for noninvasive monitoring advocate routine waveform capnography assessments to detect changes in respiratory status early.^[68] Capnography's multidisciplinary application spans anesthesiologists, paramedics, and nurses, promoting interprofessional protocols to enhance patient safety during airway management. Anesthesiologists routinely employ capnography for procedural sedation and intubation verification, as outlined in society guidelines requiring its use whenever verbal responsiveness is lost.^[69] Paramedics follow national EMS clinical guidelines that mandate continuous waveform capnography for end-tidal CO2 monitoring in advanced airway interventions, such as during out-of-hospital intubations.^[70] Nurses, particularly in critical care, integrate capnography into routine assessments under AACN standards, fostering collaborative decision-making with physicians to interpret waveforms and adjust ventilation strategies.^[71] Emerging technologies are poised to expand capnography's utility beyond traditional settings. Artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms for automated waveform analysis have demonstrated over 90% accuracy in pattern recognition for detecting abnormalities, such as in combined capnography and pulse oximetry data, enabling real-time classification of normal versus abnormal respiratory events in clinical trials.^[72] Wearable capnographs facilitate ambulatory monitoring by providing continuous EtCO2 and respiratory rate data comparable to standard capnography, with pilot studies showing feasibility in non-intubated patients for early detection of deterioration outside acute care environments.^[73] Post-2020, integration with telemedicine has advanced through remote patient monitoring systems that incorporate capnography for chronic respiratory conditions, allowing real-time data transmission to clinicians via low-cost breath analyzers in home settings. The 2025 AHA guidelines reaffirm capnography's role in resuscitation, including integration with other data for arrest management.^[74] Key research gaps persist, particularly regarding long-term outcomes in non-invasive ventilation (NIV), where capnography's role in optimizing therapy adherence and predicting survival in conditions like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease remains underexplored despite evidence of improved hypercapnia management.^[75] Advancements since 2015, such as refined Microstream technology with improved sampling lines for molecular correlation spectroscopy, have enhanced accuracy in low-flow and neonatal applications but require further validation in diverse populations to address these gaps.^[76]

References

[1]
Capnography and Pulse Oximetry - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Capnography is a method of monitoring the concentration or partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the respiratory gases.
[2]
[PDF] Capnography in the Nonintubated Patient
Oct 22, 2024 · Capnography is the con- tinuous monitoring of the concentration or partial pressure of CO2 in respiratory gases plotted against time.
[3]
Monitoring Ventilation with Capnography | NEJM
Nov 8, 2012 · Capnography is the standard of care for monitoring the adequacy of ventilation in patients receiving general anesthesia.
[4]
Introduction - Capnography for Monitoring End-Tidal CO2 in ... - NCBI
In contrast, capnography delivers a more comprehensive measurement that is displayed in both graphical (waveform) and numerical form. For this reason, ...
[5]
End-Tidal Capnography - Medscape Reference
Sep 27, 2024 · End-tidal capnography refers to the graphical measurement of the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (in mm Hg) during expiration.
[6]
Understanding end-tidal CO2 monitoring - American Nurse Journal
Nov 11, 2012 · Also called capnometry or capnography, this noninvasive technique provides a breath-by-breath analysis and a continuous recording of ventilatory ...
[7]
Capnography and Gas Monitoring | Anesthesia Key
Dec 21, 2016 · Along with pulse oximetry, capnography was introduced into wide usage in anesthesia in the mid 1980s. Then clinicians had two monitors that ...
[8]
[PDF] Capnography for Monitoring End- Tidal CO2 in Hospital and Pre
This draft report is prepared by the Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health (CADTH).<|separator|>
[9]
https://www.cda-amc.ca/sites/default/files/pdf/HT0007%2520Review_3.3.pdf
[10]
How capnograph monitors work explained simply.
The delay in showing the measurement (response time) is due to two separate delays: Transit Time and Rise Time. i.e. response time = transit time + rise time.<|control11|><|separator|>
[11]
Capnometer Transport Delay: Measurement and Clinical Implications
The sidestream capnogram is delayed behind real time by transport delay (TD; time to aspirate gas through the sampling tubing) and by the dynamic response (DR) ...
[12]
Radius PCG - Masimo
Radius PCG connects wirelessly to the Root® Patient Monitoring and Connectivity platform to provide seamless, tetherless mainstream capnography for patients ...Missing: EMS | Show results with:EMS
[13]
End-tidal capnometry | Deranged Physiology
Feb 14, 2020 · Capnometry is the measurement of the concentration of CO2. Capnography refers to the graphic display of this measurement over time.
[14]
Non-invasive carbon dioxide monitoring in neonates - PubMed Central
Jun 19, 2021 · The exhaled CO2 is measured by infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy) as CO2 absorbs and emits IR light in a distinct wavelength (4.26 µm). Fig ...
[15]
[PDF] respiratory gas analysis in theatre
infrared radiation absorbed is proportional to the number of CO2 molecules (partial pressure of CO2) present in the chamber, according to the Beer-Lambert Law.
[16]
Measurement of pulse oximetry, capnography and pH - ScienceDirect
Beer–Lambert law and absorption spectroscopy. Absorption spectroscopy is fundamental to both pulse oximetry and capnography. It is based on two combined laws ...
[17]
Recent Technologies for Transcutaneous Oxygen and Carbon ...
Apr 9, 2024 · Traditional technology for transcutaneous monitoring is based on electrochemical sensors, described in detail in Section 4.1 and Section 5.1.
[18]
Carbon dioxide measurement (Chapter 37) - Capnography
In the IR region, gases do not follow the Lambert–Beer law because of the pressure-broadening effect. Both total pressure and diluent gases influence the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[19]
Capnography Waveform Interpretation - LITFL
Aug 6, 2023 · The CO2 waveform can be analyzed for 5 characteristics:–Height–Frequency–Rhythm–Baseline–Shape. NORMAL CAPNOGRAM. 4 phases. Phase I ...
[20]
Comparison of ETCO2 Value and Blood Gas PCO2 Value of ... - NIH
Apr 27, 2021 · It was found that there is a 1–4 mmHg difference between the pCO2 value and the ETCO2 value in the use of capnography for the monitoring of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[21]
Effect of high altitude on capnography: A unique observation and ...
... value of airway pressure of 15.2 (0.63) cm H2O. The mean (SD) ETCO2 value achieved was 25.5 (2.0) mm Hg on capnography, keeping the tidal volume at 6 ml/kg ...
[22]
Abnormal capnography waveforms and their interpretation
Dec 9, 2019 · "Effects of respiratory mechanics on the capnogram phases: importance of dynamic compliance of the respiratory system." Crit Care 16 (2012): ...Missing: II | Show results with:II
[23]
[PDF] riding-the-waves-etco2.pdf
Capnography is a noninvasive method for monitoring the level of carbon dioxide in exhaled breath (EtCO2), to assess a patient's ventilatory status.
[24]
Capnography waveforms: basic interpretation in neonatal intensive ...
Apr 4, 2024 · Waveforms traces can aid clinical management, help identify cases of ventilation asynchrony between the infant and the ventilator. We present ...
[25]
Interpret your capnogram - Capnography
Aug 25, 2008 · Increased CO2 due to hypoventilation, hypermetabolic states, and rebreathing. See 8, 39. Capnogram during spontaneous ventilation in adults ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[26]
Waveform capnography in the intubated patient - EMCrit Project
Aug 5, 2021 · what is end-tidal CO2 (etCO2)? etCO2 is a measurement of the partial pressure of CO2 in gas expired at the end of exhalation (when exhaled gas ...Missing: conversion | Show results with:conversion
[27]
Basic Capnography Interpretation - NUEM Blog
Sep 6, 2021 · Key information including how to read and interpret capnography waveforms commonly seen in the emergency department.
[28]
Capnography during anesthesia (Chapter 6)
Capnography is the best monitor to identify complete disconnection of the breathing circuit. Exhaled tidal volume is a sensitive indicator of leaks and partial ...
[29]
Capnography and CO2 Detectors - LITFL
Jul 6, 2024 · Infra-red analysers use spectroscopic sensors to detect CO2 in a gaseous environment by its characteristic absorption wavelength · gas passes ...Missing: spectroscopy | Show results with:spectroscopy
[30]
Capnography and Laparoscopy
Aug 25, 2008 · Capnography has three important applications during laparoscopic surgery. 1. It serves as a non-invasive monitor of PaCO 2 during CO 2 insufflation and ...
[31]
Capnography monitoring the hypoventilation during the induction of ...
Aug 17, 2017 · Propofol with or without an opioid are the common regimens used ... Capnography accurately detects apnea during monitored anesthesia care.
[32]
Arterial to end-tidal carbon dioxide pressure gradient increases with ...
We observed a mean 4.1 mmHg increase in Pa-ETCO2 after 120 min of pneumoperitoneum and steep Trendelenburg positioning. Moreover, linear mixed model analysis ...
[33]
Postoperative Monitoring - Capnography
Nov 6, 2008 · There is growing interest to use capnography and pulse oximetry during the early postoperative period to monitor patients receiving parenteral narcotics for ...Missing: emergence | Show results with:emergence
[34]
Standards for Basic Anesthetic Monitoring
Every patient receiving anesthesia shall have temperature monitored when clinically significant changes in body temperature are intended, anticipated or ...Missing: mandate | Show results with:mandate
[35]
What is a normal end-tidal carbon dioxide (ETCO2) level? - Dr.Oracle
Jun 5, 2025 · The normal end-tidal carbon dioxide (ETCO2) level is typically considered to be between 30-40 mmHg 2. · However, the ideal intraoperative ETCO2 ...
[36]
Quantitative Waveform Capnography - ACLS-Algorithms.com
The 2010-2015 AHA Guidelines for ACLS now recommend using quantitative waveform capnography in intubated patients during CPR. Learn how to use it properly.
[37]
Applications of End-Tidal Carbon Dioxide (ETCO2) Monitoring ... - NIH
Capnography is considered as a simple and non-invasive method to detect and estimate shock intensity in the early stage (48, 49). ETCO2 is known to be decreased ...
[38]
Tension pneumothorax: Capnography and ultrasound tips - EMS1
May 12, 2016 · Hypovolemic shock and traumatic arrest also cause low ETCO2 from decreased perfusion. Waveform capnography is the gold standard to confirm ...
[39]
[PDF] Title: Capnography in the Emergency Department: A Review of Uses ...
Dec 28, 2016 · Figure 1 displaying a normal waveform. Table 1 – Capnography Phases. Figure 1 – Normal capnography waveform. Image from http://www ...
[40]
Part 3: Adult Basic and Advanced Life Support: 2020 American ...
Oct 21, 2020 · The 2010 Guidelines for CPR and Emergency Cardiovascular Care included a major change for trained rescuers, who were instructed to begin the CPR ...
[41]
EMMA Capnograph - Masimo
EMMA Capnograph - Immediate results, Small, portable capnograph, Designed to fit easily onto a breathing circuit, Rugged design, and Easy to maintain.Missing: ambulance transport
[42]
[PDF] AARC Clinical Practice Guideline
There are no absolute contraindications to capnography in mechanically ventilated patients, provided that the data obtained are evaluated with consideration ...
[43]
Volume Capnography in the Intensive Care Unit: Potential Clinical ...
Jul 31, 2018 · The expired tidal volume (Vt) is divided into the airway dead space volume (Vd-aw) and the tidal alveolar volume (Vt-alv) by a perpendicular ...
[44]
Volumetric capnography: lessons from the past and current clinical ...
Jun 23, 2016 · A newly available technique called volumetric capnography (Vcap) allows measurement of physiological and alveolar dead space on a regular basis at the bedside.
[45]
Use of capnography to detect hypercapnic episodes during weaning ...
Capnography provided good assessment of hypercapnic episodes during weaning, although the high number of false positives may result in arterial blood sampling.
[46]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8796386/
[47]
CO₂ Monitoring and Capnometry - Clinical Examples
The following transformation formula can be used with ... kPa partial pressure in kilopascals. 1 vol % = 1 kPa, 1 kPa = 7.6 mmHg, 1 mmHg = 0.13 vol%.
[48]
Monitoring the Resolution of Acute Exacerbation of Airway ... - NIH
Apr 18, 2023 · Patients with acute bronchospasm can show a distinct slope of the capnogram (“shark fin”) as a result of asynchronous alveolar excretion.
[49]
Capnography Primer for Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery - NIH
A very brief review of the basic technology of the modality is presented followed by a look at the physiology and mechanics of respiration and ventilation.
[50]
Prediction and types of dead-space fraction during exercise in male ...
Feb 11, 2022 · A high dead space (VD) to tidal volume (VT) ratio during peak exercise (VD/VTpeak) is a sensitive and consistent marker of gas exchange ...Missing: emphysema | Show results with:emphysema
[51]
Limitations of End-Tidal CO2 Measured with a Portable Capnometer ...
This study evaluated the relationship between end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO 2 ) measured with a portable capnometer and PaCO 2 in respiratory disease patients.
[52]
PaCO2–EtCO2 Gradient and D-dimer in the Diagnosis of Suspected ...
Nov 26, 2021 · The combination of P(a-Et)CO 2 gradient and D-dimer can show an acceptable diagnostic value in detecting PE, although it suggests further research.
[53]
Clinical validation of a capnodynamic method for measuring end ...
Jun 14, 2024 · A novel continuous capnodynamic method based on expired carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) kinetics for measuring EELV in mechanically ventilated critically-ill patients.Missing: sloped | Show results with:sloped
[54]
Carbon dioxide levels in neonates: what are safe parameters? - PMC
Jul 6, 2021 · In healthy neonates, the physiological CO2 range is defined as 4.7–6.0 kPa (35.3–45.0 mmHg). Given the physiological impact of CO2 levels on ...
[55]
Navigating Pediatric Capnography: A Comprehensive Review ... - NIH
Jan 31, 2024 · The capnography waveform illustrates the CO2 levels throughout each respiratory cycle phase, providing a comprehensive ventilation assessment.
[56]
Utility of ETCO2 to predict hemorrhagic shock in multiple trauma ...
ETCO2 levels below 30 were sensitive for stage 2 and 3 hemorrhagic shocks and when the levels were measured below 22 it was found specific for stage 4 shock.<|separator|>
[57]
[PDF] Capnography's Ability to Improve Patient Health Outcomes in the ...
Capnography improves patient outcomes by improving prognostic field impressions, triage, and EMS operations, and can aid in speedy diagnosis and treatment.
[58]
[PDF] Capnography Capnography Review & Case Studies Review & Case ...
ETCO2 value. Inspiration. Note: Two different types of capnography devices exist (time & volume). EMS devices are time capnograms. Pulmonary function testing ...
[59]
[PDF] End-Tidal Carbon Dioxide Monitoring in Anesthesia
Capnography, the graphical representation of. ETCO2 levels over time, presents a waveform known as the capnogram, offering dynamic information about the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[60]
Predictive Value of Capnography for Suspected Diabetic ... - NIH
Capnography values greater than 24.5 mmHg accurately allow the exclusion of DKA in ED patients suspected of that diagnosis.Missing: hyperventilation | Show results with:hyperventilation
[61]
[PDF] End Tidal CO2 and Pulse Oximetry
What is Capnography? ❑ Capnography is an objective measurement of exhaled. CO2 levels. ❑ Capnography measures ventilation.
[62]
[PDF] Volumetric capnography
Ventilation dead space (VD) refers to the parts of the lung and airways that do not take part in gas transfer → indicates the ineffective portion of ventilation ...
[63]
End-tidal carbon dioxide is associated with mortality and lactate in ...
There was a significant inverse relationship between Etco2 and lactate in all categories, with correlation coefficients of − 0.421 (P < .001) in the sepsis ...
[64]
Exhaled end-tidal carbon dioxide as a predictor of lactate ... - PubMed
Conclusions: We observed a significant inverse relationship between ETCO2 and lactate in children presenting with suspected sepsis. A lower ETCO2 was predictive ...
[65]
Part 9: Adult Advanced Life Support
In a small clinical trial and several observational studies, waveform capnography was 100% specific for confirming endotracheal tube position during cardiac ...
[66]
New AHA Guidelines: Is Your Code Team Equipped with ...
AHA guidelines recommend, “Providers should observe a persistent capnographic waveform with ventilation to confirm and monitor endotracheal tube placement in ...Missing: universal | Show results with:universal
[67]
ESICM guidelines on acute respiratory distress syndrome
The aim of these guidelines is to update the 2017 clinical practice guideline (CPG) of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM).Missing: EtCO2 capnography
[68]
[PDF] AACN Protocols for Practice: Noninvasive Monitoring, Second Edition
capnography as a screening test for pulmonary embolus in the emergency ... methods used to ensure verification of proper waveforms or those used to ...
[69]
[PDF] Clinical Society Guidelines - Capnography Monitoring - Medtronic
In 2019, AANA's Standards for Practice declared ventilation should be continuously monitored by clinical observation and confirmation of expired carbon dioxide.
[70]
[PDF] National Model EMS Clinical Guidelines - Baylor College of Medicine
Jan 5, 2019 · Use continuous waveform capnography to detect end-tidal carbon dioxide (ETCO2). This is an important adjunct in the monitoring of patients ...
[71]
[PDF] capnography: - American Nurse Journal
The capnogram corresponds to the patient's respiratory cycle. Normally, it dis- plays an almost-square wave- form, indicating a clear airway. A nonsquare ...
[72]
A machine learning algorithm for detecting abnormal patterns ... - NIH
The objective of this analysis was to use machine learning (ML) to classify combined waveforms of continuous capnography and pulse oximetry as normal or ...
[73]
Clinical evaluation of a wearable sensor for mobile monitoring of ...
Sep 2, 2021 · Our study suggests that monitoring RR with the new wearable sensor is feasible in ward patients, and accurate when compared to capnography ...
[74]
A Low-Cost Breath Analyzer Module in Domiciliary Non-Invasive ...
Smart Breath Analyzers were developed as sensing terminals of a telemedicine architecture devoted to remote monitoring of patients suffering from Chronic ...2. Materials And Methods · 2.3. Hardware And Firmware... · 3. Results And Discussion
[75]
Home Noninvasive Ventilation for COPD - Jeremy E Orr, 2023
Jul 1, 2023 · Home noninvasive ventilation (NIV) has been shown to have the potential to help compensate for physiological issues underlying hypercapnia. In ...
[76]
[PDF] the influence of sampling line design on capnography performance
Variations in sampling line designs may include different nasal and oral cannula shapes, pressure systems, lengths, tubing volumes, filters, luer inputs, ...