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Catskill Mountains

The Catskill Mountains form a dissected plateau within the Appalachian Mountains system, located in southeastern New York State across Ulster, Greene, Delaware, and Sullivan counties, approximately 100 miles northwest of New York City and spanning roughly 1,500 square miles.^[1] The region features over 35 peaks exceeding 3,500 feet in elevation, with Slide Mountain as the highest at 4,180 feet, and is characterized by rounded summits, steep escarpments, and narrow valleys shaped by long-term fluvial and glacial erosion.^[2] Composed primarily of Devonian-age sedimentary rocks deposited in ancient shallow seas between 380 and 360 million years ago, the Catskills' landscape results from differential erosion of these layered sandstones, shales, and conglomerates rather than tectonic uplift typical of true mountain ranges.^[3] Ecologically, the area supports diverse hardwood forests dominated by species such as sugar maple, American beech, and eastern hemlock, alongside wildlife including white-tailed deer, black bears, bobcats, and various bird species, much of which is preserved within the 700,000-acre Catskill Park established for conservation and recreation.^[4] The Catskills serve as a critical watershed, supplying reservoirs like Ashokan, Schoharie, and Pepacton that provide over 10% of New York City's drinking water through protected forested catchments that naturally filter precipitation.^[5] Historically, the region underwent extensive logging and tannin extraction in the 19th century, leading to deforestation followed by natural regrowth and the rise of tourism, including fly fishing origins and scenic inspiration for early American landscape painting, while modern management balances recreation, water protection, and biodiversity amid pressures from development and climate shifts.^[4]^[6]

Etymology

Name Origin and Usage

The name Catskill Mountains originates from the Dutch colonial era in the 17th century, during which early settlers in New Netherland applied the term "Kaaterskill" or "Kaatskill" to a creek and associated waterfall in what is now Greene County, New York, later extending it to the surrounding uplands. This designation combines "kaater," referring to a tomcat or wildcat (likely alluding to native bobcats, Lynx rufus, or possibly extirpated eastern pumas, Puma concolor), with "kil" or "kill," a Dutch word for a streambed or small river.^[7]^[8] Historical records from the Dutch period, including maps and settler accounts, document variants such as "Kats Kill" and "Cats-kill," reflecting phonetic adaptations and the region's abundant feline predators, which posed hazards to livestock and travelers. The name's extension to the mountains proper occurred as European exploration mapped the dissected plateau, with no primary evidence supporting derivations from Native American languages like Lenape, despite secondary speculations; Dutch hydrological naming conventions dominate the etymological record.^[8] In modern usage, "Catskills" functions as the colloquial shorthand for the range, while "Catskill Mountains" denotes the formal physiographic province spanning about 1,500 square miles across Ulster, Greene, and Delaware counties. Persistent variants like "Kaaterskill" appear in specific locales, such as Kaaterskill Creek and Kaaterskill Falls, preserving the original Dutch inflection amid anglicized standardization post-1664 English conquest.^[8]

Geography

Location and Extent

The Catskill Mountains lie in southeastern New York State, on the western side of the Hudson River valley, approximately 130 kilometers (81 miles) northwest of New York City.^[9] The range primarily occupies portions of four counties—Delaware, Greene, Sullivan, and Ulster—with minor extensions into Schoharie and Albany counties to the north.^[10] These mountains form a physiographic province distinct from the surrounding lowlands, extending southward from the Adirondack region and situated between the Taconic Mountains to the east and the broader Allegheny Plateau to the west.^[11] The Catskills cover an area of approximately 6,000 square miles (15,500 square kilometers), encompassing a dissected upland plateau rather than a traditional folded mountain chain.^[12] ^[13] The region's extent measures roughly 80 miles (130 km) north-south and 70 miles (110 km) east-west, with boundaries delineated by major watersheds: the Hudson River to the east, the Schoharie Creek and Mohawk River drainage to the north, the West Branch of the Delaware River to the west, and the Esopus Creek and Shawangunk Mountains to the south.^[14] Within this area, elevations rise from about 1,000 feet (300 meters) along the periphery to over 4,000 feet (1,220 meters) at the highest peaks, such as Slide Mountain at 4,180 feet (1,274 meters).^[2] The Catskill Park, a state-protected area of nearly 700,000 acres (1,093 square miles) established in 1885, lies at the core of this extent and includes both public Forest Preserve lands and private inholdings subject to regulatory oversight.^[15]

Topography and Hydrology

The Catskill Mountains constitute a dissected plateau within the Appalachian system, featuring deeply incised valleys and uplifted sedimentary layers primarily from the Devonian period, eroded over millions of years by fluvial and glacial action.^[16] This physiographic province spans approximately 1,700 square miles in southeastern New York, with elevations ranging from about 1,000 feet to 4,180 feet at Slide Mountain, the highest peak.^[17] Local relief often exceeds 1,100 feet, creating rugged terrain with over 35 summits surpassing 3,500 feet, including Hunter Mountain at 4,040 feet and Black Dome at 3,980 feet.^[18] The plateau's structure reflects horizontal strata from ancient deltaic deposits, subsequently uplifted and dissected rather than folded like true mountains.^[19] Hydrologically, the Catskills serve as a critical watershed, draining into the Hudson River through major tributaries such as the Esopus Creek, Schoharie Creek, and Catskill Creek, which originate from high-elevation springs and snowmelt.^[20] The region's streams exhibit high-gradient, rocky channels prone to flash flooding, supporting whitewater activities on waterways like the Esopus. Key components of New York City's water supply system include six reservoirs within the Catskill portion of the watershed, notably the Ashokan Reservoir (completed 1915, capacity 122 billion gallons) and Schoharie Reservoir, which together capture runoff from about 1,550 square miles of forested uplands.^[20] These impoundments, managed by the New York City Department of Environmental Protection, provide unfiltered water to over 9 million people, relying on the plateau's natural filtration through soil and vegetation.^[21] Prominent hydrological features include waterfalls like Kaaterskill Falls, dropping 260 feet in two tiers, formed by post-glacial stream incision into the plateau's escarpment.^[22] The overall drainage pattern follows a dendritic network, with base level controlled by the Hudson River, facilitating sediment transport and ongoing valley deepening at rates influenced by annual precipitation averaging 45-50 inches.^[23]

Geology

Formation and Structure

The Catskill Mountains formed primarily through the deposition of thick Devonian sedimentary sequences during the Late Devonian Period, roughly 382 to 359 million years ago, as part of the vast Catskill Delta complex in the Appalachian foreland basin. These clastic sediments—comprising sandstones, siltstones, shales, mudstones, and minor conglomerates—originated from the erosion of rising highlands generated by the Acadian Orogeny, a collisional event between the Laurentian continent and approaching terranes such as Avalon, which supplied vast quantities of siliciclastic material via rivers and deltas into subsiding basins proximal to the orogenic belt.^[24]^[25]^[26] Unlike the intensely folded and thrust-faulted core of the Appalachians, the structural framework of the Catskills reflects deposition in a stable, subsiding foreland setting with near-horizontal bedding and minimal syn-depositional deformation, overlain later by thin glacial till from Pleistocene ice sheets but largely preserving original stratigraphic attitudes. The bedrock consists of interbedded, fining-upward cycles indicative of fluvial-deltaic environments, with thicknesses exceeding 10,000 feet (3,000 m) in places, transitioning westward into marine shales of the Appalachian Basin.^[16] Post-depositional uplift during the Permian Alleghanian Orogeny elevated these sediments as part of the broader Allegheny Plateau, but the distinctive "mountainous" relief emerged through prolonged Cenozoic erosion, where resistant sandstones capped softer shales, leading to differential incision by radial drainage networks that dissected the plateau into steep escarpments, narrow valleys, and isolated summits—a process classifying the Catskills as a maturely eroded plateau rather than a tectonically folded range. This dissection has exposed a stair-step topography, with the eastern Catskill Front featuring prominent cuestas and the interior plateau remnants reaching elevations up to 4,204 feet (1,281 m) at Slide Mountain, while ongoing fluvial and hillslope processes continue to shape the landscape.^[22]^[28]^[19]

Rock Formations and Erosion

The bedrock underlying the Catskill Mountains comprises primarily Upper Devonian sedimentary rocks of the Catskill Formation, a clastic wedge deposited between approximately 380 and 360 million years ago in deltaic, fluvial, and terrestrial environments within the Acadian foreland basin.^[3] This formation, reaching thicknesses of up to 3,000 meters, consists of interbedded gray to red sandstones, siltstones, shales, and minor conglomerates, with the sandstones often quartz-rich and cross-bedded, reflecting ancient river channels and floodplains.^[29] ^[30] The reddish and greenish hues in many shales and sandstones arise from iron oxide staining, indicative of subaerial exposure and oxidative weathering during deposition.^[29] Tectonic activity during the Acadian Orogeny (circa 400-350 million years ago) involved gentle folding and low-grade metamorphism of these sediments, with minimal deformation compared to eastern Appalachian regions, preserving much of the original stratigraphy.^[25] Later, during the Alleghenian Orogeny around 300 million years ago, additional compression contributed to regional uplift, but the Catskills' current topography stems largely from Cenozoic fluvial and hillslope erosion dissecting a formerly near-flat plateau.^[6] Resistant sandstone layers form protective caps on peaks such as Slide Mountain (elevation 1,280 meters), while underlying shales erode more rapidly, producing steep escarpments, clovers (gorges), and waterfalls like Kaaterskill Falls, which drops 79 meters over conglomeratic layers.^[3]^[6] Ongoing erosion is driven by physical and chemical weathering, exacerbated by the region's humid climate and jointed bedrock, leading to processes like frost wedging in sandstones and slaking in shales.^[31] Pleistocene glaciation further modified the landscape through valley deepening and deposition of till, though the primary relief predates the ice ages, with post-glacial rebound contributing minimally to modern elevations.^[32] Differential erosion rates—slower in quartzose sandstones (resisting up to 10-20 cm per millennium in some studies) versus faster in shales—continue to shape the dissected plateau morphology, with annual sediment yields from Catskill streams averaging 100-500 tons per square kilometer.^[31]^[3]

Climate

Regional Climate Patterns

The Catskill Mountains feature a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb classification) with cold winters, cool summers, and year-round abundant precipitation influenced by the region's physiographic position in the Appalachian highlands. Annual mean air temperatures have historically averaged around 46°F (8°C) at lower elevations near the Hudson Valley, decreasing with altitude due to adiabatic cooling at a lapse rate of approximately 3.5°F (1.9°C) per 1,000 feet (300 m) of elevation gain.^[33]^[34] Higher peaks, such as Slide Mountain at 4,180 feet (1,274 m), experience annual averages closer to 43°F (6°C), with summer highs rarely exceeding 70°F (21°C) and winter lows often below 0°F (-18°C).^[35] This elevational gradient creates distinct microclimates, where valley floors benefit from slightly warmer conditions due to cold air drainage, while uplands remain cooler and more prone to frost.^[36] Precipitation patterns are dominated by orographic enhancement from prevailing westerly winds lifting moist air over the escarpment, resulting in annual totals of 45–55 inches (1,140–1,400 mm), with maxima exceeding 60 inches (1,520 mm) on eastern slopes facing the Hudson Valley.^[33] Seasonal distribution peaks in spring and autumn, driven by frontal systems and tropical moisture incursions, while winter snowfall averages 50–100 inches (127–254 cm) at elevations above 2,000 feet (610 m), contributing to the region's role as a water source for New York City reservoirs.^[37] Recent trends indicate a shift toward increased total precipitation (up 10–15% since 1950) with more intense events, though snowfall has declined amid overall warming of 1.5–2°F (0.8–1.1°C) per century.^[33] These patterns reflect causal interactions between topographic forcing and large-scale atmospheric circulation, rather than localized anomalies.^[34]

Seasonal and Extreme Weather

The Catskill Mountains exhibit a humid continental climate with pronounced seasonal variations, featuring cold, snowy winters; mild, rainy springs; warm, humid summers; and cool, colorful autumns. Winters (December–February) bring average high temperatures of 32–35°F (0–2°C) and lows of 15–20°F (-9 to -7°C) at lower elevations, with higher peaks experiencing subzero conditions and annual snowfall exceeding 100 inches (254 cm) due to nor'easters, lake-effect snow from the Great Lakes, and frontal systems.^[38]^[34] Springs (March–May) transition with thawing temperatures averaging 44–60°F (7–16°C) highs, but rapid snowmelt combined with 3–4 inches (76–102 mm) monthly precipitation often triggers stream swelling and early flooding risks.^[39] Summers (June–August) are the warmest, with highs of 75–82°F (24–28°C) and frequent convective thunderstorms contributing to peak humidity and about 4 inches (102 mm) of rain per month, fostering lush vegetation but occasional heat waves exceeding 90°F (32°C).^[37] Autumns (September–November) cool to highs of 50–65°F (10–18°C), with October as the wettest month at over 4.5 inches (114 mm) of precipitation, producing vibrant foliage displays amid variable winds.^[40] Annual precipitation totals 40–50 inches (1,016–1,270 mm), evenly distributed but amplified at elevations over 2,000 feet (610 m) by orographic lift, enhancing both rainfall and snowpack.^[40]^[34] Extreme weather events underscore the region's vulnerability, driven by its steep topography, which funnels runoff into narrow valleys, and proximity to Atlantic storm tracks. Severe blizzards, such as the March 1993 "Storm of the Century," deposited 2–3 inches (5–8 cm) of snow per hour across the Catskills, paralyzing travel and accumulating over 40 inches (102 cm) in 24–48 hours.^[41] Tropical remnants and hurricanes frequently cause flash flooding; Hurricane Irene on August 27–28, 2011, dumped 10–15 inches (254–381 mm) of rain in 24 hours, triggering "500-year" floods that destroyed roads, bridges, and homes, resulting in at least 10 fatalities and over $1 billion in regional damage.^[42]^[43] Tropical Storm Lee in early September 2011 exacerbated recovery with additional 7–11 inches (178–279 mm) of rain, saturating soils and overwhelming streams like the Schoharie Creek.^[44] More recently, a December 2023 atmospheric river event delivered 4–6 inches (102–152 mm) of rain on frozen ground, causing widespread road washouts and isolating communities.^[45] Historical precedents include Hurricane Connie's 1955 floods on Catskill Creek from 5–7 inches (127–178 mm) of rain.^[46] These events, occurring multiple times per decade, highlight causal factors like impermeable Devonian shales accelerating runoff and climate-driven intensification of precipitation extremes, though attribution to long-term trends requires distinguishing natural variability from anthropogenic influences via empirical records.^[47]^[34]

Ecology

Flora and Vegetation Zones

The Catskill Mountains, part of the northern Appalachian ecoregion, feature vegetation zones stratified primarily by elevation, with transitions driven by temperature gradients, soil conditions, and moisture availability. Deciduous forests dominate the landscape overall, comprising about 80% of forested cover, while coniferous stands and non-forested areas like wetlands and shrublands account for the remainder. These zones align with broader patterns in the Adirondack-New England mixed forest province, where lower elevations support warm-temperate species and higher ones shift toward boreal affinities.^[48]^[49] At elevations below approximately 2,500 feet (760 m), oak-hickory forests prevail in the foothills and valleys, characterized by canopy dominants including red oak (Quercus rubra), chestnut oak (Quercus montana), and various hickories (Carya spp.), often mixed with tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) and black birch (Betula lenta). Understories include shrubs like mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia) and herbs such as hay-scented fern (Dennstaedtia punctilobula). These communities thrive on well-drained, acidic soils derived from Devonian shales and sandstones, supporting high biodiversity but susceptible to past disturbances like logging and fire.^[50]^[9] Mid-elevation zones, roughly 2,500 to 3,500 feet (760–1,070 m), transition to northern hardwood-hemlock forests, with American beech (Fagus grandifolia), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), and yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis) forming the primary canopy, alongside eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) in moist ravines. This belt reflects cooler, moister conditions, fostering mast-producing trees that sustain wildlife, though beech bark disease has altered compositions since the mid-20th century, favoring maples and birches.^[9]^[51] Above 3,500 feet (1,070 m), particularly on peaks exceeding 3,500 feet, spruce-fir forests emerge, dominated by red spruce (Picea rubens) and balsam fir (Abies balsamea), with scattered paper birch (Betula papyrifera) and mountain ash (Sorbus americana). These stands mimic subalpine conditions, enduring high winds, thin soils, and severe winters, occasionally giving way to krummholz or open summits with dwarf shrubs like lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) and huckleberry (Gaylussacia spp.). Such high-elevation communities, limited to about 2% of the Catskills' area, host disjunct northern species and face threats from acid deposition and climate shifts.^[49]^[9]^[17]

Fauna and Biodiversity

The Catskill Mountains support a rich faunal assemblage, with mature forests, high-elevation spruce-fir habitats, wetlands, and streams fostering populations of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish adapted to the region's temperate climate and varied topography.^[52] Black bears (Ursus americanus) inhabit forested areas throughout the Catskills, relying on mature hardwood stands for foraging and denning, with individuals weighing up to 500 pounds and exhibiting seasonal movements tied to food availability such as acorns and berries.^[53] Bobcats (Lynx rufus) and fishers (Pekania pennanti), both regionally significant carnivores, maintain populations in the park's core wilderness areas, where fishers—reintroduced in the late 20th century after local extirpation—prey on porcupines and small mammals.^[9] Coyotes (Canis latrans), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and beavers (Castor canadensis) are widespread, with beavers engineering wetland habitats that enhance overall biodiversity by creating ponds for aquatic species.^[13] Avian diversity exceeds 100 species, including breeding populations of neotropical migrants and high-elevation specialists; the spruce-fir forests above 3,000 feet provide critical nesting habitat for Bicknell's thrush (Catharus bicknelli), a species of conservation concern due to limited range and habitat fragmentation.^[13] Raptors such as turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) and occasional bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) utilize thermal updrafts and riparian corridors, while ground-nesting species like wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) thrive in mixed forests.^[54] Reptiles and amphibians are prominent in rocky outcrops, vernal pools, and streams, with the timber rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus), New York's largest venomous snake at 3-4 feet in length (record 60 inches), inhabiting deciduous forests and south-facing slopes for basking; populations persist in lower to mid-elevations but avoid high Catskill peaks historically.^[55] The eastern hognose snake (Heterodon platirhinos) and spotted turtle (Clemmys guttata), both of special concern, favor sandy soils and temporary wetlands, respectively, where habitat loss from development poses ongoing threats.^[52] Amphibians include common breeders like spring peepers (Pseudacris crucifer) and American bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus) in ponds, alongside the endangered wood turtle (Glyptemys insculpta), which relies on riverine floodplains for nesting and foraging on invertebrates.^[56] Stream-dwelling fish such as brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) dominate cold-water habitats, supporting piscivores higher in the food web.^[57] Biodiversity faces pressures from invasive species, road mortality, and climate shifts, which may expand suitable habitat for some herpetofauna like northern copperheads (Agkistrodon contortrix) into higher elevations while contracting others; conservation efforts by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation emphasize habitat protection within Catskill Park to sustain these populations.^[58]^[59]

History

Indigenous Peoples and Pre-Colonial Era

The Catskill Mountains were primarily occupied by the Esopus and Munsee subgroups of the Lenape (Delaware) people, Algonquian-speaking indigenous groups whose territory encompassed the Hudson Valley and adjacent uplands.^[60]^[61] These populations maintained small, semi-permanent communities near riverine and lacustrine resources in the surrounding lowlands, while utilizing the mountainous interior seasonally for resource extraction.^[62] Archaeological investigations in Greene County have identified precontact sites associated with Late Archaic (ca. 3000–1000 BCE) and Late Prehistoric (ca. 700–1300 CE) occupations, including upland camps yielding lithic tools, hearths, and faunal remains indicative of short-term habitation by hunter-gatherers.^[63]^[64] Lenape subsistence in the region emphasized hunting large game such as deer and bear in the forests, fishing anadromous species like shad in tributaries of the Hudson River, and gathering wild plants, supplemented by limited maize horticulture in fertile valley bottoms.^[62] Land management practices, including controlled burning of underbrush, promoted habitat diversity for game animals and facilitated travel along watershed corridors, reflecting adaptive strategies to the area's steep topography and temperate climate.^[62] Matrilineal social organization structured clans around these territories, with oral traditions preserving knowledge of ecological cycles and place names derived from Algonquian terms, such as those denoting streams and falls.^[62] Evidence from stratified sites suggests continuity of use from earlier Archaic phases, though permanent villages were rare in the highlands due to soil limitations and elevation.^[65] Interactions with neighboring groups, including Mohican to the northeast and Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) confederacies westward, involved trade and occasional territorial overlaps, but the Catskills served mainly as a peripheral hunting ground within broader Lenapehoking.^[66] Human presence traces back potentially 8,000–10,000 years in the Hudson Valley environs, with Lenape cultural markers prominent from the Late Woodland period onward (ca. 1000 CE).^[62]^[67] No evidence supports dense, sedentary populations in the mountains themselves prior to European contact in the early 17th century.^[64]

Colonial Settlement and Resource Extraction

European exploration of the Catskill Mountains began with the Dutch voyage of Henry Hudson in 1609, during which crew member Robert Juet recorded the presence of highlands visible from the Hudson River. Permanent settlement, however, was delayed by the region's rugged terrain, dense forests, and territorial claims by indigenous groups such as the Mohicans and Esopus. Initial European activity concentrated along the river valleys rather than the interior highlands.^[68] The issuance of the Great Hardenbergh Patent on April 20, 1708, marked a turning point, granting approximately 1.5 to 2 million acres across present-day Ulster, Greene, Orange, Sullivan, and Delaware counties to Johannes Hardenbergh and six associates. This vast tract, acquired from indigenous proprietors and confirmed by Queen Anne, enabled systematic land subdivision into lots for leasing and sale, attracting primarily Dutch, English, and Palatine German settlers. By the 1730s, small farming communities emerged in peripheral valleys like the Esopus and Catskill creeks, though widespread interior penetration awaited resolution of indigenous titles post-French and Indian War.^[69]^[70]^[71] Resource extraction in the colonial era focused on timber, essential for construction, fuel, and land clearance to support subsistence agriculture. Settlers harvested hemlock, oak, and other species for local use, producing potash from wood ashes as an early export commodity via the Hudson River trade. Limited iron mining occurred in bog ores near valley forges, but the mountains' primary economic role remained forestry, with logs floated downstream to Albany and New York markets. Tanning, reliant on hemlock bark, began modestly in small operations but did not scale until the early 19th century. These activities laid the groundwork for later industrial exploitation while altering forest cover incrementally.^[72]^[73]

Industrial and Resort Development

The industrial development of the Catskill Mountains in the 19th century centered on resource extraction, particularly logging for hemlock bark to supply tanneries. Improved tanning techniques around 1817 spurred the establishment of numerous tanneries, which relied on the abundant hemlock forests for bark used in leather production.^[74] By the mid-1800s, as many as 64 tanneries operated in the region, harvesting bark from an estimated 70 million hemlock trees and contributing to widespread deforestation.^[75] These operations drove local economic growth, with Catskill tanneries producing over 80 percent of the leather for the Union Army during the Civil War.^[76] Bluestone quarrying emerged as another key industry in the mid-1800s, primarily in Ulster County at the foothills of the Catskills. The durable Devonian-era sandstone, known as Catskill bluestone, was extracted for use in construction, paving sidewalks, and curbstones, supporting urban infrastructure demands in New York City and beyond.^[77] Quarrying activities peaked through the late 19th century, with operations like those near the mountain base providing employment but also altering landscapes through excavation.^[78] As hemlock stands were depleted by the 1880s, reducing tannery viability, the region pivoted toward tourism, leveraging its scenic vistas and cooler climate for resort development. The Catskill Mountain House, opened in 1824 atop South Mountain, exemplified early resort infrastructure, attracting urban visitors via stagecoach and later rail for panoramic views and outdoor pursuits.^[79] ^[80] This hotel, initially built by Catskill merchants and expanded under lessees like Charles L. Beach, operated for over a century, hosting artists, writers, and presidents while setting a model for high-elevation retreats.^[81] By the early 20th century, exclusionary practices at existing resorts prompted Jewish entrepreneurs to develop specialized vacation destinations, laying the foundation for the Borscht Belt. Over 500 resorts and thousands of bungalow colonies emerged in Sullivan and Ulster counties, offering affordable escapes with entertainment, kosher cuisine, and family-oriented amenities.^[82] These establishments, numbering up to 538 hotels by their expansion phase, employed thousands seasonally and catered to over a million annual visitors from New York City, transforming cleared farmlands into bustling leisure hubs before World War II.^[83] ^[84]

Post-WWII Decline and Revival

Following World War II, the Catskill Mountains' resort industry, epitomized by the Borscht Belt, reached its zenith, with over 1,000 hotels and bungalow colonies accommodating primarily Jewish vacationers from New York City seeking affordable, all-inclusive escapes featuring entertainment, kosher-style cuisine, and family activities.^[85] This era, often termed the Golden Age from approximately 1940 to 1965, saw resorts like Grossinger's expand significantly, adding amenities such as golf courses, swimming pools, and theaters to attract middle-class families.^[86] The decline commenced around 1965, driven by multiple interconnected factors including the advent of affordable commercial air travel, which enabled quicker access to warmer destinations like Florida, and the expansion of the interstate highway system, facilitating longer automobile trips away from the region.^[86] Television's rise diminished demand for live resort entertainment, while suburbanization and shifting generational preferences—particularly among baby boomers favoring international travel or urban nightlife—eroded the traditional clientele base reliant on urban Jewish immigrants and their descendants.^[86] By the late 1960s, railroads curtailed service to the area, further isolating resorts dependent on train arrivals, leading to widespread closures; Grossinger's, once a flagship property with 400 rooms, shuttered in 1986 amid mounting operational losses.^[87] Revival efforts gained traction in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, pivoting from mass-market resorts to niche tourism emphasizing outdoor recreation, cultural heritage, and proximity to New York City for remote workers and second-home buyers.^[88] Developments such as ski expansions at Hunter Mountain, established in 1960 and bolstered post-decline, alongside boutique hotels, artisanal food scenes, and events homage to Borscht Belt history—like the 2025 Borscht Belt Fest—have reinvigorated the local economy, attracting a diverse influx including younger urbanites seeking authentic, low-key retreats.^[89] Conservation initiatives and watershed protections indirectly supported this shift by preserving natural appeal, though debates persist over balancing development with environmental integrity.^[88]

Conservation and Land Use

Establishment of Protected Areas

The push for protected areas in the Catskill Mountains arose in the late 19th century amid widespread deforestation from logging, tannin extraction for leather production, and wildfires, which had denuded large swaths of forest and threatened water quality for downstream communities. Conservation advocates, including figures like forester Royal S. Kellogg and the Association for the Protection of the Adirondacks, argued that unchecked resource extraction risked soil erosion, flooding, and loss of watershed integrity, prompting legislative action to designate public lands as inviolate.^[90]^[91] On May 15, 1885, New York Governor David B. Hill signed Chapter 283 of the Laws of 1885, establishing the New York State Forest Preserve encompassing approximately 750,000 acres across the Adirondacks and Catskills, with the explicit mandate that these lands "shall be forever kept as wild forest lands" and not sold, leased, or altered except for minimal management. This statute marked the first comprehensive public land protection in the U.S. specifically barring commercial exploitation, driven by reports documenting over 80% forest loss in parts of the Catskills since colonial times and the need to safeguard timber regeneration and hydrological functions. In the Catskills, the Preserve initially covered key upland tracts, including peaks over 3,500 feet, totaling around 100,000 acres of state holdings amid private lands.^[90]^[92]^[91] To fortify these protections against political pressures for logging or development, the 1894 New York Constitutional Convention proposed—and voters ratified in 1895—Article XIV of the state constitution, enshrining the Forest Preserve as "forever wild," prohibiting sale or exchange of state lands therein, and limiting uses to forestry, watershed protection, and public recreation. This amendment responded to prior violations of the 1885 law, such as unauthorized timber sales, and extended safeguards to acquired lands, ensuring causal continuity in forest cover restoration observed in regrowth data from the era.^[91]^[90] The Catskill Park itself was formally delineated on April 5, 1904, through state legislation that mapped a "Blue Line" boundary around 700,000 acres of mixed public and private lands, integrating the Forest Preserve's state-owned portions—now about 286,000 acres—with surrounding zones for regulated private uses like selective logging under environmental constraints. This framework, administered by the Department of Environmental Conservation, balanced preservation with access, prohibiting subdivision or industrialization in core wild areas while allowing ski facilities in peripheral zones via later 1940s amendments, reflecting empirical trade-offs between biodiversity retention and economic viability.^[2]^[93]^[94]

Watershed Protection for New York City

The Catskill Mountains form a critical component of New York City's water supply system, with the Catskill/Delaware watershed delivering approximately 90% of the city's unfiltered drinking water via reservoirs such as Ashokan and Schoharie.^[95] New York State legislation in 1905 authorized the city to acquire lands and construct dams, reservoirs, and aqueducts in the Catskills to expand its water infrastructure.^[96] The Ashokan Reservoir was built between 1907 and 1915 under the New York City Board of Water Supply, impounding waters from the Esopus Creek and connected to the city via the Catskill Aqueduct, which entered service that year.^[96] The Schoharie Reservoir followed, completed in 1926, with the Shandaken Tunnel linking it to Ashokan by 1928.^[97] To maintain water quality and avoid the need for costly filtration plants, New York City pursued a Filtration Avoidance Determination from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, culminating in the 1997 Watershed Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) signed on January 21 by the city, state officials, watershed municipalities, and environmental groups.^[98] The MOA established programs for watershed protection, including land use regulations, payments to farmers for best management practices, and the creation of the Catskill Watershed Corporation to oversee implementation.^[96] It also formalized the Land Acquisition Program (LAP), enabling the New York City Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) to purchase development rights or full parcels from willing sellers in sensitive areas, thereby limiting pollution risks from urbanization and agriculture.^[99] Through the LAP, initiated under the MOA, the DEP had acquired or protected 155,165 acres in the Catskill/Delaware system by September 2022, focusing on stream corridors and upland forests to preserve natural filtration processes.^[100] Complementary efforts by the Watershed Agricultural Council secured conservation easements on over 30,000 acres of farmland and forestland by preserving agricultural viability while reducing nutrient and sediment runoff.^[101] These measures have sustained compliance with federal water quality standards, though tensions arose from eminent domain uses in early reservoir constructions and ongoing debates over regulatory burdens on local development.^[102] In 2024, the DEP announced plans to curtail most future land purchases under the LAP, shifting emphasis to existing protections amid stabilized water quality metrics.^[103]

Debates Over Development and Resource Extraction

Debates over development and resource extraction in the Catskill Mountains center on balancing economic opportunities with the protection of water resources that supply over 10 million New York City residents via the Catskill and Delaware watersheds, which contribute approximately 10% and 50% of the city's water, respectively.^[104] Historical land acquisitions for reservoirs involved eminent domain, displacing communities and fueling long-standing local grievances; for instance, construction of the Ashokan Reservoir from 1907 to 1915 submerged six villages and displaced about 2,300 residents, with total Catskill reservoir projects affecting around 5,600 people through forced relocations and property condemnations.^[105]^[106] These actions prioritized urban water needs over rural autonomy, leading to persistent tensions between conservation mandates and local economic aspirations. The 1997 New York City Watershed Memorandum of Agreement formalized restrictions to avoid costly water filtration, imposing limits on development such as prohibitions on new impervious surfaces within 100 feet of wetlands or watercourses and 300 feet of reservoirs, alongside septic system density caps and wastewater treatment plant expansions.^[98]^[107] In exchange, the city committed over $1.5 billion in funding for local infrastructure, buyouts of vulnerable properties, and economic programs, enabling EPA waiver of filtration requirements in 2002 and 2011.^[108] Critics, including watershed residents, argue these rules stifle growth, reduce property values, and perpetuate economic stagnation by constraining housing and commercial projects, while proponents cite maintained water quality without filtration costs estimated at $5-10 billion.^[109]^[110] Resource extraction debates intensified around hydraulic fracturing for Marcellus Shale gas, with proposals in the 2000s threatening watershed integrity through potential contamination of aquifers and streams.^[111] New York imposed a moratorium in 2010 and enacted a statewide ban on high-volume fracking in 2014, codified permanently in 2020, amid concerns from groups like Catskill Mountainkeeper over risks to public water supplies serving millions.^[112] Supporters of drilling highlighted economic benefits, including job creation and tax revenues in rural counties, with a 2025 analysis estimating lost opportunities equivalent to billions in forgone activity compared to fracking-active states like Pennsylvania.^[113]^[114] Logging and mining remain curtailed under the New York Constitution's "forever wild" clause in the Catskill Forest Preserve, comprising 41% of the Park, with recent expansions like 900 acres added in 2025 reinforcing preservation over extraction.^[115] Contemporary disputes include resort and casino developments, such as the 2025 Sullivan County proposal to invest $585 million in non-gaming assets of the underperforming Resorts World Catskills, opened in 2018, amid forecasts of declining regional tourism and fiscal risks to taxpayers.^[116] These conflicts underscore causal trade-offs: stringent protections have empirically preserved ecosystem services like unfiltered water delivery, but at the expense of local resource-based economies historically reliant on timber, tanning, and now potential energy or tourism booms.^[117]

Recreation and Economy

Hiking, Camping, and Trail Systems

The Catskill Park encompasses over 300 miles of marked and maintained hiking trails on state Forest Preserve lands, managed by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC). These trails range from moderate paths suitable for day hikes to strenuous routes challenging experienced hikers, providing access to diverse terrain including steep ascents, rocky scrambles, and panoramic viewpoints.^[118] Key destinations include the 35 Catskill High Peaks, all surpassing 3,500 feet in elevation, with Slide Mountain at 4,180 feet marking the highest point in the range.^[119]^[120] Prominent trails highlight the region's rugged character, such as the Devil's Path, a 24-mile red-blazed route traversing seven high peaks with extreme elevation changes exceeding 8,000 feet combined gain and loss, often regarded as one of the most demanding hikes east of the Rockies.^[121] The Long Path, a longer blue-marked trail extending from New York City northward, includes significant sections through the Catskills, linking multiple peaks and wild forests.^[122] Trail maintenance emphasizes erosion control and habitat protection, with markers, signage, and occasional relocations to sustain ecological integrity.^[123] Backcountry camping is permitted year-round on Forest Preserve lands at designated sites marked by yellow-and-black "Camp Here" signs or in areas below 3,500 feet elevation outside the winter period from December 21 to March 21, subject to strict regulations prohibiting fires and camping within 150 feet of roads, trails, or water bodies to prevent environmental degradation.^[124]^[125] Over 100 lean-to shelters dot popular routes, offering three-sided Adirondack-style accommodations on a first-come, first-served basis without reservations for small groups.^[126] Group sizes exceeding nine require DEC permits, and all users must adhere to Leave No Trace principles to mitigate overuse impacts observed in high-traffic areas.^[127]

Winter Sports and Aquatic Activities

![Hunter Mountain ski area.jpg][float-right] The Catskill Mountains host several prominent downhill ski resorts, including Hunter Mountain, Windham Mountain Club, and Belleayre Mountain Ski Center, which attract skiers and snowboarders during the winter season typically from December to March.^[128] Hunter Mountain features a summit elevation of 4,040 feet and a vertical drop of 1,600 feet across 67 trails serviced by 13 lifts, with terrain suitable for all skill levels.^[129] Windham Mountain offers 1,600 feet of vertical drop, 97% snowmaking coverage, and 12 lifts, including two high-speed detachable quads, emphasizing advanced skiing opportunities.^[128] Belleayre, operated within Catskill Park, provides year-round recreation but focuses on skiing with varied slopes.^[130] Cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, and snow tubing supplement downhill options, with trails like the 26-mile Catskills Scenic Trail accommodating Nordic skiing and fat biking.^[131] Facilities such as Bearpen Mountain specialize in groomed cross-country trails and snowshoe tours for all ages.^[132] Snowmobiling occurs on designated trails, contributing to the region's winter economy through guided tours and rentals.^[133] ![Tubers on Esopus Creek 2011.jpg][center] Aquatic activities thrive in the Catskills' rivers and lakes, particularly during warmer months. The Esopus Creek, a key waterway, supports class II whitewater tubing with 1- to 3-foot waves and rapids over a popular 5-mile stretch, where outfitters like Town Tinker Tube Rental provide equipment and shuttles for self-guided floats.^[134] Kayaking and canoeing options span flatwater sites such as Colgate Lake and Mongaup Pond, as well as rivers including the Esopus, Schoharie Creek, and Delaware River, offering both calm paddling and moderate whitewater challenges.^[135] Rafting is available on select sections, though tubing predominates for recreational thrill-seekers.^[136] Fishing ranks among the region's premier pursuits, with streams and reservoirs yielding trout, bass, and other species; notable spots include Wilson Lake, Alder Lake, and Cannonsville Reservoir, supported by New York State's licensing and local tackle suppliers.^[137] Paddleboarding and boating on larger bodies like Pepacton Reservoir complement these, drawing anglers and paddlers to the clear waterways year-round, weather permitting.^[138]

Historical Resorts and Modern Tourism

The Catskill Mountains hosted early resort developments beginning in the 19th century, with the Catskill Mountain House opening in 1824 as the first major mountaintop hotel in the United States, situated near Palenville and offering panoramic views of the Hudson River Valley.^[81] This resort attracted affluent urban visitors seeking respite from city life, featuring accommodations for up to 300 guests and inspiring artists and writers through its scenic vistas.^[139] By the mid-19th century, additional hotels and boarding houses proliferated, capitalizing on the region's natural beauty and accessibility via stagecoach and emerging rail lines from New York City. The early 20th century marked the peak of Catskill resort tourism with the rise of the Borscht Belt, a collection of over 1,000 hotels and bungalow colonies primarily in Sullivan and Ulster counties, catering to Jewish families escaping urban summers.^[85] These establishments, operational from the 1920s through the 1960s, offered entertainment including comedy acts, social clubs, and kosher dining, drawing tens of thousands annually and fostering a distinct cultural enclave.^[82] Iconic properties like Grossinger's and the Concord Resort Hotel exemplified the era's grandeur, with amenities such as golf courses, pools, and nightly shows sustaining a robust economy until the late 1960s. Resort decline accelerated post-World War II due to factors including affordable air travel enabling warmer destinations like Florida, suburbanization diminishing the appeal of ethnic-specific escapes, and shifting demographics through assimilation, which reduced demand for Borscht Belt-style vacations.^[140] By the 1980s, most grand hotels had closed or filed for bankruptcy, leaving abandoned structures and economic stagnation in former resort towns; for instance, only a handful remained operational into the 1990s.^[86] Modern tourism in the Catskills has pivoted toward outdoor recreation and eco-focused experiences, with visitor spending reaching $2.5 billion in 2023, a 7% increase from prior years, supporting nearly 18,000 jobs.^[141] This resurgence, amplified post-pandemic, emphasizes hiking, skiing at areas like Hunter Mountain, and watershed activities, attracting 2.7 million annual visitors and generating $170 million in direct spending as of 2019 data.^[142] Boutique inns and farm-to-table retreats have replaced mega-resorts, aligning with preferences for authentic, nature-centric getaways amid broader regional growth exceeding 40% in visitation during the early 2020s.^[143]

Infrastructure

Transportation Networks

The Catskill Mountains are accessed primarily by road, with Interstate 87 (the New York State Thruway) serving as the principal north-south corridor along the eastern boundary, connecting New York City to Albany and providing exits such as Exit 20 near Saugerties for entry into the region.^[144] State Route 28 functions as a key east-west artery through the central Catskills, designated as the 52-mile Catskill Mountains Scenic Byway from Andes to West Hurley, facilitating travel amid forested valleys and offering access to recreational sites.^[145] Other significant routes include State Route 23A, which parallels NY-23 through the northern Catskills and affords views of high peaks like Hunter Mountain, and State Route 214, traversing 12 miles within Catskill Park sections of Ulster and Greene counties.^[146] Rail infrastructure, once extensive for logging, tourism, and freight in the 19th and early 20th centuries, has largely transitioned to heritage operations and rail trails. The Ulster and Delaware Railroad, constructed in the 1860s and operational until the mid-20th century, connected Kingston to points like Phoenicia and Bloomville, but passenger services ceased with the 1954 abandonment of much of the line.^[147] Today, the Catskill Mountain Railroad, a heritage line established in 1982, offers tourist excursions from Kingston northward along former Ulster & Delaware trackage, primarily for scenic and seasonal rides rather than regular commuter use.^[148] Remnants of narrow-gauge lines, such as the Stony Clove & Catskill Mountain Railroad opened in 1882, persist as hiking paths or have been converted to multi-use trails under the Empire State Trail system.^[149] Public bus services provide limited connectivity, mainly linking the Catskills to New York City and regional hubs. Trailways and Greyhound operate routes from Port Authority Bus Terminal in Manhattan to Catskill village and Monticello, with travel times of about 2.5 to 3 hours depending on traffic and stops.^[150] Local options include Greene County Transit's fixed-route lines serving communities like Catskill and Cairo, operating weekdays with reduced hours, and Ulster County's free Z Bus along NY-28 from Kingston to Pine Hill.^[151] These services support workforce commuting and tourism but lack comprehensive coverage of remote mountain interiors.^[152] Aviation access relies on nearby regional airports, with Albany International Airport (ALB), located roughly 60 miles northeast, handling most commercial flights via carriers like Southwest and Delta.^[144] Stewart International Airport (SWF), about 50 miles southeast near Newburgh, offers additional options with JetBlue and Allegiant service, though both require subsequent road travel for deeper Catskills penetration. No public airports exist within the core mountain area, emphasizing automobile dependency for intra-regional mobility.^[144]

Notable Structures and Landmarks

The Catskill Mountain House, constructed in 1823 and opened to guests in 1824, served as a prominent mountaintop resort overlooking the Hudson River until its closure in 1946 and subsequent demolition after a 1957 fire, with remnants removed by 1963.^[79] Perched at an elevation of approximately 2,250 feet near Haines Falls, the hotel accommodated up to 400 guests and drew 19th-century elites, including artists of the Hudson River School whose works depicted its vistas.^[139] Fire observation towers, erected primarily between 1909 and 1920 by the New York State Conservation Department to monitor forest fires, represent enduring infrastructure across the Catskills.^[153] Six such DEC-maintained towers persist, including the Balsam Lake Mountain Fire Observation Station at 3,723 feet near Hardenburgh, restored in 2000 with its original 1917 cab and featuring 360-degree panoramas; the Hunter Mountain Fire Tower at 4,040 feet, dating to 1917; and the Red Hill Fire Tower at 2,990 feet offering views of the Catskill High Peaks and Rondout Reservoir.^[153]^[154] The Ashokan Reservoir, impounded in 1915 by damming the Esopus Creek, forms a 8,315-acre basin divided by a 3,950-foot concrete wall into east and west sections, supplying about 40% of New York City's water needs from the Catskill system.^[155]^[156] Its construction submerged six villages, displacing over 2,000 residents, and includes a 1.5-mile paved promenade along the south shore providing elevated views of surrounding peaks.^[157] Hunter Mountain Ski Area, operational since January 9, 1960, spans 320 skiable acres with 67 trails and pioneered the world's first summit-to-base snowmaking system in 1967, achieving 100% coverage by 1980.^[158] Located in Greene County, the resort features multiple high-speed lifts and a vertical drop of 1,600 feet, evolving from initial rope tows to modern infrastructure under family ownership until 2015.^[159]

Cultural Impact

Influence on American Literature and Art

The Catskill Mountains served as a primary inspiration for the Hudson River School, the first distinctly American school of landscape painting that emerged in the 1820s and emphasized the grandeur and spiritual significance of the nation's natural scenery. Thomas Cole, regarded as the school's founder, conducted his initial sketching expeditions in the Catskills in 1825, capturing scenes like "Sunrise in the Catskills" around 1826, which highlighted the region's misty mornings and forested peaks. Cole relocated to Catskill village in 1833, where he produced works such as "View on the Catskill—Early Autumn" between 1836 and 1837, depicting the area's evolving seasonal landscapes with meticulous detail on foliage and light.^[160] The 1824 opening of the Catskill Mountain House hotel atop the mountains provided artists with an accessible vantage point overlooking the Hudson Valley, fostering depictions of the region's sublime vistas that symbolized American wilderness as a divine counterpart to European ruins.^[161] Subsequent Hudson River School painters expanded on Cole's foundation by portraying Catskill motifs, reinforcing the mountains' role in establishing a national artistic identity rooted in native landscapes rather than imported European traditions. Asher B. Durand, Cole's protégé, painted Catskill scenes influenced by direct observation during visits to the area, while Sanford Robinson Gifford's "October in the Catskills" of 1880 rendered the autumnal hues of the Devil's Path and surrounding ridges with luminous atmospheric effects characteristic of the Luminist style.^[162] William Guy Wall's "Kaaterskill Falls on the Catskill Mountains" from 1826–1827 portrayed the dramatic 260-foot cascade as a focal point of natural power, drawing early attention to the Catskills' waterfalls and gorges.^[163] These works collectively elevated the Catskills from regional topography to emblematic subjects in American art, promoting conservation sentiments amid 19th-century industrialization.^[164] In American literature, the Catskills featured prominently as a setting evoking folklore, mystery, and the untamed frontier. Washington Irving's "Rip Van Winkle," published in 1819, unfolds in a Dutch settlement at the Catskills' base, describing the "Kaatskill" mountains as "a little world in themselves" shrouded in changing weather and legends, thereby embedding the range in early national mythology.^[165] Naturalist John Burroughs, born near the Catskills in 1837, drew from the region's forests and streams in essays that pioneered American nature writing, such as those praising the mountains' scenic vistas and ecological richness in the late 19th century.^[166] This literary portrayal complemented artistic renderings by framing the Catskills as a source of introspection and national character, distinct from urban or coastal narratives.

Representation in Popular Culture

The Catskill Mountains have been depicted in numerous films and television series, often highlighting the region's Borscht Belt resorts that served as summer retreats for Jewish-American families from the early 20th century through the 1970s. The 1987 film Dirty Dancing, directed by Emile Ardolino and starring Patrick Swayze and Jennifer Grey, is set at the fictional Kellerman's resort in the Catskills, portraying the social and romantic dynamics of a 1960s-era vacation spot inspired by real establishments like Grossinger's and the Concord Hotel.^[167] The movie grossed over $214 million worldwide and cemented the Catskills' image as a venue for nostalgic entertainment and cultural transition.^[167] Television representations include episodes of The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel (2017–2023), where characters frequent Catskills resorts mirroring the Borscht Belt's role in developing stand-up comedy through performers like Jerry Lewis and Sid Caesar, who honed their craft at such venues.^[168] The series depicts the resorts' shuffleboard courts, comedy shows, and family-oriented activities, drawing from historical accounts of the area as a hub for Jewish-American humor and social life.^[168] A 2024 documentary titled The Catskills, directed by Lex Gillespie, explores the decline of these resorts, featuring archival footage and interviews that underscore their cultural significance.^[169] The 1969 Woodstock Music and Art Fair, held August 15–18 on Max Yasgur's 600-acre dairy farm in Bethel, New York—located in Sullivan County within the broader Catskills region—attracted an estimated 400,000 attendees and featured 32 acts including Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, and Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young.^[170] The event, documented in the 1970 Oscar-winning film Woodstock directed by Michael Wadleigh, symbolized the 1960s counterculture and has since been referenced in media as an emblem of peace, music, and youthful rebellion, despite logistical challenges like rain and overcrowding.^[170] Other films set in the area include Wet Hot American Summer (2001), a parody of 1980s summer camps, and Sweet Lorraine (1987), which follows the final days of a Catskills resort.^[167]

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[56]
[PDF] Appendix C: Biodiversity of the Upper Schoharie Creek
The species list is derived from reports of observed breeding bird activity ... birds, and endangered species of wildlife. U - Unprotected (defined in ...
[57]
Research Guide to the Catskills Region of New York
Habitat is predicted to become available in higher elevations of the Catskills for species such as the northern copperhead, northern cricket frog, wood turtle, ...Introduction · Human History · Non-Profit Organizations · Funding<|separator|>
[58]
List of Endangered, Threatened and Special Concern Fish and ...
Endangered · Dwarf Wedgemussel, Prolasmidonta heterodon ; Threatened · Brook Floater, Alasmidonta varicosa ; Special Concern · Buffalo Pebble Snail, Gillia altilis.Missing: Catskill Mountains
[59]
Esopus people | Research Starters - EBSCO
The Esopus were a subgroup of the Lenape, an Indigenous American people who originally inhabited the Catskill Mountains in what is now upstate New York
[60]
Esopus-Lenape Land Acknowledgement - Menla
The Esopus, a Lenape people speaking the Munsee dialect of the Algonquin language, settled in small communities near water sources.
[61]
Indigenous Catskills 101
Oct 10, 2023 · Kaatscast sat down with Justin Wexler, of Wild Hudson Valley, for an overview of the Catskills' own native history.
[62]
"The Catskill Commons precontact archeological sites : late Archaic ...
Archeological excavations conducted in advance of a retail development in the Town of Catskill, Greene County, New York revealed three precontact ...Missing: indigenous | Show results with:indigenous
[63]
The Catskill I and II Sites: Two Upland Camps in Eastern New York
New York. This work revealed stratified soils that produced artifacts dating to the Early Late Prehistoric (A.D. 700-1300).
[64]
[PDF] The Bulletin Number 75 March 1979 - New York Archaeology
Following Fowler (1959), the Early Archaic is defined as the period of 8,000-6,000 B.C. and the Middle. Archaic as the period of 6,000-4,000 B.C. In the ...
[65]
Catskill Center Land Acknowledgement
These lands and waterways are among the vast traditional areas of the Haudenosaunee, Esopus Lenape, Munsee Lenape/Monsiyok, and Mohican/Muhhekunneuw Peoples.
[66]
Native American Archaeology | The New York State Museum
Since the mid-19th century, the New York State Museum has conducted archaeological investigations that have helped to write the histories of Native Americans in ...Missing: Catskills | Show results with:Catskills
[67]
Catskill Tanneries - Hudson River Valley Heritage Exhibits
The most devastating aspect of the business was the harvesting of hemlock trees. Their bark contained tannins which was used in the chemical process of tanning ...
[68]
The Hardenbergh Patent
Feb 24, 2012 · In 1708, Johannes Hardenbergh was granted The Great or Hardenbergh Patent consisted of approximately two million acres of land situated in ...
[69]
Catskills History: The Hardenbergh Patent - New York Almanack
Oct 21, 2022 · Issued in 1708 and covering two million acres of land in Ulster, Greene, Orange, Sullivan and Delaware Counties, the Great Hardenbergh Patent ...Missing: settlement | Show results with:settlement
[70]
Deciphering Hardenburgh Patent Surveys and Deeds
Oct 18, 2023 · The 1.5-million-acre Hardenburgh Patent in what is now in Ulster, Greene, Orange, Sullivan and Delaware Counties was granted in 1708.<|separator|>
[71]
Colonial America's Pre-Industrial Age of Wood and Water
The colonial economy was based on the four F's--furs, fish, farms, and forests. In all of these areas technology played an important role.<|separator|>
[72]
Tanning in the Catskills - Zadock Pratt Museum - WordPress.com
Jan 20, 2016 · Tanning became an important craft wherever the population grew. Colonial governments encouraged the industry, but imported leather remained ...Missing: mining | Show results with:mining
[73]
Early History Continued - Geography And Geology Of The Mountains
About 1817, when improved methods of tanning leather were discovered, numerous tanneries were established among the Catskill Mountains. ... Catskills, are also in ...
[74]
Hemlock and Hide: The Tanbark Industry in Old New York
In the industry's 19th century heyday, as many as 64 tanneries were operating in the Catskill region of New York, and estimates hold that 70 million hemlock ...Missing: extraction | Show results with:extraction
[75]
The Catskills Mountains “Borscht Belt”: Here and Gone, Part I
Jul 20, 2014 · The "Borscht Belt" in the Catskills had a "Golden Era" with many resorts, but most closed after the 1960s due to air conditioning and the Civil ...
[76]
[PDF] Bluestone-From Ancient Sea to American Architecture - NY.Gov
Jul 7, 2008 · the Catskill quarry industry which began in Ulster County in the mid. 1800s. Back then, the majority of the stone quarried was actually blue ...Missing: logging tanneries
[77]
Before Harvey Fite, Bluestone Quarries Thrived in the ... - Opus 40
Feb 7, 2022 · Throughout most of the nineteenth century, the areas at the foot of the Catskill Mountains were the site of bluestone cutting and quarrying, ...Missing: logging tanneries
[78]
Catskill Mountain House Overlook
From 1823 to 1963 the Catskill Mountain House stood atop the Catskill High Peaks, overlooking the glorious Catskill mountains and vast blue sky.
[79]
Catskill Mountain House Collection - Vedder Research Library
Originally opened in 1823 by a group of entrepreneurs from Catskill, NY, the property was leased to Charles Beach and finally purchased outright by him in 1836.
[80]
Catskill Mountain House
Catskill Mountain House was originally built in 1824 by a group of merchants in Catskill, New York. In 1839 George Beach leased the hotel for six years.
[81]
The Borscht Belt
The transformation of the Catskills countryside into a resource and then a resort for city people began in the nineteenth century. The early industrial ...
[82]
A Look at What's Left of the Abandoned Borscht Belt Hotels
a beloved epithet that encapsulates 538 hotels and 50,000 bungalow colonies situated in Sullivan and Ulster ...
[83]
Headliners & One-Liners: Songs and Stories of the Catskills Resorts
Oct 17, 2025 · At the peak of their popularity, there were over 1,000 hotels drawing over one million guests each summer to what came to be known as the ...
[84]
The Borscht Belt Was a Haven for Generations of Jewish Americans
Sep 18, 2023 · A new exhibition examines the more than 1000 resorts and hotels that dotted New York's Catskills Mountains and provided relaxation, ...
[85]
Catskills Resort History: The Beginning of the End
Sep 9, 2014 · The Golden Age of the Catskills resort history, which began around 1940, came to an end around 1965, and there are a number of reasons.
[86]
The Rise and Fall of Catskills Resort Tourism… and Why It's Back!
Jun 29, 2022 · The Catskills have retained their beauty, thanks largely to protections instituted by New York State in the early 20th century. There has also ...
[87]
The Catskills Are Back. Again. And Again. - The New York Times
Jun 21, 2019 · The Catskills have had more comebacks than Tony Bennett. The first wave came in the late 1880s when summer vacationers filled boarding houses.<|separator|>
[88]
Back to the Borscht Belt - Tablet Magazine
Jul 19, 2023 · A string of new projects pay homage to the Jewish history in the Catskills—and the area's Jewish revival.
[89]
[PDF] The New York State Forest Preserve - NY.gov
In the. Catskills, the Forest Preserve includes many of the 35 peaks over ... The result was what came to be. Chapter 283 of the Laws of 1885. The final ...
[90]
Adirondack Park and the Catskills | New York State Archives
Adirondack and Catskill Forest Preserves. Created in 1885, they were was the first major milestone in a long and contentious struggle over the fate of New ...Missing: Act | Show results with:Act
[91]
https://www.archives.nysed.gov/research/environment/research/park_overview.shtml
[92]
Catskill Park | 700,000 Acres Of Wilderness & Outdoor Fun
The Catskill Park is home to a variety of animal species. Some animals are more common than others and can be spotted on the mountains and in forested areas.
[93]
About the Catskill Mountains - CERM conference
Elevations of the 35 highest peaks range from 1070 m (3508 ft) to 1275 m (4180 ft) above mean sea level. The Catskill climate is changing, especially with ...Missing: geography size
[94]
Catskills Watershed Resources
The Catskill and Delaware Systems now provide 90% of New York City's water and is the largest unfiltered water supply in the U.S.. Watershed Resources (external ...
[95]
History - Catskill Watershed Corporation
1905. The New York State Legislature passed an act allowing New York City to acquire lands and build dams, reservoirs, and aqueducts in the Catskills.
[96]
History of NYC's Drinking Water
This included the Ashokan Reservoir and Catskill Aqueduct, completed in 1915. The Schoharie Reservoir and Shandaken Tunnel were completed in 1928. Work next ...
[97]
[PDF] New York City Watershed Memorandum of Agreement
Jan 21, 1997 · NEW YORK CITY WATERSHED MEMORANDUM OF AGREEMENT. January 21, 1997. ARTICLE VI MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS. 159. New Filtration Avoidance ...
[98]
Summary | Review of the New York City Watershed Protection ...
The Land Acquisition Program, through which NYC DEP purchases land in the Catskill/Delaware watershed from willing sellers, has been critical in complying with ...
[99]
[PDF] Land Acquisition Program 2023-2024 Solicitation Plan for ... - NYC.gov
Oct 4, 2022 · As depicted in Table 1, since 1997 the LAP has secured 155,165 acres of land in the. Catskill/Delaware System as of September 30, 2022. ... While ...
[100]
History - Watershed Agricultural Council
30,000 Acres of Land Protected. The Conservation Easement program has protected over 30,000 acres of farm and forest land for 200+ NYC Watershed families.<|separator|>
[101]
The fraught history of Catskills water quenching New York City thirst
Dec 22, 2024 · The uneasy relationship between Catskills watershed towns and New York City effectively began in November 1916.
[102]
New York City to stop most land purchases in Catskill watershed
Oct 28, 2024 · The New York City Department of Environmental Protection has agreed to stop most added land purchases to protect its Catskills reservoirs.
[103]
[PDF] The Threat From Hydrofracking - Catskill Citizens for Safe Energy
The need for alternative fuels and decreased reliance on foreign energy sources will keep the pressure on to develop this natural resource to its full capacity.
[104]
When a town disappears: what eminent domain looks like
Oct 14, 2021 · Creation of the Ashokan Reservoir displaced 2,300 Catskills residents 100+ years ago, leaving bitter memories for descendants. By Billy ...
[105]
The Catskill Watershed: a Story of Sacrifice and Cooperation
Nov 30, 2015 · “In the 19th century, when NYC government tried to preserve the water source and ensure that New York City residents have access to clean water ...
[106]
Abridged Version of the New York City Memorandum of Agreement
Before the 1997 Memorandum of Agreement, watershed activities were governed by a ruling from 1953. New watershed regulations stipulated in the MOA work in ...
[107]
EPA Grants NYC a New Waiver from Filtering Most of Its Drinking ...
Nov 26, 2002 · Last granted in 1997, EPA's waiver from filtration required the city to undertake far-reaching watershed protection measures according to a set ...
[108]
[PDF] Watershed Protection Strategies: A Case Study of the New York City ...
watershed area, including restrictions on development, increases in property taxes, reductions in property values and delays in the issu- ance of building ...<|separator|>
[109]
The Catskills' Lost Future: Water, Power, and the Fight for Local ...
Feb 12, 2025 · The text of the Catskill Park bill said that watershed protection was a principal reason for its establishment. In no coincidence the ...
[110]
Fracking in the Catskill Park
That is why based on extensive study and scientific evidence, Catskill Mountainkeeper has called for a ban on fracking in all of New York State. We are also ...Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
[111]
Victories! - Catskill Mountainkeeper
New York's Fracking Ban Signed into Law: In a major victory, in April 2020 the NY State Legislature permanently banned fracking by enshrining our state ban ...
[112]
The Catskills Gas Rush - New York Magazine
Sep 19, 2008 · ... about every rolling knob of the Catskills visible from ... Catskill Mountainkeeper have demanded an all-out ban above the city's watershed.
[113]
Research & Commentary: Report Finds New York's Decision to Ban ...
Jun 11, 2025 · This study from the Global Energy Institute at the US Chamber of Commerce says a ban on fracking in the United States would be catastrophic for the US economy.
[114]
[PDF] Catskill Park State Land Master Plan - NY.Gov
Aug 27, 2008 · boundaries are delineated on a map by a blue line ... Catskill Mountains: A Short History, Purple Mountain Press, Fleischmanns, New.
[115]
The Catskills Casino Bailout Plan Has a Problem | New York Focus
Sep 25, 2025 · Sullivan County is telling investors there will be massive growth at a Catskills casino resort, but its own consultants predict decline.
[116]
Catskill Park History
The tanning industry, especially in the Catskills, wiped out hemlock trees to the extent that tanneries were forced to give up the business because of the ...
[117]
Catskill Park - CNY Hiking
Hiking opportunities abound in the Catskill Park. There are approximately 300 miles of marked, maintained hiking trails on public Forest Preserve land.
[118]
Peaks | Catskill 3500 Club
There are 33 peaks on the Catskill 3500 Club list, with Slide Mountain being the highest at 4,180 feet. Graham and Doubletop are closed to public access.
[119]
Catskill 100 highest - Peakbagger.com
1. Slide Mountain, 4184, 3284, New York, Catskill Mountains · 2. Hunter Mountain, 4034, 2145, New York · 3. Black Dome, 3994, 2078, New York · 4. Thomas Cole ...
[120]
https://peakbagger.com/list.aspx?lid=-924016
[121]
Trails - Catskill Hiker
Besides the thirty-five 3500 foot peaks in the Catskills, there are many other smaller mountains to climb. In addition, there are hundreds of miles of trails to ...
[122]
Catskills Park Map - NYSDEC
The Environmental Notice Bulletin lets you know about projects or regulations being proposed each week. Sign up for one of DEC's many electronic newsletter ...Missing: system | Show results with:system
[123]
Catskill Backcountry Information - NYSDEC
The Welcome to the Catskills webpage is the place to go if you are interested in learning more about the Catskill Mountains. It provides information about ...
[124]
View Document - Unofficial New York Codes, Rules and Regulations
(b) Camping is prohibited within 150 feet of any road, trail, spring, stream, pond or other body of water except at camping areas designated by the department.
[125]
Recreation Use Regulations — Catskill Mountain Club
Except in an emergency or between December 21 and March 21, camping is prohibited above an elevation of 3,500 feet in the Catskills. At all times, only ...
[126]
Dispersed Camping? : r/catskills - Reddit
Feb 27, 2024 · You need a permit from the DEC for any groups of more than 9 to camp together primitively, or for any length of stay in a single campsite of ...
[127]
Ski & Snowboard the Catskills - Winter 2024-2025
With 1,600 vertical feet of skiing, 97% snowmaking coverage and 12 ski lifts, including two high-speed detachable quads, Windham Mountain's reputation as a ...Missing: facts statistics
[128]
Winter Wonderland: Catskills - ILoveNY.com
Jan 28, 2025 · There's something for every level of skier at Hunter Mountain with a 1,600-foot vertical drop, 13 lifts, and 67 trails of varying difficulty.
[129]
Belleayre Mountain | New York's Best Ski Resort | Catskill Park, NY
Belleayre Mountain Ski Center, the best ski and recreation resort in New York, nestled in the gorgeous Catskill Mountains. Open year round!View Snow Report · Tickets & Passes · Web Cams · The Mountain
[130]
Thrills and Chills: The Ultimate Winter Sports Guide to the Catskills, NY
Dec 17, 2024 · The Catskills Scenic Trail is a 26-mile rail trail that transforms into a winter wonderland when the snow falls. Perfect for Nordic skiing, ...<|separator|>
[131]
Bearpen Mountain Sports: Home
A New York Winter Playground. Bearpen Mountain features outdoor adventure and fun for all ages. Cross country ski, snowshoe, and fat bike through scenic ...
[132]
Catskills Winter Sports for Everyone - Albergo Allegria
Catskills Winter Sports for Everyone · Alpine Skiing · Snowshoeing and Cross Country Skiing in the Catskills · Snow Tubing in the Catskills · Snowmobiling · The ...
[133]
The Town Tinker Tube Rental: Home
The Esopus Creek is "NOT" a lazy river! It's class II whitewater which means 1 to 3 foot waves and rapids. It is not a man-made amusement park ride. There are ...Esopus Creek River Map · Price Guide · Prices · Videos
[134]
Outdoor Recreation: Kayaking - Catskill Mountain Club
Kayaking options include flatwater at Colgate Lake, Mongaup Pond, and Big Pond, and rivers like Schoharie Creek, Esopus Creek, and the Delaware River.
[135]
Top 3 Catskills Whitewater Rafting Spots For Thrill Seekers
Town Tinker Tube Rental in Phoenicia has everything you need for a memorable day on the Esopus Creek. White water tubing is the ultimate summer fun, and ...
[136]
Fishing In The Catskills: Prime Spots & Tranquil Waters
The Catskills offer diverse fishing, including trout, bass, and more. Popular spots include Wilson Lake, Alder Lake, and Cannonsville Reservoir.Wilson Lake · Ny Fishing Guidelines · Catskills Paddling
[137]
The Catskills in Upstate New York: Fishing and Kayaking Adventures
The Catskills offer excellent fly fishing, kayaking on the Hudson and Delaware rivers, and Pepacton Reservoir for both fishing and kayaking.
[138]
Catskill Mountain House, c.1846 - Warner Foundation
... Catskill Mountain House hotel opened on nearby South Mountain. This towering manmade edifice stood watch over the scenic Catskills, and embodied the promise ...<|separator|>
[139]
Decline of the Catskills | Reuters
Nov 7, 2014 · ... resort hotel remained in the 1980s, and by the 1990s it too had fallen into bankruptcy. Some areas in the Catskills have become ghost towns ...
[140]
[PDF] ECONOMIC IMPACT OF VISITORS IN NEW YORK 2023
In 2023, visitor spending and tourism-related employment grew to $2.5 billion and. 17,995 jobs, respectively. Visitor spending in the Catskills increased by 7% ...
[141]
Outdoor Recreation on Catskill Lands Brings 2.7 Million People ...
Dec 11, 2019 · Outdoor recreation in the Catskills brings 2.7 million visitors, $170 million in spending, $123.8 million economic impact, and 1,882 jobs.
[142]
New York state tourism has surged in unexpected places
Jul 15, 2024 · The Catskills and Adirondacks regions saw growth of more than 40% in 2022. Story Continues Below Sponsor Message. Story Continues Below Sponsor ...
[143]
Planning a trip to Catskill Mountains - Frommers
Other visitors traveling by air will arrive via Albany International Airport (ALB), 737 Albany-Shaker Rd. (tel. 518/242-2299; www.albanyairport.com), or Stewart ...
[144]
The Catskill Mountains Scenic Byway
The Byway stretches 52 miles across four towns, each having their own hamlets and villages and offering opportunities in all four seasons to explore the region.
[145]
Scenic Drives and Covered Bridges in the Catskills
Catskill Mountains Scenic Byway This 52-mile long road trip follows NY-28 from Phoenicia to Andes (with extensions along NY-214 and NY-42) through Slide ...
[146]
History - Catskill Mountain Railroad
You can ride 150 years of history. The tracks you will be riding on are rich in history, having connected and shaped our communities for almost 150 years.
[147]
Catskill Mountain Railroad
The Catskill Mountain Railroad is a heritage railroad based in Kingston, New York, that began operations in 1982.Polar Express FAQ · Directions · Trains · Catskill Flyer – Spring...<|separator|>
[148]
Rail Trails through the Catskill Mountains - ArcGIS StoryMaps
Dec 6, 2022 · The narrow-gauge Stony Clove & Catskill Mountain Railroad was organized in 1881 to run from Phoenicia north to Hunter. The line opened from ...
[149]
Trailways Bus Tickets from New York, NY to Catskill, NY
Rating 5.0 (3) Book your bus tickets from New York, NY to Catskill, NY with Trailways. Comfortable travel with free Wi-Fi and fares starting from $60.
[150]
Routes & Schedules - Greene County Transit
Routes & Schedules ; 700/701 · Blue Line, Updated 700/701, 7:00 am - 10:30 am; 1:00 pm - 4:30 pm, Catskill, Jefferson Heights, Leeds, Cairo ; 702 · Orange Line ...
[151]
Plan Your Visit to the Catskills
There are limited public transportation options. Some Greyhound and Trailways bus lines take visitors between New York City and select points in the Catskills.Explore · About the CVC · Maurice D. Hinchey
[152]
Catskills Fire Tower Challenge - NYSDEC
The Catskills Fire Tower Challenge encourages experienced hikers to visit the region's remaining DEC-managed fire towers located on Balsam Lake Mountain.
[153]
Red Hill Fire Tower - Catskills Visitor Center
The Red Hill Tower offers an unsurpassed view of the Catskill High Peaks to the west and north, along with the Rondout Reservoir to the southeast.<|separator|>
[154]
Ashokan Reservoir - DEP - NYC.gov
Located in Ulster County, about 13 miles west of Kingston and 73 miles north of New York City, Ashokan Reservoir is formed by the damming of the Esopus Creek.
[155]
Ashokan Reservoir - NYSDEC
This 8,315 acre reservoir is a major component of the Catskill System of the New York City Water supply. The reservoir is broken into two basins by a dividing ...
[156]
Ghost Towns of the Ashokan Reservoir - Archaeology Magazine
The Ashokan Reservoir in the Catskill Mountains supplies New York City with 40 percent of its water. Its construction in the early twentieth century destroyed ...
[157]
Hunter Mountain 2024 2025 Capital Improvements
Since opening 65 years ago on January 9, 1960 with the original “B” Lift in operation, Hunter Mountain has a history of innovation and leadership in the ...
[158]
The History of Hunter Mountain - NYSkiBlog
Hunter Mountain's history includes the Slutzky brothers' early skiing, the 1960 opening, the first top-to-bottom snowmaking, and family ownership until 2015.
[159]
Thomas Cole - View on the Catskill—Early Autumn - American
Title: View on the Catskill—Early Autumn ; Artist: Thomas Cole (American, Lancashire 1801–1848 Catskill, New York) ; Date: 1836–37 ; Culture: American ; Medium: Oil ...
[160]
The Hudson River School - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Oct 1, 2004 · As significantly, in 1824, a tourist hotel was opened in the Catskill Mountains 100 miles upriver from New York. Once in New York in late ...
[161]
Hudson River School Artists
The work of Thomas Cole and Asher B. Durand had a great impact on Cropsey, who often painted similar locations in New York, such as in Catskill Mountain House ( ...
[162]
Hudson River School of Art - Great Northern Catskills
Hudson River School of Art. The Cradle of American Art and the Birth of the Hudson River School in the Great Northern Catskills ... Catskill Mountains. The tour ...
[163]
Thomas Cole National Historic Site
Dec 17, 2014 · Learn About the Catskills and Hudson Valley. The Thomas Cole National Historic Site is situated between the Hudson River and the Catskill ...Visit · Events & Programs · Digital Learning Experience · Explore Thomas Cole
[164]
Rip Van Winkle | Great Northern Catskills of Greene County
This year marks the 200th anniversary of famed American author Washington Irving's penning of the classic tale of Rip Van Winkle. Who isn't fond of the ...
[165]
John Burroughs on the Beauty of the Catskills - Upper Delaware Inn
Jan 14, 2025 · Catskill Mountain Beauty. Scenic Vistas. One of Burroughs ... Catskills, helped establish the genre of nature writing in American literature.
[166]
The 9 Best Movies That Are Set In The Catskills - Ranker
Jul 2, 2024 · Dirty Dancing · Kid Galahad · Sweet Lorraine · Four Seasons Lodge · Wet Hot American Summer · Magic · Murder, Inc. · Tarot.
[167]
The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel: Catskills Jewish Comedy History | TIME
Dec 6, 2018 · While today, what became known as “the Borscht Belt” is probably best known for its depiction in Dirty Dancing, Midge's assumption that everyone ...
[168]
Documentary 'The Catskills' relives a popular 1950s Jewish ... - WABE
Feb 22, 2024 · A new documentary by Lex Gillespie, “The Catskills,” relives the fascinating history of this vibrant scene, and the movie is screening as part of the Atlanta ...
[169]
22 Great Movies and TV Shows Featuring New York Attractions
Feb 3, 2025 · The 1970 Academy Award–winning documentary Woodstock, based on the legendary 1969 music festival, was filmed in Bethel, located in the Catskills ...