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Cherry eye

Cherry eye, also known as prolapse of the gland of the third eyelid (PGTE), is a common ophthalmic disorder in dogs characterized by the protrusion of the lacrimal gland from the nictitating membrane, presenting as a smooth, pink or red mass at the medial canthus of the eye.^[1] This condition arises from a weakness in the connective tissue or retinaculum that anchors the gland, leading to its exposure and potential inflammation.^[2] Primarily affecting dogs under two years of age, cherry eye has an annual prevalence of approximately 0.20% in the canine population and is more frequent in certain breeds due to genetic predispositions.^[3] The third eyelid, or nictitating membrane, is a protective structure located in the inner corner of the eye that helps maintain tear production and ocular health; the prolapsed gland contributes 33-66% of the eye's aqueous tear film.^[2] Symptoms typically include the visible mass, ocular discharge, conjunctival hyperemia, and occasional discomfort, though many dogs remain asymptomatic initially.^[1] Breeds predisposed to cherry eye include brachycephalic and spaniel-type dogs such as the American and English Cocker Spaniels, Beagles, Bulldogs, Pugs, Boston Terriers, Shih Tzus, and Lhasa Apsos, with genetic factors identified through genome-wide association studies linking the condition to genes involved in eye development.^[4]^[3] Diagnosis is straightforward via physical examination, often supplemented by a Schirmer tear test to evaluate tear production and rule out concurrent issues like scrolled nictitans cartilage.^[1] While manual repositioning may provide temporary relief, surgical correction is the standard treatment to replace the gland and preserve its function, as excision risks keratoconjunctivitis sicca (dry eye syndrome) due to reduced tear secretion.^[2] Common procedures include the Morgan pocket technique, which has a low recurrence rate of 0-12.5% and minimal complications like corneal ulceration.^[5] Prognosis is generally favorable with early intervention, though delayed treatment can lead to gland fibrosis, chronic irritation, or secondary infections; recurrence occurs in 5-10% of cases, sometimes necessitating revision surgery.^[4] Although rare in cats (e.g., Burmese breed), cherry eye is predominantly a canine condition with no known preventive measures beyond breed selection.^[2]

Overview

Definition and Anatomy

Cherry eye refers to the prolapse of the lacrimal gland associated with the nictitating membrane, or third eyelid, which manifests as a red, fleshy mass protruding at the medial canthus of the eye.^[6]^[1] This condition arises when the gland, normally positioned out of sight, becomes exposed due to failure of its supporting structures.^[2] In normal anatomy, the third eyelid is a thin, translucent membrane situated at the inner corner of the eye, ventral to the lower eyelid, and serves as an additional protective barrier.^[6] Embedded within it is the tear-producing gland, anchored by connective tissue and a small ligament to the orbital rim and surrounding structures, ensuring it remains concealed behind the membrane.^[2]^[1] The gland itself is supported by a T-shaped cartilage that maintains the overall structure and mobility of the third eyelid.^[1] The nictitating membrane gland plays a vital role in ocular health by secreting up to 50% of the aqueous layer of the tear film, which lubricates the cornea, removes debris, and provides antimicrobial protection.^[6]^[1] This contribution is essential, as the third eyelid sweeps across the eye surface during blinking to distribute tears evenly.^[2] Although cherry eye is most prevalent in dogs, it occurs more rarely in other species such as cats, rabbits, and birds.^[6]^[7]

Epidemiology and Risk Factors

Cherry eye, or prolapse of the nictitating membrane gland (PNMG), has an annual prevalence of approximately 0.20% (95% CI: 0.19–0.21) among dogs attending primary care veterinary practices in the UK, based on a large cohort of over 900,000 dogs. In specialized ophthalmic clinics, the condition accounts for a higher proportion, such as 6.65% of canine eye cases in one retrospective study of 368 presentations. Prevalence varies significantly by population, with rates exceeding 5% in high-risk breeds and up to 22% in certain predisposed groups.^[8]^[9]^[10] The condition predominantly affects young dogs, with a median age at first diagnosis of 0.63 years (IQR: 0.33–1.98) and dogs under 1 year showing 10.82 times the odds compared to those aged 2 to under 4 years. Most cases occur before 2 years of age, though onset can range from as early as 0.11 years to 18 years; a 2024 retrospective study reported a mean age of 1.42 ± 0.62 years among affected dogs. Peak incidence falls between 6 months and 2 years, with 79% of diagnoses before 1 year in mixed-breed analyses.^[8]^[11]^[10] Breed predispositions are well-documented, particularly among brachycephalic and spaniel-type dogs due to genetic factors involving loose connective tissue and retrogene insertions like FGF4L1 on chromosome 18. High-risk purebreds include the Neapolitan Mastiff (OR 34.26 vs. crossbreeds), English Bulldog (OR 24.08), Cane Corso (OR 14.66), Lhasa Apso (OR 12.37), American Cocker Spaniel (OR 11.57), Shih Tzu, Beagle, Pug, Boston Terrier, and Mastiff varieties, with brachycephalic conformation conferring 6.93 times the odds overall. A 2022 UK VetCompass study highlighted elevated risk in crossbreeds such as Puggles, alongside purebreds. Purebred dogs face 1.43 times the odds compared to crossbreeds.^[10]^[8]^[9] Bilateral occurrence affects 20-40% of cases, with one study reporting 37% and another 16.7%, though it can reach 50% in susceptible populations. Males show a slight predisposition, comprising 58.33% of cases in clinic data. Additional risk factors include environmental triggers such as trauma or inflammation, with insured dogs at 1.89 times higher odds, possibly reflecting increased veterinary access.^[12]^[9]^[13]^[8]^[14] Cherry eye is rare in cats, with sporadic case reports in breeds like Burmese, Siamese, and Persians, often in individuals under 2 years but without established age-specific epidemiology. The condition has no significant human equivalent and is infrequently reported in other animals beyond occasional canine and feline cases. A 2025 genome-wide association study confirmed breed-specific genetic loci, reinforcing hereditary risks in canine populations.^[15]^[16]^[3]

Pathophysiology

Causes

Cherry eye, or prolapse of the nictitating membrane gland, primarily arises from a congenital weakness in the connective tissue or fibrous attachments that normally secure the gland in its orbital position. This structural deficiency allows the gland to dislodge under normal physiological pressures, and the condition is often hereditary, with affected dogs typically presenting in early life.^[17]^[18] Genetic factors play a significant role, with polygenic inheritance suspected in predisposed breeds such as Bulldogs, Cocker Spaniels, and Beagles, where no single causative gene has been definitively identified. Selective breeding practices, particularly in brachycephalic breeds, exacerbate the risk by promoting anatomical traits that weaken glandular support. A 2024 study identified an association between cherry eye and insertion of the FGF4L1 retrogene on canine chromosome 18, which is linked to chondrodysplasia and observed at higher odds in mixed-breed dogs carrying one or two copies of the insertion (odds ratios of 2.01 and 3.61, respectively). Additionally, a 2025 genome-wide association study highlighted multiple single nucleotide polymorphisms potentially contributing to the condition in brachycephalic dogs.^[19]^[10]^[3] Secondary causes include trauma, such as eye rubbing from irritation or injury, which can strain the already vulnerable attachments and precipitate prolapse. Inflammation from allergies, infections like conjunctivitis, or corneal ulcers may also contribute by causing localized swelling that disrupts glandular stability, while sudden head movements can impose mechanical stress on the tissues.^[20] In developmental terms, immature connective tissues in puppies often lead to early-onset prolapse, with the condition frequently appearing before two years of age; untreated cases risk glandular atrophy due to impaired circulation. Non-genetic contributors encompass anatomical variations, such as brachycephalic skull shapes, which increase mechanical stress on the orbital structures and heighten susceptibility in affected breeds.^[18]^[19]

Mechanism of Prolapse

In normal canine anatomy, the tear-producing gland of the third eyelid, also known as the nictitans gland, is positioned at the base of the T-shaped cartilage of the nictitating membrane, tucked ventrally and held in place by fibrous connective tissue bands anchored to the orbital rim and surrounding periorbital structures.^[21]^[6] This secure attachment maintains the gland's position within the medial canthus, concealed behind the leading edge of the third eyelid, allowing it to contribute approximately 30-50% of the aqueous component of the tear film without exposure to the ocular surface.^[18]^[2] The prolapse occurs when these fibrous attachments weaken or tear, permitting the gland to evert and protrude dorsally or medially from its normal pocket, often emerging above the leading edge of the third eyelid as a fleshy mass.^[21]^[6] This displacement exposes the gland to mechanical friction from the eyelid, environmental desiccation, and potential trauma, initiating a cascade of inflammatory responses. Congenital laxity in the connective tissue is hypothesized as a predisposing factor in affected breeds.^[2] Upon exposure, the prolapsed gland undergoes physiological changes characterized by increased vascular permeability and congestion, resulting in the characteristic "cherry-red" appearance due to hyperemia and edema.^[18]^[21] The gland may swell further from impaired venous drainage and inflammatory mediators, exacerbating protrusion and compromising its secretory function. The condition typically progresses in stages, beginning with intermittent prolapse in young dogs under two years of age, which may spontaneously reduce but recur with ocular manipulation or stress, eventually advancing to persistent protrusion if untreated.^[6]^[2] Chronic exposure prompts adaptive tissue responses, including fibrosis and glandular atrophy, which diminish tear production capacity and increase the risk of secondary keratoconjunctivitis sicca.^[21]^[18] Prolapse dynamics are independent between eyes but influenced by shared genetic factors, with unilateral onset common and the contralateral eye affected in up to 16-50% of cases, often within months.^[21]^[6]

Clinical Features

Symptoms

The primary clinical sign of cherry eye is the appearance of a reddish-pink, fleshy mass protruding from the medial canthus (inner corner) of the eye, often resembling a small cherry due to its color and shape.^[6]^[17]^[4] This prolapse typically affects the gland of the third eyelid and is most commonly unilateral, though bilateral involvement can occur in some cases.^[17]^[22] Associated ocular signs include mild to moderate conjunctival hyperemia (redness of the conjunctiva), epiphora (excessive tearing), mucoid or purulent discharge, and blepharospasm (squinting or excessive blinking).^[17]^[23] These manifestations arise from irritation caused by the exposed gland and may lead to secondary inflammation if untreated.^[17] Dogs with cherry eye often exhibit variable levels of discomfort, such as pawing at the affected eye or rubbing the face against surfaces, indicating irritation rather than severe pain in most cases.^[17]^[4] Severe pain is uncommon unless a secondary infection develops, which can exacerbate the condition.^[17] Over time, the prolapsed mass may enlarge, become drier and more fibrotic, or intermittently retract and re-prolapse, with the third eyelid occasionally partially covering the cornea if the mass is sizable.^[4]^[6]^[22] The condition often presents with sudden onset, particularly in young dogs, and is more readily noticeable during periods of excitement when the third eyelid is more active.^[4] Asymptomatic cases are rare, typically discovered incidentally during routine examinations without accompanying signs of irritation or discharge.^[17]

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of cherry eye, or prolapse of the third eyelid gland, begins with a thorough history and physical examination. Owners typically report noticing a red or pink mass protruding from the medial canthus of the eye, often in young dogs under two years of age, though it can occur in cats as well.^[6]^[15] During the physical exam, the veterinarian visually identifies the characteristic smooth, lobular, reddish mass representing the prolapsed gland, which may partially or fully cover the cornea. Gentle retropulsion of the globe with digital pressure over the closed upper eyelid can elevate the third eyelid to confirm the prolapse and assess the gland's position and structure.^[1]^[24] In straightforward cases, this direct visualization provides confirmation without further intervention.^[18] Diagnostic tests are employed to evaluate associated ocular health and rule out complications. The Schirmer tear test measures tear production, which is often normal initially but may indicate keratoconjunctivitis sicca if reduced below 15 mm/min, as the prolapsed gland contributes up to 40% of basal tear secretion.^[6]^[15] Fluorescein staining is routinely performed after topical anesthesia to detect corneal ulcers or abrasions resulting from exposure or irritation caused by the mass.^[6]^[24] Imaging such as orbital ultrasound or computed tomography is not routine but may be indicated if neoplasia or other orbital pathology is suspected, particularly in older animals or atypical presentations.^[6] Differential diagnoses must be considered to distinguish cherry eye from similar conditions, ensuring accurate confirmation. Common mimics include everted cartilage of the third eyelid, which presents as a scrolled edge rather than a lobular mass; follicular conjunctivitis or lymphoid hyperplasia, appearing as smaller, multifocal conjunctival follicles; and neoplasia such as adenoma or plasmoma, which may exhibit irregular texture or pigmentation.^[15]^[24] Foreign bodies, abscesses, or prolapsed conjunctiva can also simulate the appearance, while in cats, haw's syndrome—characterized by bilateral third eyelid protrusion without gland prolapse—requires differentiation through systemic evaluation.^[25]^[26] The prolapse is often described in terms of severity: mild if easily reducible by gentle massage, moderate if persistent without irritation, or severe if accompanied by secondary issues like ulceration or dry eye.^[6]

Management

Non-Surgical Approaches

Temporary manual reduction of the prolapsed third eyelid gland involves gently pushing the exposed tissue back into its normal position, typically aided by topical lubricants such as artificial tear ointments to minimize friction and reduce the likelihood of immediate re-prolapse. This approach is suitable for mild, acute cases and provides short-term symptom relief by alleviating irritation and exposure, but it requires careful handling to avoid further trauma to the delicate gland.^[6]^[17] Medical therapy complements manual reduction through the use of anti-inflammatory ointments, including topical corticosteroids, to decrease swelling and secondary irritation, while antibiotics may be prescribed if infection develops from exposure or rubbing. An Elizabethan collar is often employed to prevent self-trauma by deterring the dog from pawing at the eye, thereby protecting the prolapsed gland during this interim period. These interventions focus on comfort and prevention of complications like corneal ulcers but do not correct the underlying structural weakness causing the prolapse.^[6]^[17] For young puppies, a monitoring protocol with regular veterinary examinations may be considered, as spontaneous resolution occurs rarely, in approximately 20% of cases, potentially allowing time for natural repositioning without immediate intervention. However, non-surgical methods are contraindicated for chronic prolapse due to the elevated risk of glandular atrophy and fibrosis, which can impair tear production long-term; they serve solely as a temporary bridge to definitive surgical correction. Current veterinary guidelines highlight the low long-term efficacy of these approaches, with high recurrence rates often exceeding 80%, underscoring their role as outdated primary treatments.^[27]^[28] These conservative options are inexpensive and accessible, typically involving over-the-counter lubricants and short-term prescriptions, but delaying surgery can worsen outcomes by promoting irreversible glandular damage.^[6]

Surgical Techniques

The primary goal of surgical intervention for cherry eye is to reposition the prolapsed third eyelid gland back into its normal anatomical location within the orbit, thereby restoring its function in tear production while avoiding excision, which is strongly discouraged due to the high risk of subsequent keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS) from reduced aqueous tear secretion.^[5]^[29] Historically, gland excision was a common approach prior to the 2000s, but a paradigm shift toward preservation techniques occurred as evidence demonstrated the gland's critical role in contributing up to 40% of total tear production, leading to widespread adoption of repositioning methods to prevent chronic dry eye.^[5] The pocket technique, also known as the Morgan pocket or envelope method, involves creating a subconjunctival pocket on the ventral aspect of the third eyelid by incising the conjunctiva parallel to the eyelid margin, tucking the gland into this pocket, and securing it with absorbable mattress sutures passed through the cartilage without penetrating the gland itself to avoid trauma. This method is widely favored for its simplicity and high efficacy, with success rates ranging from 95% to 99%, and recurrence rates as low as 0.8% to 3% in long-term follow-up studies.^[5]^[29]^[30] Imbrication or anchoring techniques fold the prolapsed gland and secure it by suturing the overlying conjunctiva to the underlying sclera or cartilage, often using horizontal mattress sutures; variations include the Kaswan intranictitans tack, which anchors the gland directly to the third eyelid cartilage. These methods are particularly suitable for smaller or less edematous glands and show comparable success rates to the pocket technique, with no significant difference in recurrence (approximately 5-12% across studies), though they may be preferred when pocket creation is challenging due to anatomical constraints.^[5]^[30] For recurrent cases, advanced gland replacement techniques involve tacking the gland to orbital tissues, such as the ventral sclera, periosteum of the orbital rim, or ventral rectus muscle, sometimes combined with mesh reinforcement or temporary fixation sutures to enhance stability; these are reserved for failures of primary repositioning and achieve success in 75-90% of such instances by providing stronger anchorage.^[5] Surgical procedures are typically performed under general anesthesia, allowing for either unilateral or bilateral correction in a single session if both eyes are affected; postoperative care routinely includes topical antibiotics to prevent infection and anti-inflammatory medications to reduce swelling, with an e-collar recommended for 7-10 days to minimize self-trauma.^[29]^[5] Recent research as of 2025 continues to endorse the pocket technique as the gold standard, with a variant incorporating temporary ventral scleral tacking demonstrating 99.2% efficacy in a cohort of 126 eyes across various breeds, including brachycephalics like Bulldogs, where breed-specific adjustments—such as modified suture tension to account for shallower orbits—help mitigate higher prolapse risks.^[29] Common complications include suture failure leading to recurrence (5-10%), infection (approximately 5%), lacrimal cyst formation (4%), and corneal ulceration (1-2%), with brachycephalic breeds requiring vigilant monitoring for third eyelid elevation due to conformational factors.^[29]^[5]^[30]

Outcomes

Prognosis Without Intervention

If left untreated, cherry eye leads to persistent irritation of the ocular surface due to the exposed prolapsed gland, often resulting in secondary bacterial conjunctivitis or corneal exposure ulcers. These short-term complications arise from mechanical friction and impaired tear distribution, affecting approximately 20-30% of cases within the initial months.^[18]^[17] Over the long term, the prolapsed gland undergoes atrophy and fibrosis, significantly impairing its function and reducing tear production by up to 50%, as the third eyelid gland normally contributes 30-50% of the total tear film in dogs. This progression increases the risk of keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS, or dry eye) in 40-50% of untreated dogs. The initial prolapse may remain stable for several months, but fibrosis causes permanent glandular dysfunction, exacerbating dryness and inflammation.^[5]^[31] Untreated cherry eye substantially impacts quality of life, causing chronic discomfort from ongoing irritation, excessive discharge, and potential vision impairment due to corneal scarring or secondary infections, which occur at higher rates without intervention. Evidence from cohort studies underscores these outcomes, with untreated dogs showing a threefold higher relative risk of KCS compared to those undergoing gland replacement.^[5]^[18]

Post-Intervention Prognosis

Surgical intervention for cherry eye, particularly through gland replacement techniques, achieves resolution in 85-95% of cases, with recurrence rates generally ranging from 5-10%.^[32]^[33]^[5] These rates can be higher in predisposed breeds such as American Bulldogs and Mastiffs, where re-prolapse may occur in up to 20% of instances due to anatomical factors like cartilage anomalies.^[14]^[34] Post-surgical recovery typically involves initial swelling and inflammation that subsides within 1-2 weeks, during which an Elizabethan collar is used to prevent self-trauma.^[35]^[36] Full restoration of tear production, as the third eyelid gland contributes 30-50% of total lacrimal secretion, generally occurs in 4-6 weeks and is monitored using Schirmer tear tests to ensure adequate function and detect any deficits early.^[18]^[17] Complications following surgery are uncommon but may include surgical site infections in 2-5% of cases, dry eye syndrome if partial gland atrophy developed pre-operatively, or restricted eyelid movement from over-tightening during the procedure.^[37]^[5] In the long term, successful preservation of the gland's lacrimal function effectively prevents secondary dry eye, leading to an excellent vision prognosis, particularly when intervention occurs early.^[1]^[6] Prognosis is favorably influenced by early surgical correction, which minimizes inflammation and fibrosis, thereby reducing recurrence risk; bilateral cases may require treatment of both eyes.^[1]^[38] According to Cornell University's Riney Canine Health Center (as of September 2025), the overall prognosis with timely gland replacement is very good, noting minimal chronic issues when addressed promptly.^[1]

References

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