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Child euthanasia

Child euthanasia is the active, intentional termination of a minor's life—typically an infant, neonate, or young child experiencing intractable suffering from a terminal illness or profound disability—by a physician administering lethal drugs, such as sedatives followed by neuromuscular blockers.^[1] This practice, distinct from withholding treatment or palliative sedation, requires parental consent, confirmation of hopeless prognosis, and unbearable pain unresponsive to alternatives, as outlined in protocols like the Netherlands' Groningen Protocol developed in 2002 for severely ill newborns.^[2] It remains exceedingly rare globally, with only a handful of reported cases annually where legalized, often involving conditions like untreatable neurological disorders or extreme prematurity complications.^[3] The Netherlands pioneered modern regulation of neonatal euthanasia through the Groningen Protocol, which provides criteria to shield physicians from prosecution when ending life in infants with no prospect of meaningful survival, though formal criminal code amendments for children aged 1–12 took effect in February 2024, extending prior allowances for those 12 and older.^[4] Belgium followed in 2014 by removing age limits for euthanasia in minors with terminal conditions, requiring psychological assessment and parental approval; between 2016 and 2018, just three such cases occurred, underscoring the procedure's infrequency even under law.^[5] No other countries permit it outright, though end-of-life decisions short of active killing, such as withdrawal of life support, occur more commonly in pediatric care worldwide.^[6] Key controversies center on children's incapacity for informed consent, the risk of diagnostic errors in prognosis, and broader implications for valuing disabled lives, with critics arguing it erodes protections against coerced or hasty decisions amid imperfect medical foresight.^[7] Empirical reviews indicate low prevalence—17 euthanasia cases for Dutch minors aged 12–18 from 2002 to 2022—but highlight inconsistent reporting and potential undercounting of unreported infant terminations.^[3] Proponents emphasize relieving futile suffering, yet studies reveal physician discomfort and ethical strain, with many favoring intensified palliation over active ending.^[8] These debates underscore tensions between autonomy in extremis and the sanctity of nascent life, uninfluenced by broader societal pressures on resource allocation or disability stigma.

Historical Development

Pre-20th Century Conceptualizations

In ancient Sparta, newborns underwent inspection by a council of elders shortly after birth; infants deemed puny, deformed, or otherwise unfit were exposed on the slopes of Mount Taygetus, left to perish from exposure to the elements, as described by Plutarch in his Life of Lycurgus.^[9] This practice, rooted in the state's emphasis on physical vigor for military purposes, represented an early form of selective passive euthanasia, where omission of care rather than direct intervention determined the infant's fate, though archaeological corroboration remains sparse and debates persist over its frequency beyond textual accounts.^[10]^[11] Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle further conceptualized the exposure of deformed infants as a societal duty. In The Republic, Plato advocated laws prohibiting the rearing of malformed children to preserve communal health, while Aristotle in Politics (Book VII) explicitly stated that "no deformed child shall live," endorsing paternal or state-guided abandonment for those unlikely to contribute productively.^[12] These views framed such omissions not as homicide but as pragmatic prevention of burden, distinguishing them from active killing by relying on natural death through neglect. In ancient Rome, the paterfamilias exercised patria potestas, granting absolute authority to expose or drown newborns with congenital defects or those straining family resources, as permitted under the Twelve Tables for weak or deformed males and females.^[13] Infanticide via exposure was widespread, often motivated by economic hardship, with literary and legal sources indicating it targeted infants perceived as non-viable or excessive in number, yet the method emphasized passive abandonment—placing the child in a location to die without sustenance—over overt violence.^[14]^[15] This approach persisted culturally until Christian doctrines in the late Roman Empire condemned it, shifting toward prohibitions on both active and passive forms by the 4th century CE.^[13] By the 19th century, European medical literature debated withholding aggressive interventions from infants with severe congenital anomalies, such as untreated hydrocephalus or spina bifida, where physicians viewed prolonged treatment as futile prolongation of suffering.^[16] Texts and professional discussions, including those prompted by early euthanasia proposals, increasingly countenanced "letting die" through omission of non-beneficial procedures, aligning with a passive ethic that avoided direct causation of death while acknowledging hopeless prognoses based on limited surgical outcomes.^[17] Such views reflected empirical observations of high mortality in "defective" cases, prioritizing non-intervention over experimental surgeries with poor survival rates.

Early 20th Century Eugenic Practices

In the early 20th century, eugenics movements in the United States advocated for interventions to prevent the reproduction and survival of individuals deemed genetically "unfit," including proposals to withhold medical treatment from severely disabled infants as a form of passive euthanasia. This reflected a first-principles rationale prioritizing population-level genetic quality over individual survival, often justified by fears of hereditary degeneration amid industrialization and rising institutionalization rates for the disabled. While active killing was rare, physicians like Harry J. Haiselden publicly defended refusing life-saving surgery for newborns with multiple congenital anomalies, arguing such children would burden society and propagate defects.^[18]^[19] A prominent case occurred in November 1915 in Chicago, when Dr. Haiselden examined newborn John Bollinger, diagnosed with cloacal exstrophy, spina bifida, and other anomalies incompatible with normal life without extensive surgery. Haiselden persuaded the parents against operative intervention, allowing the infant to die after ten days, and framed the decision as merciful eugenics to avert a "hopelessly defective" existence and future reproduction. The case drew national attention, with Haiselden facing no legal charges despite investigations, and he claimed similar refusals in at least five other infant cases over subsequent years. To propagate his views, Haiselden starred in the 1917 silent film The Black Stork, which dramatized eugenic euthanasia by depicting a physician preventing the birth and survival of "defective" offspring, influencing public discourse on mercy killing.^[19]^[18]^[20] These actions aligned with the broader U.S. eugenics framework, where by 1920, over 30 states had enacted compulsory sterilization laws for the "feeble-minded" and epileptic, sterilizing tens of thousands to curb hereditary "degeneracy." Advocates like Helen Keller, herself blind and deaf, endorsed withholding treatment from infants with profound disabilities, stating in 1915 commentary on the Bollinger case that "it is better to mercifully end the life of a hopelessly suffering child than to prolong it," viewing such measures as compassionate prevention of inherited affliction. European eugenicists echoed similar concerns, with post-World War I proposals in Germany, such as Alfred Hoche and Karl Binding's 1920 treatise Permitting the Destruction of Life Unworthy of Life, advocating euthanasia for "idiots" and severely impaired children as a humane societal duty amid economic strains from war-related birth defects. However, these remained largely theoretical or physician-discretionary in democratic contexts, distinct from later state mandates.^[21]^[22]^[23]

Nazi Germany's Aktion T4 and Child Euthanasia

The child euthanasia program in Nazi Germany began in the summer of 1939, prompted by a parental request to Adolf Hitler regarding their severely disabled infant son, Gerhard Knauer, leading to an authorization for "mercy killing" of incurably ill children.^[24] This initiative predated the full adult Aktion T4 program but expanded under the "Reich Committee for the Scientific Registration of Serious Hereditary and Congenital Illnesses," formally established on October 18, 1939, by Reich Chancellery Chief Philipp Bouhler and Hitler's physician Karl Brandt.^[25] The committee, ostensibly for research, registered and evaluated children reported by midwives, doctors, and clinics under an August 18, 1939, decree mandating notification of newborns and children under three exhibiting severe physical or mental defects.^[24] Selection criteria targeted children deemed to have "life unworthy of life" due to conditions such as congenital deformities, Down syndrome, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, schizophrenia, or other hereditary illnesses impairing racial hygiene goals of preventing genetic degeneration in the Aryan population.^[25] Expert evaluators, often physicians, reviewed medical records and sometimes conducted examinations to approve transfers to specialized pediatric wards disguised as treatment centers, such as those at Görden, Eichberg, or the "Kinderfachabteilung" in Eglfing-Haar.^[24] Estimates indicate 5,000 to 10,000 children, primarily aged 0 to 17, were killed under this centralized Reich Committee process by 1945, with killings continuing decentralized after the 1941 halt to adult T4 operations.^[26]^[24] Killings employed medicalized methods including gradual starvation through reduced food and fluids, lethal injections of sedatives like Luminal (phenobarbital) or morphine-scopolamine combinations, and, in some cases, exposure to cold or cyanide poisoning to simulate natural decline.^[25] Parents were systematically deceived: children were admitted under promises of specialized care, and families later received falsified death certificates attributing causes to infections like pneumonia or measles, along with urns containing unrelated ashes and condolences urging acceptance of "fate."^[24] This program tested extermination logistics, including carbon monoxide gassing refined at T4 adult centers and later adapted for Holocaust killing sites, with T4 personnel redeployed to Operation Reinhard camps like Belzec and Sobibor.^[25] The program's ideological foundation in eugenics and racial purity directly facilitated escalation to mass genocide, as techniques and staff gained proficiency in industrialized murder under state coercion.^[24] Post-war, the Nuremberg Doctors' Trial (1946–1947) prosecuted key figures like Karl Brandt, convicting them of murder, war crimes, and crimes against humanity for these acts, establishing precedents against non-voluntary euthanasia as homicide rather than medical procedure.^[25]

Post-World War II Rejections and Taboos

Following the revelations of Nazi Germany's systematic child euthanasia programs, which killed an estimated 5,000 to 6,000 disabled children between 1939 and 1945, international medical ethics underwent a profound shift emphasizing the sanctity of life and informed consent, directly influencing prohibitions on active euthanasia. The Nuremberg Code, established in 1947 during the Doctors' Trial, mandated voluntary consent for any medical intervention and rejected non-therapeutic harm, serving as a foundational response to the coerced killings under Aktion T4 and its pediatric extensions, thereby embedding a global taboo against state- or physician-sanctioned euthanasia of vulnerable populations, including children.^[27]^[25] This revulsion manifested in updated professional oaths and declarations that explicitly prioritized preserving life over hastening death. The World Medical Association's Declaration of Geneva, adopted in 1948 as a modern Hippocratic Oath, pledged physicians to "maintain the utmost respect for human life" and avoid actions that undermine it, reflecting a consensus rejection of euthanasia amid postwar human rights frameworks like the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which affirmed the inherent right to life from conception onward.^[28] National laws and medical codes from the 1940s through the 1980s universally proscribed active euthanasia, with organizations like the American Medical Association maintaining that physician involvement in deliberate killing would erode trust and cause net harm, a stance rooted in empirical observations of Nazi precedents where medical authority enabled mass murder.^[29] In the United States, this ethical framework crystallized in responses to cases involving disabled newborns, exemplified by the 1982 Baby Doe incident, where parents of an infant with Down syndrome and esophageal atresia refused surgical correction, leading to the child's death after six days; public and legal outcry prompted federal "Baby Doe" regulations in 1984, requiring hospitals receiving federal funds to provide "medically indicated" treatment to impaired infants unless futile or excessively burdensome, thereby enforcing a legal barrier against withholding care as a form of euthanasia.^[30]^[31] These rules, upheld amid court challenges, underscored a causal link between postwar taboos and policies prioritizing intervention over non-treatment for life-threatening conditions in children. Concurrently, the hospice movement emerged as an alternative paradigm, pioneered by Cicely Saunders, who opened St Christopher's Hospice in London in 1967 to deliver holistic palliative care focused on symptom relief, emotional support, and dignity without recourse to lethal interventions.^[32] Saunders explicitly opposed euthanasia, arguing that comprehensive end-of-life care—integrating pain management advances like opioids—could mitigate suffering sufficiently to obviate demands for killing, a view empirically supported by hospice outcomes showing reduced patient requests for assisted death through attentive, non-abandonment-based treatment.^[33] This shift from eugenic-era rationales to palliative ethics dominated until the 1990s, when isolated debates in Europe began testing the taboo, though formal medical consensus remained firmly against child euthanasia amid fears of slippery slopes echoing historical abuses.^[34]

Modern Legal and Regulatory Frameworks

Netherlands

The Netherlands became the first country to explicitly regulate euthanasia for minors with the enactment of the Termination of Life on Request and Assisted Suicide (Review Procedures) Act in 2001, effective April 1, 2002.^[35] This law permits active euthanasia for children aged 12 and older experiencing unbearable suffering without prospect of improvement, provided the request is voluntary and well-considered, the physician consults at least one independent colleague, and due care criteria are met.^[4] For minors aged 12 to 16, parental consent is mandatory; those 16 and older can consent independently, though parents must be informed and involved where possible.^[36] Cases remain exceedingly rare: between 2002 and 2015, only seven instances of euthanasia were reported for children aged 12 and older.^[37] In April 2023, the Dutch government approved regulations expanding access to euthanasia for children aged 1 to 12 suffering from a terminal illness with unbearable symptoms and no reasonable prospect of improvement, effective February 1, 2024.^[38] These guidelines require physician judgment of the child's competence to express wishes, parental agreement, and confirmation by an independent specialist that all alternatives have been exhausted.^[39] The expansion targets only a narrow subset of cases, such as those involving untreatable cancers or metabolic disorders, with physicians required to document exhaustive palliative efforts beforehand.^[40] All reported euthanasia cases, including those involving minors, undergo mandatory post-hoc review by one of five regional euthanasia review committees comprising physicians, lawyers, and ethicists.^[41] These committees assess compliance with due care criteria—such as the presence of hopeless suffering, informed consent, and absence of reasonable alternatives—based on physician-submitted reports and patient records; non-compliance may trigger prosecutorial referral, though such instances are infrequent.^[42] This oversight mechanism, established under the 2002 Act, ensures procedural accountability without prior approval, distinguishing Dutch practice from unregulated end-of-life decisions.^[43]

Belgium

Belgium legalized euthanasia for adults in 2002 under strict conditions, including unbearable suffering from an incurable illness and repeated requests from a competent patient.^[44] In February 2014, parliament amended the law to extend euthanasia to minors of any age, making Belgium the first country to remove age restrictions entirely, provided the child faces a terminal illness causing constant and unbearable physical suffering that cannot be alleviated.^[45] ^[46] For minors, eligibility requires the child to possess sufficient discernment capacity to understand the medical situation and consequences, as assessed by physicians; repeated, reasoned requests from the child; written parental or guardian consent; and approval from a multidisciplinary team including at least one pediatrician and a child psychiatrist or psychologist.^[47] ^[48] A one-month waiting period applies after the initial request, with provisions for shorter intervals if death is imminent.^[5] The procedure must occur in a medical setting, with reporting to the Federal Control and Evaluation Commission on Euthanasia for review.^[49] Pediatric cases remain exceedingly rare amid a sharp rise in adult euthanasia, which reached 3,423 declarations in 2023, comprising 3.1% of all deaths.^[50] ^[49] The first reported case occurred in September 2016, involving a 17-year-old with terminal illness.^[51] Between 2016 and 2018, three cases involved patients under 18, and federal data indicate one such case in 2023.^[5] ^[52] These low figures reflect stringent safeguards and the law's focus on terminal physical suffering, excluding non-terminal or psychiatric conditions for minors.^[7]

Colombia and Other Jurisdictions

In Colombia, the Constitutional Court decriminalized euthanasia in Sentence C-239 of May 20, 1997, permitting physicians to actively end the life of terminally ill patients experiencing unbearable suffering, subject to strict procedural safeguards including informed consent and multidisciplinary approval.^[53] This ruling applied initially to competent adults but laid the groundwork for expansions. In 2021, the Court issued further directives, including in response to cases involving minors, extending eligibility to children and adolescents with terminal illnesses who demonstrate sufficient maturity to consent, typically requiring parental involvement and psychological assessment for those under 14.^[54] Regulations implementing these provisions for minors, including age thresholds starting around 6-7 years with substituted consent mechanisms, were mandated but have progressed slowly, with the first reported child euthanasia occurring amid ongoing debates over capacity evaluation.^[55] Elsewhere, adoption remains exceedingly limited, reflecting judicial and legislative caution over minors' decisional competence and potential for coercion. In Canada, Medical Assistance in Dying (MAiD) eligibility is confined to individuals aged 18 and older, even as expansions to non-terminal conditions for adults advanced in 2021; proposals to include "mature minors" have faced repeated rejection, with parliamentary reviews emphasizing vulnerabilities in pediatric cases and insufficient safeguards, as evidenced by opposition from medical bodies and ethicists in 2024-2025 deliberations.^[56] ^[57] In the United Kingdom, the Terminally Ill Adults (End of Life) Bill, advanced through Parliament in 2025, explicitly excludes those under 18, limiting access to mentally competent adults over 18 with less than six months to live. Amendments passed in June 2025 further prohibit healthcare professionals from initiating discussions of assisted dying with minors and ban related advertising targeted at them, driven by concerns over undue influence and developmental immaturity raised in committee evidence.^[58] ^[59] These rejections underscore a pattern where court-driven allowances in Colombia contrast with broader legislative restraint, attributable to empirical data on adolescent brain development and historical abuses in pediatric end-of-life decisions. No other jurisdictions beyond Colombia, the Netherlands, and Belgium permit child euthanasia as of 2025, with proposals in places like Luxembourg stalled under adult-equivalent frameworks lacking explicit minor provisions.^[60]

Proposed Expansions and Rejections Elsewhere

In Canada, discussions on expanding medical assistance in dying (MAiD) to mature minors gained attention following a 2023 parliamentary committee report recommending access for competent individuals under 18 with grievous and irremediable conditions, amid a sharp rise in adult cases to 15,343 deaths that year.^[61]^[62] The federal government, in its June 2023 response, declined to implement this extension, prioritizing safeguards against undue influence on vulnerable youth and affirming the existing age threshold of 18, reflecting concerns over minors' decisional capacity in end-of-life contexts.^[63] By 2025, no legislative changes had materialized, with critics highlighting risks of coercion in pediatric applications despite adult program growth.^[56] In the United States, proposals for euthanasia or assisted suicide targeting minors have consistently faced rejection, as federal and state laws prohibit such practices outright, with no successful bills advancing pediatric access amid broader adult-focused assisted dying initiatives that often stall in legislatures.^[64] For instance, ongoing state-level debates in 2025, such as in New Hampshire and New York, center on adult eligibility under strict terminal illness criteria, but extensions to children are absent and deemed incompatible with protections for minors' best interests, reinforced by professional bodies like the American College of Pediatricians opposing pediatric euthanasia on ethical grounds.^[65]^[66] Public and medical opposition stems from empirical evidence of children's limited foresight and vulnerability to external pressures, contributing to uniform legislative blocks.^[67] Internationally, bodies like the World Health Organization emphasize palliative care alternatives for pediatric end-of-life scenarios, advocating comprehensive symptom relief and family support over active termination, as seen in guidelines prioritizing non-euthanasic interventions to alleviate suffering without hastening death.^[68] This stance aligns with rejections in jurisdictions like the United Kingdom, where 2024 parliamentary votes legalized assisted dying for terminally ill adults but excluded minors due to competency deficits and ethical barriers, echoing polling data showing majority support confined to capable adults.^[69] Causal factors for these rejections include documented risks of misjudged capacity in youth and preference for evidence-based palliation, with surveys indicating broad opposition to child extensions rooted in protective instincts against irreversible decisions.^[70]

Protocols and Procedures

Groningen Protocol for Infants

The Groningen Protocol provides guidelines for physicians in the Netherlands to perform euthanasia on newborns experiencing severe, unrelenting conditions, aiming to formalize decisions previously made in secrecy to avoid legal repercussions. Developed by staff at the University Medical Center Groningen and published on March 10, 2005, in the New England Journal of Medicine by medical director Eduard Verhagen and neonatologist Pieter J.J. Sauer, the protocol categorizes eligible infants into three groups: those with no realistic chance of survival (e.g., extreme prematurity with lethal anomalies); those with a dismal prognosis due to profound brain damage, paralysis, or intractable seizures; and those surviving birth but destined for continuous, profound suffering from vital organ malformations or neurological devastation.^[2] To justify euthanasia, the protocol mandates confirmation of the diagnosis and prognosis by at least two independent doctors, establishing that the infant endures hopeless and unbearable suffering with no foreseeable improvement; obtaining informed consent from both parents after full disclosure; executing the procedure (typically via sedatives and muscle relaxants) in line with accepted medical practices to minimize distress; and submitting a detailed report to a national review committee, which assesses compliance to recommend against prosecution under Dutch law, where such acts remain technically illegal for those under age 12.^[2] ^[1] These criteria seek to ensure procedural rigor, drawing on empirical assessments of vital signs, imaging, and clinical trajectories rather than subjective proxies alone. Implementation has yielded low caseloads, reflecting stringent thresholds: national surveys estimated 15 to 20 unreported instances annually before 2005, but post-protocol reporting revealed only 22 cases from 1997 to 2004 (averaging about three per year), dropping further to two cases over the subsequent five years, both involving lethal epidermolysis bullosa.^[2] ^[71] ^[72] However, assessments of "unbearable suffering" in nonverbal infants invite scrutiny for subjectivity, as proxies like agitation, vital instability, or parental observation may conflate treatable discomfort with irremediable torment, potentially undermining prognostic certainty in edge cases despite multidisciplinary review.^[73]^[74]

Euthanasia for Competent Minors

In the Netherlands, euthanasia is legally permissible for competent minors aged 12 and older under the Termination of Life on Request and Assisted Suicide (Review Procedures) Act of 2002, provided the minor makes a voluntary and well-considered request due to unbearable suffering with no prospect of improvement. For minors aged 12 to 15, parental consent is mandatory, while for those aged 16 to 17, parental involvement in decision-making is required but consent is not; those 18 and older are treated as adults. Decisional capacity is assessed by the attending physician, often involving consultation with a child psychiatrist to evaluate the minor's maturity, understanding of death, and consistency of the request over time, distinguishing it from adult cases where parental input is absent.^[75]^[35]^[3] Belgium's 2014 amendment to its euthanasia law removed age restrictions, allowing competent minors of any age to request euthanasia if they possess "capacity for discernment"—defined as the ability to understand the medical situation, consequences of treatment options, and finality of death—typically assessed through psychiatric evaluation by the attending physician and an independent expert. The request must stem from a terminal condition causing constant, intolerable physical suffering unresponsive to treatment, with parental consent always required regardless of age. This contrasts with adult procedures by mandating multidisciplinary team involvement, including a developmental psychologist for capacity verification, and emphasizing the minor's repeated, informed insistence over a shorter observation period tailored to their cognitive level rather than the standard adult reflection timeline.^[5]^[76]^[51] Both jurisdictions require at least one independent physician consultation to confirm eligibility, but minor-specific protocols incorporate maturity tests, such as evaluating abstract reasoning about mortality and alternatives to euthanasia, which are not standard for adults. In practice, these assessments prioritize evidence of sustained suffering and decisional autonomy, with cases rare: the Netherlands reported 5 euthanasia instances for minors under 18 in 2022, all involving adolescents with terminal cancer. Procedural safeguards include post-act review by regional euthanasia committees to verify compliance, underscoring a framework that hinges on demonstrated competence rather than chronological age alone.^[4]^[36]

Distinctions from Neonatal Palliative Care

Neonatal palliative care prioritizes the relief of suffering through symptom management, such as analgesia and sedation, for infants with life-limiting conditions, often involving the withholding or withdrawal of futile life-sustaining treatments like mechanical ventilation or artificial nutrition when these interventions offer no reasonable benefit.^[77] In jurisdictions like the United States, guidelines from the American Academy of Pediatrics permit forgoing medically provided nutrition and hydration in cases of imminent death or irreversible conditions where burdens outweigh benefits, allowing the underlying pathology to cause death without introducing active lethal measures.^[77] This approach causally permits natural progression of disease as the proximate cause of death, with death foreseen but not directly intended or effected by the caregiver. In contrast, child euthanasia entails the deliberate administration of lethal agents, such as high-dose barbiturates or neuromuscular blockers, with the explicit intent to terminate life in infants deemed to suffer unbearably without prospect of improvement.^[78] This active intervention introduces a new causal mechanism—the pharmacological agent itself as the direct cause of cardiorespiratory arrest—distinguishing it from palliative measures where interventions aim solely at comfort and do not employ dosages or substances calibrated to hasten death.^[72] Regulatory frameworks, such as those in the Netherlands, explicitly separate these by requiring euthanasia cases to involve confirmed unbearable suffering and mandatory reporting, whereas palliative withdrawals focus on futility assessments without life-ending pharmacology.^[1] Empirical data highlight risks of conflation, with pre-legalization studies in Dutch neonatal intensive care units indicating that end-of-life decisions preceded 95% of infant deaths, including 22% involving drugs explicitly intended to end life, often unreported due to blurred lines between intensified comfort care and covert euthanasia.^[79] Such overlaps, estimated at 20-30% in some analyses of intensified sedation practices, underscore the need for clear intent delineation to prevent passive-to-active escalation without oversight, as withholding treatment relies on disease causality while euthanasia overrides it.^[80]^[81]

Ethical and Philosophical Debates

Arguments for Permissibility

Proponents of child euthanasia maintain that it is permissible in narrowly defined cases of verified, intractable suffering, particularly for infants and children with terminal conditions where palliative measures prove insufficient to alleviate pain. Under the Groningen Protocol established in the Netherlands in 2005, euthanasia is justified for neonates facing a confirmed hopeless prognosis and unbearable suffering, as assessed by at least two independent physicians, to prevent prolonged agony without viable alternatives. This approach, defended by its originator Eduard Verhagen, emphasizes empirical verification of suffering through clinical observation and multidisciplinary consultation, arguing that unregulated covert practices previously occurred and that transparent protocols ensure humane application without expanding beyond extreme cases.^[2]^[82] For competent minors, advocates extend arguments of autonomy, positing that children aged 12 or older in the Netherlands and Belgium who demonstrate capacity to comprehend their prognosis and the procedure's implications should have a say in ending unbearable suffering, akin to adult patients, with mandatory parental involvement to safeguard decision-making. This framework aligns with due care criteria requiring no reasonable alternatives and voluntary requests, as outlined in Dutch law, where suffering must lack any prospect of improvement. Proponents, including bioethicists like Dominic Wilkinson, contend that excluding capable minors creates an arbitrary age cutoff inconsistent with evidence that some adolescents possess sufficient discernment for such choices, supported by low incidence rates—fewer than 5 cases annually in the Netherlands for those under 18—indicating restrained use rather than routine application.^[83]^[36] Consistency with adult euthanasia frameworks forms another core argument, as jurisdictions like the Netherlands apply similar standards of unbearable suffering regardless of age, viewing child-specific protocols as a compassionate extension rather than a novel category. Empirical reviews of reported cases, such as those by the Dutch Regional Euthanasia Review Committees, affirm compliance with safeguards, with no documented instances of coercion or expansion to non-terminal conditions, thereby preserving the practice's focus on relieving verified distress while respecting family roles in proxy decisions for younger children.^[84]

Arguments Against Permissibility

Opponents of child euthanasia invoke the principle of the sanctity of human life, asserting that intentional killing of innocents violates a fundamental moral norm irrespective of quality-of-life assessments. This view holds that life possesses inherent dignity, precluding its deliberate termination even in cases of severe suffering or disability, as echoed in philosophical arguments against equating human worth with subjective utility.^[85]^[86] The incapacity of infants and young children to provide informed consent forms a core objection, rendering proxy decisions by parents ethically deficient. Under protocols like Groningen, parental approval substitutes for the minor's volition, yet this risks conflating familial burdens—financial, emotional, or social—with the child's interests, potentially yielding decisions influenced by incomplete information or undue pressure rather than impartial judgment.^[82]^[8] Permitting such practices fosters a devaluation of disabled lives, causally eroding societal commitments to support vulnerable populations and mirroring historical eugenics campaigns. In Nazi Germany's Aktion T4 and subsequent child euthanasia programs, disabled infants were systematically killed under pretexts of mercy and racial hygiene, amassing over 5,000 child victims by 1945 and normalizing the expendability of "imperfect" existence.^[25]^[23] Diagnostic uncertainty in neonatal prognoses amplifies these perils, as erroneous predictions of hopelessness can precipitate irreversible harm. Criteria for euthanasia demand accurate, certain diagnoses, yet medical assessments of infant viability remain fallible, with historical cases revealing overlooked potentials for survival or improvement that proxy consent overlooks.^[87]^[88] In jurisdictions permitting child euthanasia, such as the Netherlands and Belgium, decisional capacity is assessed through maturity evaluations tailored to the child's age and condition, requiring comprehension of the procedure's irreversible nature and alternatives. In the Netherlands, children aged 12 to 15 may request euthanasia only with parental consent, while those 16 and older can decide independently if deemed competent, though parental consultation is mandatory; recent expansions effective February 2024 allow requests from ages 1 to 12 under stringent unbearable suffering criteria, with capacity verified by physicians.^[4]^[89]^[40] Belgium's 2014 law imposes no age minimum but mandates "capacity of discernment," evaluated by multidisciplinary teams including psychologists, alongside terminal illness and parental approval.^[5]^[45] These assessments prioritize the child's ability to weigh suffering against continued life, yet empirical research on pediatric end-of-life decisions indicates variability in adolescents' foresight, with incomplete prefrontal cortex development impairing impulse control and long-term risk evaluation until the mid-20s.^[90] Common law frameworks like the UK's Gillick competence, which permits minors under 16 to consent to treatment if sufficiently mature, offer a benchmark but face critiques for overemphasizing adolescent rationality in high-stakes contexts like euthanasia. Gillick focuses on understanding treatment implications, yet courts have overridden competent minors' refusals of life-sustaining care, highlighting asymmetries where children's capacity is deemed provisional compared to adults'.^[91]^[92] In euthanasia debates, this raises concerns over applying such tests to termination requests, as children's dependency fosters acquiescence to authority figures, potentially conflating expressed wishes with true voluntariness; studies on pediatric decision-making reveal that even "competent" youth often defer to parents or providers under duress.^[93]^[94] Parental roles amplify these challenges, serving as proxies for non-voluntary cases like infants, where decisions rest on guardians' judgments of best interests absent patient input—a stark departure from adult self-determination principles. In Dutch and Belgian protocols, parents must concur for minors, yet empirical analyses of pediatric end-of-life processes show high parental involvement, with risks of subtle coercion from emotional burdens or resource strains, though direct euthanasia-specific data remains sparse due to low incidence.^[3]^[95] For infants under protocols like the Netherlands' Groningen criteria, parental consent alongside physician verification substitutes for capacity, but this proxy model invites ethical scrutiny over undue influence, as parents' grief or societal pressures may skew toward hastening death without the child's autonomous balancing of prospects.^[96] Contrasts with adult euthanasia underscore causal disparities: children's inherent vulnerability to familial dynamics undermines the voluntariness central to ethical justifications, prompting calls for heightened safeguards beyond standard maturity checks.^[97]

Medical and Empirical Perspectives

Physician Attitudes and Practices

In the Netherlands, surveys indicate substantial theoretical acceptance among pediatricians for physician-assisted dying (PAD) in cases of untreatable conditions causing unbearable suffering in children, with 84% of 177 respondents in a 2016 study deeming it conceivable under strict criteria such as multidisciplinary consultation and parental consent.^[98] Approximately half of Dutch pediatricians explicitly support the provisions of the 2002 Termination of Life on Request and Assisted Suicide Act, which extends to competent minors aged 12 and older, though actual instances of pediatric euthanasia remain infrequent, with fewer than 3% of child deaths involving such interventions as reported in death certificate analyses.^[99]^[100] In Belgium, where euthanasia for minors was legalized in 2014 without a minimum age limit for terminal cases, a majority of surveyed Flemish physicians have expressed acceptance of PAD for children meeting legal thresholds of intractable suffering and informed consent.^[101] Despite this, participation rates are low, with physicians often deferring to specialized teams or opting for intensified palliative measures instead.^[102] No formal training mandates exist for pediatric euthanasia in either country, but legal frameworks require independent consultations and reporting, which many physicians cite as deterrents to routine practice.^[103] Outside permissive jurisdictions, physician support for child euthanasia is markedly lower. In the UK, surveys of palliative care specialists reveal overwhelming opposition to assisted dying even for competent adults, with 70% favoring the British Medical Association's stance against it, a reluctance that extends emphatically to minors due to ethical commitments to preserving life.^[104] Similarly, in the US, where no federal or state laws permit euthanasia for minors, physician endorsements remain below 10% in broader end-of-life polls, prioritizing non-maleficence and diagnostic uncertainty in pediatric cases.^[105] Specialists in neonatology exhibit somewhat greater openness compared to general pediatricians, attributed to routine exposure to severe congenital anomalies and end-of-life decisions; a 2020 cross-sectional study of neonatologists found higher comfort with withholding or withdrawing treatment (90-100% acceptance in some contexts), though active euthanasia support varied by jurisdiction and remained conditional on legal safeguards.^[106]^[107] This variation underscores how familiarity with futile care influences attitudes, yet global professional codes continue to emphasize life-sustaining efforts over termination in non-permissive settings.

Prevalence and Outcomes Data

In the Netherlands, euthanasia for competent minors aged 12-17 has remained rare since legalization in 2002, with only seven cases reported between 2002 and 2015, and a single instance for ages 12-16 recorded in 2022.^[37] ^[89] For infants under 12, formal euthanasia was not legalized until February 2024, but the Groningen Protocol has enabled a limited number of procedures since 2005, averaging fewer than five reported cases annually, including 22 reviewed by committees from 2007 to 2010.^[1] ^[71] In Belgium, pediatric euthanasia for minors of any age was permitted starting in 2014 for those with terminal conditions and capacity to consent. Official data from the Federal Control and Evaluation Commission indicate just six cumulative cases through 2024, with one reported in 2023-2024 and none or few annually otherwise.^[108] ^[109] ^[110] Post-legalization trends in both countries show pediatric cases stabilizing at low levels without significant increases, unlike overall euthanasia volumes, which rose to 9,068 total cases (5.4% of deaths) in the Netherlands in 2023 and 3,423 (3.1% of deaths) in Belgium in 2023. ^[49] Reviews suggest potential underreporting, with Dutch studies estimating at least 20% of euthanasia cases, including some pediatric, not formally notified to review bodies.^[111] Official reports from review commissions in both nations document no major complications in pediatric euthanasia procedures, which employ sequential administration of sedatives and paralytics followed by stoppage of vital functions, achieving death typically within minutes to hours.^[108] ^[40] Limited specific data on pediatric outcomes exists, but general euthanasia protocols report success rates exceeding 97%, with rare needs for supplemental doses.^[112]

Risks of Diagnostic Errors and Prognosis

Prognostic assessments in severely ill neonates often involve significant uncertainty, with studies demonstrating error rates in predictions of futility. In a 1997 analysis of caretaker predictions for mechanically ventilated infants in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), unanimous forecasts of death across multiple caregivers proved accurate in 91% of cases, implying that approximately 9% of such infants survived despite being deemed futile.^[113] Similarly, broader reviews of physician prognostication highlight discrepancies, including inaccurate or overly pessimistic judgments, which can lead to premature withdrawal of care.^[114] Historical examples underscore the fallibility of such judgments, particularly for conditions once viewed as incompatible with meaningful life. Prior to the 1960s, spina bifida carried survival rates of only 10-12%, with many cases deferred for treatment under assumptions of inevitable poor outcomes; advances like ventriculoperitoneal shunting and fetal surgery have since elevated infant survival to around 75% and enabled higher quality of life for many survivors.^[115] These shifts illustrate how evolving medical interventions can render prior "hopeless" prognoses obsolete, as seen in improved outcomes for myelomeningocele through multidisciplinary management.^[116] Contributing factors include limitations in prenatal diagnostics, such as incomplete fetal imaging that fails to fully capture lesion severity or comorbidities, and the rapid pace of therapeutic innovation outstripping static prognostic models. Bioethics critiques of protocols permitting neonatal euthanasia, such as the Groningen Protocol, argue that these uncertainties render "unbearable suffering with no prospect of improvement" criteria unscientific, as they overlook potential for misjudged viability amid diagnostic gaps.^[117] ^[118] Consequently, reliance on such prognoses risks irreversible harm, including the euthanasia of infants who might otherwise achieve survival or functional recovery with continued care.^[119]

Religious and Cultural Views

Abrahamic Religions

In Abrahamic traditions, child euthanasia is broadly rejected as a violation of the divine command to preserve innocent life, derived from scriptural prohibitions against murder and the belief that human existence, including suffering, serves a purpose ordained by God. This stance emphasizes the intrinsic sanctity of life from conception to natural death, irrespective of quality or prognosis, positioning active termination as an illicit usurpation of divine authority. Passive measures, such as withholding disproportionate interventions, may be permissible in limited cases under religious authorities, but deliberate killing remains equated with homicide.^[120]^[121] Judaism, guided by Halakha, prohibits euthanasia of infants or any vulnerable person, viewing life as sacred and inviolable under commandments such as "You shall not murder" (Exodus 20:13). Rabbinic consensus holds that even severe suffering does not justify hastening death, as only God determines the soul's departure; active euthanasia is thus forbidden as self-murder or aiding suicide, with no exceptions for neonates despite historical debates on defective births. Orthodox authorities, including those citing the Talmud, stress that prolonging life through ordinary means is obligatory, while extraordinary burdens may be declined, but never through lethal acts. Reform perspectives occasionally explore nuances, yet mainstream Halakhic rulings maintain absolute opposition, reinforcing life's value beyond utility.^[122]^[123] Christianity uniformly opposes child euthanasia, rooted in the imago Dei doctrine that every human bears God's likeness from womb to tomb (Genesis 1:27). The Catholic Church, through Vatican declarations, explicitly condemns it as murder of the innocent, applicable to fetuses, embryos, and children; the 1980 Declaration on Euthanasia affirms no circumstance permits killing, while the 2020 Samaritanus Bonus letter deems it a grave crime against life, incompatible with redemptive suffering that unites believers to Christ's passion. Protestant views vary: evangelicals reject active euthanasia outright, distinguishing it from allowable withdrawal of futile care, as it defies God's sovereignty over life and echoes biblical mandates to protect the vulnerable (Psalm 82:3-4); bodies like the Anglican Church have resolved against it, prioritizing palliative care over termination.^[120]^[124]^[125] Islam prohibits child euthanasia via fatwas interpreting Quranic verses like "Do not kill your children for fear of poverty" (17:31) and hadiths banning mercy killing, deeming it a major sin that usurps Allah's prerogative over life and death. Scholarly consensus from bodies such as Dar al-Ifta and the International Islamic Fiqh Academy forbids active termination, equating it to infanticide historically condemned in pre-Islamic Arabia; even for terminal pediatric cases, obligations include sustenance and comfort care, not lethal intervention, as death's timing is divinely fixed (Quran 67:2). Passive euthanasia remains debated but generally disallowed if it hastens demise intentionally, prioritizing tawhid (God's oneness) over human judgment of suffering's futility.^[126]^[127]^[128]

Eastern and Indigenous Perspectives

In Hinduism, the doctrine of karma posits that suffering, including in children with terminal illnesses, serves to resolve past actions and facilitate spiritual evolution through reincarnation, rendering active euthanasia an interference with this natural process.^[129] The principle of ahimsa (non-violence) reinforces opposition to hastening death, as it equates such acts with harm that accrues negative karma to the perpetrator, with traditions favoring palliative care and rituals to ease suffering without shortening life.^[130] Involuntary euthanasia, particularly for minors incapable of consent, is deemed unacceptable, as it disrupts the child's karmic trajectory and familial duties toward dharma (righteous living).^[131] Buddhist teachings similarly prohibit euthanasia under the first precept against killing, interpreting it as a violation of ahimsa and a generator of harmful karma that hinders enlightenment for all involved.^[130] For children, this extends to rejecting interventions that preempt natural death, prioritizing compassionate accompaniment through suffering via meditation, ethical conduct, and end-of-life rituals focused on impermanence (anicca) rather than relief through death.^[132] While some interpretations allow withholding treatment in futile cases, active measures like lethal injection are viewed as ethically equivalent to murder, building karmic obstacles across lifetimes. Indigenous perspectives from North American tribes, such as those among Navajo and Lakota traditions, often frame child life as a sacred interconnection with nature and ancestors, where euthanasia contravenes harmony by usurping the Creator's timing for death.^[133] Communal rituals emphasize enduring suffering through storytelling, ceremonies, and elder guidance to honor the child's spirit, rejecting individualistic relief as a disruption to collective balance and life's inherent sanctity.^[134] Empirical surveys in Asia reveal minimal advocacy for euthanasia, with acceptance rates below 20% in countries like Japan and India, attributed to entrenched cultural taboos against interfering with life's span amid strong familial and religious prohibitions.^[135] In Africa, similar patterns hold, where communal values prioritize palliative endurance over termination, with data showing near-universal opposition in rural and traditional settings due to taboos equating hastened death with witchcraft or ancestral disrespect.^[136] These views underscore a broader Eastern and indigenous emphasis on life's intrinsic value persisting through communal support, contrasting Western individualism.^[137]

Secular Humanist and Utilitarian Stances

Utilitarian philosophers such as Peter Singer have argued that euthanasia for infants with severe disabilities or terminal conditions may be permissible if the child's anticipated life involves net suffering outweighing pleasure, framing it as a rational choice to maximize overall welfare through the "replaceability argument"—replacing the affected child with a healthier one to achieve greater utility.^[138]^[139] This consequentialist approach prioritizes empirical assessments of future quality of life, potentially incorporating metrics like quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), though critics within utilitarianism contend that such projections for non-autonomous children are inherently speculative and risk undervaluing potential adaptive happiness or societal contributions from affected lives.^[140] However, utilitarian critiques highlight that legalizing child euthanasia could erode broader societal happiness by fostering fear among families of disabled children, incentivizing premature decisions under resource constraints, and complicating non-voluntary cases where infants cannot express preferences, potentially leading to net disutility from eroded trust in medical systems.^[140]^[141] Empirical data from the Netherlands, where pediatric euthanasia has been practiced since 2002 under strict protocols, show only 5-10 cases annually for children under 12 as of 2023, with proponents citing relief from unbearable suffering in refractory cases, while detractors note unquantified psychological burdens on parents, including grief compounded by decision-making guilt reported in post-case reviews.^[4]^[3] Secular humanists, emphasizing human dignity and rational autonomy without religious appeals, generally extend cautious support for adult voluntary euthanasia but rarely endorse it for children, arguing that minors lack the cognitive capacity for informed consent and that irreversible decisions infringe on their inherent right to protection and potential self-determination as they mature.^[142]^[143] Organizations like Humanists Against Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia (HAASE), comprising atheists and agnostics, oppose pediatric extensions on grounds that true humanism safeguards vulnerable individuals from proxy decisions prone to bias or pressure, prioritizing evidence-based palliative care advancements over lethal interventions.^[144] Bioethicists aligned with humanist principles have critiqued Dutch and Belgian protocols for insufficient safeguards against diagnostic overreach in pediatric cases, advocating instead for enhanced hospice options that preserve dignity without ending life prematurely.^[145]

Controversies and Criticisms

Slippery Slope and Scope Creep

In the Netherlands, euthanasia was legalized in 2002 for adults and competent minors aged 12 and older, following decades of tolerated practice under strict conditions.^[4] This framework initially excluded infants and younger children lacking decision-making capacity, but the 2005 Groningen Protocol introduced guidelines for neonatal euthanasia in cases of unbearable suffering with no prospect of improvement, effectively permitting non-voluntary termination for newborns despite lacking formal statutory approval at the time.^[1] By February 1, 2024, legislation expanded access to children aged 1 to 12, marking a progression from voluntary adult cases to proxy-based decisions for progressively younger patients.^[4] This evolution reflects a causal pattern where initial safeguards for terminal adults gave way to inclusions for non-competent minors, driven by clinical pressures and advocacy for alleviating perceived futile suffering.^[2] Belgium followed a similar trajectory after legalizing euthanasia in 2002, initially for adults with unbearable physical suffering from incurable conditions.^[146] In 2014, the law extended to minors of any age, requiring parental consent, unbearable suffering, and terminal illness, thus broadening eligibility beyond adults to include children incapable of consent.^[146] Empirical data indicate scope expansion: reported cases surged from 236 in 2003 to 3,423 in 2023, comprising about 3% of all deaths, with inclusions increasingly encompassing non-terminal psychiatric and neurological conditions in adults that parallel pressures for pediatric applications.^[146] Proponents argue that rigorous review commissions maintain boundaries, yet annual reports reveal procedural lapses, such as inadequate consultation or consultation timing, in a minority of cases, suggesting incomplete adherence to protocols amid rising volumes.^[147] Longitudinal trends in both countries demonstrate policy creep from adult-centric, voluntary euthanasia to pediatric non-voluntary practices, with case volumes multiplying over two decades and eligibility criteria loosening to address "unbearable suffering" beyond imminent death.^[146] While some analyses claim no empirical slippery slope due to stable proportions of non-requested cases, the observable shift to infants and children—absent in original legalization debates—undermines assurances of static safeguards, as deviations in due care criteria persist in official reviews.^[148] ^[147] This pattern aligns with causal realism, where initial narrow permissions erode under iterative expansions justified by evolving medical norms and societal normalization.

Disability Rights and Devaluation Concerns

Disability rights advocates contend that child euthanasia practices, such as those permitted under the Netherlands' Groningen Protocol, reinforce a societal devaluation of lives marked by disability, portraying such existence as inherently unworthy of continuation. Organizations like Not Dead Yet describe euthanasia legalization as a form of deadly discrimination against disabled individuals, arguing that it institutionalizes ableism by prioritizing death over accommodation and support for conditions that, while challenging, often permit meaningful lives.^[149]^[150] This perspective draws on testimonies from disabled survivors who report societal pressures to view their lives as burdensome, contrasting sharply with their own experiences of agency and fulfillment.^[151] Critics highlight the "better dead than disabled" ethos embedded in rationales for pediatric euthanasia, where infants with severe but potentially manageable impairments are deemed candidates for termination, signaling a bias that equates disability with intolerable suffering. Under the Groningen Protocol, established in 2004, euthanasia has been applied to newborns with conditions like extreme spina bifida, a defect that in many instances responds to surgical interventions such as defect closure and hydrocephalus shunting, enabling survival with disabilities rather than inevitable doom.^[2]^[152] Reports indicate at least 22 such cases involving spina bifida and hydrocephalus, conditions prevalent among living disabled populations, underscoring how protocol criteria—requiring "hopeless" prognosis and "unbearable" suffering—overlap with treatable scenarios where outcomes vary based on intervention.^[153] Proponents of child euthanasia maintain that these measures target only intractable cases with no viable treatment prospects, dismissing devaluation concerns as inapplicable to non-terminal disabilities; however, analyses reveal diagnostic ambiguities, as initial assessments of "hopelessness" in neonatal cases like spina bifida have proven overly pessimistic in comparable untreated or variably managed cohorts.^[152] Disability advocates counter that such overlaps erode incentives for advancing palliative innovations or long-term care, perpetuating a cultural narrative that diminishes investment in disabled thriving over lethal resolution.^[8]^[73]

Historical Parallels and Abuse Potential

In Nazi Germany, the euthanasia program initiated systematic killings of children with disabilities as early as mid-1939, targeting those deemed "incurably ill" through a decree authorizing physicians to grant "mercy death" to such infants and children, often via starvation, lethal injection, or gas.^[24] This children's euthanasia phase preceded and informed the broader Aktion T4 adult program, which murdered approximately 70,000 disabled individuals by 1941 using similar medical selection processes disguised as compassionate intervention.^[154] Estimates indicate around 5,000 to 10,000 children were killed in dedicated "children's wards" or extermination centers, with selections based on subjective assessments of "life unworthy of life" that prioritized eugenic purity over individual prognosis.^[155] The program's architects, including physicians like Karl Brandt, framed these acts as eliminating suffering, yet it rapidly expanded beyond initial criteria to include broader disabled populations and served as a precursor to industrialized genocide, demonstrating how state-sanctioned child euthanasia can devolve into widespread abuse without robust, enforceable limits.^[25] Modern proponents of protocols like the Netherlands' Groningen Protocol (introduced in 2005) invoke safeguards against such historical overreach, permitting neonatal euthanasia only for infants with "hopeless and unbearable suffering" confirmed by multiple physicians.^[1] However, even developers such as Eduard Verhagen have acknowledged prior instances of euthanasia regulation abuse in the Netherlands, including unreported cases that skirted legal boundaries before formalization.^[156] Reported cases under the protocol remain low—fewer than 10 annually as of 2010s data—but investigations into broader Dutch euthanasia practices have uncovered deviations, such as the 2019 probe into a 17-year-old girl's euthanasia for treatment-resistant anorexia linked to childhood trauma, where compliance with due care criteria was questioned despite claims of unbearable suffering.^[157] These incidents highlight the vulnerability to scope creep, where subjective suffering assessments enable extension to non-terminal conditions like psychiatric disorders, echoing Nazi-era expansions from physical disability to ideological elimination.^[158] In Belgium, euthanasia legalization for children (effective 2014) was initially restricted to terminal illnesses with informed consent from mature minors, yet overall euthanasia cases surged from 236 in 2003 to 3,423 in 2023, comprising about 3% of deaths and increasingly involving non-terminal cases like dementia or depression.^[159] The first reported child case involved a minor with a glial tumor, but subsequent approvals for psychiatric suffering in adolescents have fueled concerns of diagnostic overreach, as initial terminal-only criteria erode under pressure from evolving interpretations of "unbearable" pain.^[7] Empirical patterns in both countries—rising numbers and inclusion of minors with potentially reversible prognoses—underscore abuse potential through family or provider coercion, inadequate verification of consent in non-communicative infants, and normalization of death as a treatment option, risks amplified by institutional biases favoring autonomy over preservation of life in vulnerable populations.^[160] Historical precedents thus caution that without absolute prohibitions, child euthanasia frameworks invite incremental justifications leading to involuntary applications and devaluation of dependent lives.^[161]

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Neonatal euthanasia in the context of palliative and EoL care
This paper summarizes the history, legal status and ethical justification of the Groningen Protocol, and describes end-of-life practice in the subsequent years.
[73]
Why the Groningen Protocol Should Be Rejected - jstor
If we read "unbearable suffering" to mean unbearable pain, however, we run into a different prob- lem: infants might be able to experience unbearable pain, but.
[74]
[PDF] Ending the Life of a Newborn: The Groningen Protocol - SciSpace
unbearable suffering” be present. But hopelessness worries some critics of the protocol because it seems far too subjective for ending the life of an-. Page ...
[75]
Voluntary and well-considered request
Minors over the age of twelve may ask their physician to perform euthanasia. The Act distinguishes between two age categories: minors aged between 12 and 16: ...
[76]
'Capacity for Discernment' and Euthanasia on Minors in Belgium
May 1, 2019 · In 2014, Belgium extended euthanasia to minors with 'capacity for discernment,' a concept that led to debate about its scope and assessment.
[77]
Forgoing Medically Provided Nutrition and Hydration in Children
Aug 1, 2009 · The American Academy of Pediatrics concludes that the withdrawal of medically administered fluids and nutrition for pediatric patients is ethically acceptable ...Missing: neonatal | Show results with:neonatal
[78]
'Euthanasia: Right to Die with Dignity' - PMC - NIH
Active euthanasia refers to the physician deliberate act, usually the administration of lethal drugs, to end an incurably or terminally ill patient's life.
[79]
End-of-Life Decisions in Dutch Neonatal Intensive Care Units
Oct 5, 2009 · Results An end-of-life decision preceded death in 95% of cases, and in 5% treatment was continued until death. Of all of the deaths, 58% were ...
[80]
Review Neonatal euthanasia: Lessons from the Groningen Protocol
The Groningen Protocol for newborn euthanasia in severely ill newborns was devised to regulate the practice of neonatal euthanasia and make it more transparent.
[81]
End of life decision‐making in neonatal care - PMC - PubMed Central
For maintaining a distinction between withholding or withdrawing treatment on the one hand and active euthanasia on the other, the report appeals to the views ...
[82]
The Groningen protocol: another perspective - PMC - PubMed Central
The Groningen protocol allows for the euthanasia of severely ill newborns with a hopeless prognosis and unbearable suffering.
[83]
Should the Dutch Law on Euthanasia Be Expanded to Include ...
Dec 5, 2022 · In addition, they recommend to make euthanasia for children 1–12 years a legal option in line with the request made by parents and physicians.
[84]
Pediatric Euthanasia and Palliative Care Can Work Together
Since the Netherlands ... This article shows how several recent arguments against pediatric euthanasia fail to prove that pediatric euthanasia is unacceptable.
[85]
Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide - Mayo Clinic Proceedings
Active euthanasia means “the intentional termination of a life to relieve suffering, achieved by doing something,” whereas passive euthanasia means “death as a ...
[86]
Ethics - Euthanasia: Anti-euthanasia arguments - BBC
This argument says that euthanasia is bad because of the sanctity of human life. There are four main reasons why people think we shouldn't kill human beings.
[87]
Euthanasia in neonates - PMC - NIH
Essential criteria to be considered in neonatal euthanasia · The diagnosis must be accurate and the prognosis hopeless · The baby's quality of life must be poor ...
[88]
Euthanasia of newborns under the microscope - MercatorNet
Mar 4, 2014 · The GP for neonatal euthanasia proposes five criteria: (a) diagnosis and prognosis must be certain, (b) hopeless and unbearable suffering ...
[89]
Netherlands to broaden euthanasia rules to cover children of all ages
Apr 14, 2023 · The Netherlands will not be the first to allow doctors to assist in the death of children of all ages. Belgium has allowed it since 2014.
[90]
(PDF) Minors' decision-making capacity to refuse life-saving and life ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Laws in Belgium and the Netherlands permit euthanasia and assisted suicide for seriously ill children who experience constant and unbearable suffering.
[91]
Gillick competence and Fraser guidelines - NSPCC Learning
Aug 5, 2022 · Gillick competency is often used to assess whether a child is mature enough to consent to treatment. Fraser guidelines are used for issues ...
[92]
Children and end of life decision-making
Dec 6, 2024 · A child who is Gillick-competent is able to refuse life-sustaining medical treatment, but their refusal may be overridden by a court (see the ...
[93]
Should children's autonomy be respected by telling them of their ...
The Gillick ruling in 1985 stated that a child deemed competent could consent to treatment but later judgments ruled that although competent children could ...
[94]
Full article: Pediatric Participation in Medical Decision Making
Feb 21, 2018 · Scholars have long debated the extent to which children and adolescents should participate in medical decisions relating to themselves.
[95]
Experiences with the end-of-life decision-making process in children ...
Three types of decision-making roles were identified: self-determined, guided, and acquiescent (passive). The majority of parents had been active in the ...Missing: capacity | Show results with:capacity
[96]
Ethics of End of Life Decisions in Pediatrics: A Narrative Review of ...
Apr 26, 2018 · In these situations, acting in the best interest of the child and avoiding prolonged suffering should be the primary goal of all decision-makers ...
[97]
Decision-making approaches for children with life-limiting conditions
May 16, 2022 · This study describes how paediatricians approach decision-making for a child with a LLC who is unable to participate in decision-making for him/herself.
[98]
Physician‐assisted dying for children is conceivable for most Dutch ...
Oct 11, 2016 · In line with a 2002 study, we found that paediatricians' attitudes towards PAD did not differ for patients under and over 12 years of age 11.
[99]
Regulating physician-assisted dying for minors in the Netherlands
About half of Dutch paediatricians support the Euthanasia Act and expect it to achieve its aims, which is the same percentage as was found for other ...
[100]
Medical End-of-Life Decisions for Children in the Netherlands
Aug 6, 2025 · A similar study in the Netherlands in 2001 identified euthanasia in 0.7% of deaths in children aged 1-17 years (Vrakking et al., 2005) . In the ...<|separator|>
[101]
Pediatric Euthanasia in Belgium Disturbing Developments
Aug 9, 2025 · The age limit for euthanasia requests ... A majority of surveyed Flemish physicians appear to accept physician-assisted dying in children ...<|separator|>
[102]
Medical End-of-Life Decisions in Children in Flanders, Belgium
Jun 7, 2010 · This was in line with a Dutch interview study, in which pediatricians found minor patients incompetent for end-of-life decision making in 12 ...
[103]
Obligatory consultation of an independent physician on euthanasia ...
In the Netherlands, euthanasia is allowed if physicians adhere to legal requirements. Consultation of an independent physician is one of the requirements.Missing: mandates | Show results with:mandates
[104]
End-of-life doctors oppose assisted suicide, poll reveals
Oct 9, 2020 · Seven out of ten palliative care doctors surveyed believe the British Medical Association (BMA) should remain opposed to assisted suicide, a new survey has ...
[105]
Most Americans Favor Legal Euthanasia - Gallup News
Aug 8, 2024 · Just over seven in 10 Americans, 71%, believe doctors should be “allowed by law to end the patient's life by some painless means if the patient and his or her ...
[106]
Physicians' attitudes in relation to end-of-life decisions in Neonatal ...
Nov 23, 2020 · The aim was to investigate neonatologists' attitudes in Neonatal Intensive Care Units and correlate them with self-reported practices of end-of-life decisions.
[107]
Neonatologists and neonatal nurses have positive attitudes towards ...
Most neonatologists and nurses found nontreatment decisions such as withholding or withdrawing treatment acceptable (90-100%). Termination of pregnancy when the ...
[108]
Press Release : report euthanasia 2024 - figures for years 2022-2023
Mar 18, 2025 · In 2022-2023, 6389 euthanasia declarations were recorded (2966 in 2022 and 3423 in 2023), representing an average increase of 12% per year.
[109]
Euthanasia surged by 17% in Belgium in 2024 and killed one child
Mar 21, 2025 · There were 3,991 euthanasia cases in Belgium last year as patients being killed rose by 17%. Euthanasia amounted to 3.6% of all deaths in the ...Missing: 2014-2023 | Show results with:2014-2023
[110]
Publication of the 2024 figures for euthanasia in Belgium
Mar 20, 2025 · Euthanasia accounted for 3.6% of all deaths recorded in Belgium in 2024, compared to 3.1% in 2023 (source: Statbel, 20.01. 2024).Missing: pediatric statistics
[111]
Euthanasia in the Netherlands - Wikipedia
In April 2023, euthanasia was expanded to include children of all ages who are in unbearable suffering.
[112]
Research on Dutch data regarding euthanasia of those with ...
In the Netherlands, at least 20% of cases of euthanasia go unreported 7. That number is probably conservative because it represents only cases that can be ...<|separator|>
[113]
Euthanasia in the Netherlands: a claims data cross-sectional study ...
Background The annual incidence of euthanasia in the Netherlands as a percentage of all deaths rose from 1.9% in 1990 to 4.4% in 2017.Methods · Euthanasia Ratio And... · Discussion
[114]
Medical caretakers assessments of futility in the NICU - Nature
Apr 1, 1997 · 91% of these infants were predicted to die by every caretaker on each day of life (consistent, accurate prognistication of non-survival). In ...Missing: rates | Show results with:rates
[115]
Factors Influencing Physician Prognosis: A Scoping Review
Dec 22, 2022 · Research shows that physicians display discrepancies in their prognostication, leading to variable, inaccurate, optimistic, or pessimistic prognosis.
[116]
Living With Spina Bifida: A Historical Perspective - PMC - NIH
Before 1960, the survival rate for all forms of spina bifida was 10% to 12%. Surgeons typically postponed treatment until age 2, believing that only the ...
[117]
Population‐based study to determine mortality in spina bifida: New ...
Jun 27, 2014 · Fortunately, both survival and life-expectancy in infants born with spina bifida has improved significantly since the 1960s, owing to advanced ...
[118]
The Groningen Protocol: is it necessary? Is it scientific? Is it ethical?
The Groningen Protocol is clinically unnecessary, unscientific, and unethical. Physicians should condemn its use. The Dutch Association of Paediatrics ...Missing: risks misdiagnosis
[119]
The Groningen Protocol: Is it necessary? Is it scientific? Is it ethical?
Aug 6, 2025 · The Groningen Protocol is unethical because it does not meet the standards of argument-based ethics in defining its four clinical criteria.
[120]
The Prediction and Cost of Futility in the NICU - PMC
In this study, we analysed over 67 000 caretaker predictions offered on 22 000 days of mechanical ventilation for 1813 ventilated infants in our NICU.
[121]
Declaration on Euthanasia - May 5, 1980 - The Holy See
May 5, 1980 · It is necessary to state firmly once more that nothing and no one can in any way permit the killing of an innocent human being, whether a fetus ...
[122]
Life is Sacred: Euthanasia and Judaism - Aish.com
At one time, euthanasia was referred to as “mercy killing”. But public opinion regarding euthanasia has changed. Now, to avoid the negative connotations ...
[123]
Jewish Perspectives on End-of-Life Care | MJHS Health System
Euthanasia/Assisted Suicide. Most Jewish authorities adamantly reject euthanasia or assisted suicide of any kind. Taking active steps to hasten one's death ...
[124]
NEONATAL EUTHANASIA: Jewish Views of a Contemporary Dilemma
Hence the unconditional Jewish opposition to deliberate euthanasia as well ... "Euthanasia, Medical Treatment and the Mongoloid Child: Death as a Treatment.
[125]
“Euthanasia is a crime against human life, incurable does not mean ...
Sep 22, 2020 · “Euthanasia is a crime against human life, incurable does not mean end of care” - Vatican News.
[126]
Why Christians Oppose Euthanasia - Christianity Today
Dec 11, 2024 · If, however, the ethical question of euthanasia is clear within the church, it becomes more complicated when we turn to law and public policy.Sign Up For Moore To The... · The Beginning Of Dementia... · All Saints Die
[127]
Egypt's Dar Al-Ifta | What does Islam state about euthana...
Euthanasia in its two forms described in the question is not permissible. It is considered a major sin, as attested in a mass of Prophetic reports.
[128]
[PDF] Euthanasia from the Islamic Perspective: Ending Life of a Patient ...
The International Islamic Code for Medical and. Health Ethics makes clear prohibition of active euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide in article sixty-one ...
[129]
Assisted dying – Islamic Perspective
Jan 6, 2022 · Islamic law clearly prohibits euthanasia in all circumstances. However, the wishes of the patient not to have his dying prolonged artificially ...
[130]
Religious Groups' Views on End-of-Life Issues | Pew Research Center
Nov 21, 2013 · While there is no formal Hindu teaching on assisted suicide or euthanasia, there is a general concern in Hinduism that prematurely ending a ...
[131]
Perspectives of Major World Religions regarding Euthanasia and ...
The Anglican Church, one of the largest branches of the Protestant church, although not monolithically evangelical, confirmed a resolution against euthanasia ...
[132]
An overview of the spiritual importances of end-of-life care among ...
Involuntary euthanasia is not acceptable in Hinduism and would result in bad karma for the healthcare professional. However, a 'willed death' (Prayopavesa) in a ...
[133]
Perspectives of Major World Religions regarding Euthanasia and ...
Jan 4, 2022 · ... not relevant to apply the principle of non-violence to euthanasia ... Medical ethics and Buddhism: A focus on Euthanasia and death with dignity (S ...
[134]
Euthanasia from a Native American Perspective? Clinical practice ...
Apr 3, 2023 · In most cases, Native Americans are opposed to the concept of euthanasia as a method for alleviating pain and suffering. Beliefs held by Native ...
[135]
Lessons from indigenous wisdom in the euthanasia debate - Mercator
Feb 23, 2017 · The strongest case for legalizing euthanasia is based in radical individualism and “presentism”. It focuses on a suffering, competent adult individual.
[136]
Culture and Attitudes Towards Euthanasia: An Integrative Review
We also find that some cultures, despite the prevalence of euthanasia, are underrepresented in empirical research. This review of literature on the cultural ...
[137]
How do cultural factors influence the provision of end-of-life care? A ...
Cultural factors determine patients' concept of death, preferences about places to die and healthcare interventions.
[138]
Maybe for unbearable suffering: Diverse racial, ethnic and cultural ...
There is also evidence that religious beliefs and anti-euthanasia sentiment influence societal tolerance and acceptance of assisted dying. Cultural diversity is ...Missing: tribes sacred
[139]
The moral philosopher Peter Singer on animals welfare and ... - Vox
May 30, 2023 · I was also curious about Singer's writing on euthanasia, specifically of infants with severe disabilities, which has led to furious protests ...
[140]
Singer's replaceability argument and euthanasia - PEPED
Feb 18, 2011 · Here is the essence of Peter Singer's argument: rights to life are not absolute. The argument that killing a disabled baby and replacing it with ...
[141]
A utilitarian argument against euthanasia - The BMJ
Sep 22, 2005 · I can use utilitarianism to oppose euthanasia. Utilitarianism is an ethical approach that attempts to maximise happiness for society or humanity.
[142]
Death Anxiety, Immortality Projects and Happiness: A Utilitarian ...
Sep 19, 2021 · Legalizing euthanasia is problematic from a utilitarian point of view, considering the observation that immortality projects are indirectly conducive to ...Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques
[143]
Think again: the humanist case against assisted suicide and ...
Apr 12, 2024 · There are four basic reasons why humanists should join with religious folk in opposing legalized assisted suicide and euthanasia.
[144]
Why humanists oppose assisted suicide - Better Way campaign
Feb 12, 2024 · There are four reasons why humanists should join with religious folk in opposing legalized assisted suicide and euthanasia.
[145]
[PDF] Written evidence submitted by Humanists Against Assisted Suicide ...
Humanists Against Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia (HAASE) was formed by atheists and agnostics frustrated with the characterisation of the debate about ...
[146]
Opposing Views: Legality and Ethics of Pediatric Euthanasia
Mar 14, 2018 · Some argue pediatric euthanasia is not needed, as children don't seek it, and lack autonomous request. Others argue it's acceptable, as ...
[147]
Incidence and Prevalence of Reported Euthanasia Cases in ... - NIH
Apr 23, 2025 · In Belgium, where euthanasia was legalized in mid-2002, cases rose from 236 in 2003 to 3423 in 2023. Most previous studies have focused on ...Missing: pediatric | Show results with:pediatric
[148]
Euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide not meeting due care ...
To assess how Dutch regional euthanasia review committees (RTE) apply the euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide (EAS) due care criteria.
[149]
Two Decades of Research on Euthanasia from the Netherlands ...
Our studies show no evidence of a slippery slope. The frequency of ending of life without explicit patient request did not increase over the studied years.
[150]
Not Dead Yet | The Resistance
is a national, grassroots disability rights group that opposes legalization of assisted suicide and euthanasia as deadly forms of discrimination. A A A.
[151]
Why Disability Rights Movements Do Not Support Euthanasia
We believe that euthanasia is another technique to free society of disabled people and another expression of the ableism in western societies.
[152]
Why We Oppose Assisted Suicide Laws | Not Dead Yet
If assisted suicide is legal, some people's lives will be ended without their consent, through mistakes and abuse. No safeguards have ever been enacted.Missing: devaluation | Show results with:devaluation
[153]
Deliberate termination of life of newborns with spina bifida, a critical ...
Possible discomfort in these newborns can easily be treated in a straightforward way by active treatment (closure of the defect and shunting the hydrocephalus) ...Missing: treatable | Show results with:treatable
[154]
Groningen Protocol - Care Not Killing
The presence of hopeless and unbearable suffering · The consent of the parents to termination of life · Medical consultation having taken place · Careful execution ...Missing: criteria | Show results with:criteria
[155]
Nazi Euthanasia: Aktion T4 | Kenyon College
He was also the SS officer responsible for the Aktion T4 euthanasia program, developed with Karl Brandt, that murdered more than 70,000 disabled German adults ...
[156]
Children's "euthanasia" in Nazi Germany - PubMed - NIH
Children with disabilities were killed during the Nazi era, often by nurses. Some nurses killed children, saying that they were under orders.
[157]
[PDF] comparing the treatment of terminally-ill infants in the netherlands
Aug 10, 2011 · Expansion of the Dutch Euthanasia Laws Through the. Groningen Protocol .........................................................................<|separator|>
[158]
Three euthanasia cases face investigation in Netherlands
Jun 23, 2019 · ... Dutch girl with anorexia, who had been sexually abused as a child, had died through euthanasia – with even the pope tweeting that the ...
[159]
Dutch Culture and the Groningen Protocol - jstor
Dutch babies are different from Ameri. The larger point we wish to make is that euthanasia happens everywhere, but when it remains hidden, its abuse does, too.
[160]
Belgium's euthanasia trends dispute 'slippery slope' argument
Apr 24, 2025 · In 2003, only 236 cases were recorded, but by 2023, this had increased to 3,423. This means that euthanasia now accounts for around 3% of all ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[161]
Euthanasia in Belgium and the Netherlands: On a Slippery Slope?
Sep 26, 2025 · To study the reported medical practice of euthanasia in Belgium since implementation of the euthanasia law. ... Pediatric Euthanasia and ...
[162]
The 'Slippery Slope' of Euthanasia | Intersections
May 29, 2019 · The 'slippery slope' argument suggests that if euthanasia is allowed, it will expand to those with less severe conditions, like the depressed, ...