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Conflation

Conflation is the process of merging or fusing two or more distinct entities, such as concepts, ideas, texts, or sets of information, into a single composite form, which can result in a blend, confusion, or misrepresentation.^[1]^[2] This blending often occurs unintentionally in thinking or intentionally in composition, leading to outcomes that obscure original distinctions.^[3] The term entered English in the early 17th century, derived from Latin conflātiōn-em ("a blowing together"), reflecting its roots in ideas of fusion through combined forces.^[1]^[4] In textual criticism, particularly of ancient manuscripts like those of the Bible or classical works, conflation describes the scribal practice of combining variant readings from multiple sources to create a longer or harmonized text, often considered a secondary development rather than an original form.^[5]^[6] This technique aims to reconcile discrepancies but can introduce errors, as later manuscripts tend to exhibit such mixtures while earlier ones preserve simpler alternatives.^[7] Scholars apply principles like preferring shorter readings to detect and reconstruct pre-conflated originals, underscoring conflation's role in evaluating textual reliability.^[5] Within logic and rhetoric, conflation manifests as an error in reasoning where two or more separate concepts are treated as identical, leading to flawed arguments or misunderstandings. Beyond these domains, conflation appears in linguistics through semantic blending in words or dialects, in psychology via the confusion of related constructs like purpose and meaning in life, and in data science as a method to integrate geographic or probabilistic datasets into unified representations.^[8]^[9]^[10] These applications highlight conflation's dual nature as both a constructive tool for synthesis and a potential source of inaccuracy, depending on context and intent.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition

Conflation refers to the process or result of merging two or more distinct concepts, data points, viewpoints, or entities into a single, undifferentiated entity, often erroneously and leading to misrepresentation or misunderstanding.^[2]^[11] This fusion typically occurs when separate elements are treated as identical or inseparable, distorting their individual characteristics and implications.^[12] In its modern usage, particularly the sense of equating or confusing through blending, the term gained recognition in Merriam-Webster's dictionaries in 1973, building on earlier roots denoting the blending of disparate textual or material elements.^[13]^[4] Unlike mere confusion, which denotes a state of mental disorientation or perplexity without implying synthesis, conflation specifically involves an active combining or fusing of elements into a composite whole.^[14] Similarly, it differs from analogy, an intentional comparison that highlights similarities between otherwise unlike things for explanatory purposes without merging their identities.^[15] Conflation is generally unintentional or rhetorically misleading, resulting in a loss of precision rather than clarified insight.^[16] These manifestations highlight how conflation can obscure distinctions across cognitive, analytical, and sensory domains, underscoring its potential to affect precision in various contexts.^[17]

Etymology

The term "conflation" derives from Late Latin conflatio, the noun form of conflare, meaning "to blow together" or "to fuse," composed of the prefix con- ("together") and flare ("to blow"), rooted in the Proto-Indo-European bʰleh₃- ("to blow").^[4] This original sense evoked the idea of merging elements, such as in metallurgy where metals were fused by blowing air into a fire, or in early textual practices where disparate sources were combined. The word first appeared in English around 1625, initially in the sense of fusing texts, such as a "harmony of the Gospels," referring to the blending of parallel accounts in biblical texts.^[2]^[1] In medieval and Renaissance biblical scholarship, conflation specifically denoted the process of combining multiple manuscript variants into a single edition to create a unified text. A prominent example is Desiderius Erasmus's Novum Instrumentum omne (1516), the first printed edition of the Greek New Testament, where Erasmus conflated readings from limited Byzantine manuscripts with the Latin Vulgate to produce a composite version, influencing subsequent textual criticism despite criticisms of its inaccuracies.^[18] This usage, borrowed directly from Latin scholarly traditions, emphasized deliberate fusion rather than error, and by the 1620s, "conflation" in English had broadened to mean the general "action of fusing together" ideas or materials.^[2] The term evolved in the 19th century toward senses involving psychological and logical merging, particularly in rhetoric and criticism, where it described blending concepts or arguments. By 1881, it had acquired a pejorative connotation in textual analysis as "inadvertent combination of two readings of the same passage," highlighting erroneous fusions in scholarship.^[4] In the 20th century, especially post-1973, dictionary entries expanded to include the modern colloquial sense of mistakenly equating distinct ideas, reflecting its adoption in broader rhetorical and analytical discourse by the 1800s.^[13]

In Logic and Argumentation

Logical Fallacies

Conflation manifests in logical fallacies primarily through ambiguities that merge distinct concepts or meanings, leading to invalid inferences in both deductive and inductive arguments. In formal logic, this often violates structural rules by treating separate ideas as identical, creating errors in reasoning that undermine the argument's validity. These fallacies highlight how conflation exploits linguistic or interpretive imprecision to produce deceptive conclusions, distinct from relevance-based errors like ad hominem attacks, which target the arguer rather than the argument's content.^[19]^[20] A key example is the fallacy of four terms, which occurs in categorical syllogisms when a term is used in two different senses, effectively introducing a fourth term beyond the required three and breaching the middle term rule. Aristotle identified this as a formal violation in syllogistic reasoning, where the middle term must connect the premises uniformly; conflating meanings disrupts this linkage, rendering the syllogism invalid. For instance, if "bank" refers to a financial institution in one premise and a riverbank in another, the argument fails structurally. This fallacy emphasizes conflation's role in deductive errors by fusing disparate denotations.^[21]^[22] Equivocation represents another direct form of conflation, involving the intentional or unintentional shift in a word's meaning within an argument, which leads to invalid conclusions by treating multiple senses as one. This informal fallacy arises when a term's polysemy is exploited mid-reasoning, such as using "light" to mean both "not heavy" and "illumination," thereby conflating physical properties with perceptual ones. Unlike mere vagueness, equivocation actively merges interpretations to obscure logical flow, applicable in both deductive syllogisms and inductive generalizations.^[20]^[23] Related structural fallacies include amphiboly and accent, which involve conflation through syntactic or emphatic ambiguities rather than lexical shifts. Amphiboly stems from grammatical structure allowing multiple interpretations, such as a phrase like "visiting relatives can be boring," which conflates who is bored (the visitor or the relatives), leading to interpretive fusion in the argument. The accent fallacy, conversely, relies on emphasis altering meaning, as in stressing different words in "I didn't take the money" to imply varied culpability, thereby conflating prosodic cues with semantic intent. Both underscore how non-lexical conflation creates structural errors in reasoning.^[24]^[20] Conflation-based fallacies are recognized as a subtype of ambiguity fallacies, rooted in Aristotle's Sophistici Elenchi and elaborated in medieval logic. Peter of Spain, in his 13th-century Tractatus (later Summulae Logicales), systematically addressed such ambiguities, including equivocation, as deceptive refutations dependent on linguistic fusion rather than substantive disagreement. This historical framework distinguishes conflation from ad hominem by focusing on argumentative form over personal relevance, influencing modern classifications of informal fallacies.^[25]^[26]

Examples in Reasoning

One classic example of conflation in deductive reasoning appears in syllogisms where homonymous terms lead to invalid conclusions, as illustrated by the argument: "No bats are balls; some bats have wings." Here, the term "bat" shifts meaning from the flying mammal in the first premise to the sports equipment in the second, rendering the inference nonsensical and undermining the logical structure. This scenario demonstrates how semantic ambiguity can collapse an otherwise formal argument without altering its surface syntax. In modern policy debates, conflation often arises when distinguishing between long-term trends and short-term occurrences, such as equating climate change—a global, gradual phenomenon driven by greenhouse gases—with isolated weather events like hurricanes or cold snaps. This merger leads to flawed causal claims, where policymakers or commentators attribute extreme weather directly to climate models without accounting for variability, thereby weakening arguments for targeted interventions like emissions reductions. For instance, in policy debates, such conflations have been critiqued for derailing evidence-based discourse by prioritizing immediate anomalies over cumulative data. A case in inductive reasoning involves blending anecdotal reports with aggregate statistics, particularly in medical contexts where correlation is mistaken for causation. During early 2020 COVID-19 discussions, public arguments frequently conflated observed symptom correlations—such as fever alongside loss of taste—with direct viral causation, ignoring confounding factors like comorbidities or testing biases in preliminary datasets. This led to overstated claims about diagnostic reliability, influencing personal health decisions and resource allocation before robust epidemiological studies clarified distinctions. Such mergers in early media and expert commentary amplified uncertainty in global responses. Historically, rhetorical conflation has shaped wartime argumentation by merging dissent with existential threats, as seen in World War I propaganda where opposition to conscription was equated with treason against the nation. In British and American speeches, phrases like "the enemy within" blurred lines between legitimate critique and sabotage, justifying censorship under the Espionage Act of 1917 and suppressing anti-war movements. This tactic, analyzed in post-war historical accounts, illustrates how conflation sustains persuasive power at the expense of nuanced debate, with long-term effects on civil liberties.^[27]

In Linguistics

Polysemy and Equivocation

Polysemy refers to the linguistic phenomenon in which a single word form carries multiple related but distinct meanings, often leading to conflation when context fails to disambiguate the intended sense. This semantic overlap can create risks in discourse by allowing interpretations to merge unintendedly, resulting in misunderstandings or erroneous inferences. For instance, the English word "float" exemplifies polysemy through senses such as drifting on water (e.g., "The boat will float downstream"), a festive parade platform (e.g., "The parade featured a colorful float"), and a financial mechanism (e.g., "The company will float shares on the stock market"). These related yet divergent uses, rooted in metaphorical extensions from physical buoyancy, can conflate in ambiguous contexts, such as a business discussion where "float" might be misinterpreted as literal movement rather than economic action.^[28]^[29] Equivocation arises as a specific mechanism of conflation when a polysemous or ambiguous term is employed deliberately or accidentally to shift meanings within a single communicative act, often misleading the audience. In linguistics and pragmatics, this involves exploiting lexical ambiguity to obscure intent, particularly in persuasive contexts like advertising. A classic example is the use of "light" in product promotions, where it may ambiguously refer to low weight or calorie content (e.g., "light beer") while simultaneously evoking illumination or mild flavor, blending health benefits with sensory appeal to influence consumer perception without explicit clarification. Such tactics rely on the audience's merged interpretations, fostering conflation that enhances rhetorical impact but risks deceptive communication.^[30]^[23] In communication theory, polysemy and equivocation contribute to misunderstandings by violating principles of clarity, as outlined in H.P. Grice's cooperative principle and its maxims from 1975. Grice's maxim of manner specifically enjoins speakers to "avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity" and to be brief and orderly, ensuring that implicatures—intended inferences beyond literal meaning—are successfully conveyed. When polysemy leads to equivocal usage, implicature fails as listeners conflate senses, disrupting cooperative dialogue and resulting in pragmatic failures, such as ironic or sarcastic intent being taken literally. This framework highlights how conflation undermines effective exchange by eroding the shared context needed for precise interpretation.^[31] From a historical linguistics perspective, the evolution of polysemous terms in English illustrates how semantic shifts can embed conflation potential over time. The word "respect," borrowed from Latin respectus ("a looking back, regard") via Old French in the late 14th century, initially denoted relational consideration or acknowledgment (e.g., "in respect of"). By the 16th century, particularly from the 1580s, it developed additional senses of esteem and admiration, influenced by social and cultural emphases on deference, as seen in early modern texts where "respect" conflated neutral regard with reverential honor. This polysemous expansion, traced through usage in 16th-century literature and philosophy, demonstrates how diachronic changes in word meaning can perpetuate conflation in contemporary discourse, blending acknowledgment with emotional valuation.^[32]

Taxonomic Conflation

Taxonomic conflation occurs in linguistic hierarchies when a single term merges or blurs distinct levels of classification, leading to imprecise categorization across conceptual taxonomies. This phenomenon arises when a word intended for one specific category in a hierarchy is extended to encompass broader or unrelated levels, often due to historical usage or cognitive shortcuts. For instance, the term "spokesman" conflates the gender-specific suffix "-man," which denotes an adult male, with the neutral occupational role of a spokesperson, thereby implying male exclusivity in professional representation and perpetuating gender bias in language.^[33] This merging disrupts the hierarchical distinction between biological gender and functional roles, as highlighted in analyses of sexist language patterns.^[33] Linguistic examples illustrate how taxonomic conflation manifests in everyday vocabulary, complicating precise communication. A prominent case is the term "fish," which in biological taxonomy refers to a paraphyletic group of aquatic vertebrates (such as ray-finned fishes and lobe-finned fishes), but colloquially extends to non-vertebrate aquatic creatures like jellyfish or shellfish, collapsing scientific subclassifications into a vague superordinate category.^[34] This extension ignores phylogenetic boundaries, treating diverse phyla (e.g., Chordata for true fish versus Cnidaria for jellyfish) as equivalent under one label, which stems from folk categorization rather than rigorous taxonomy.^[34] Such conflation can occur in translation as well, where source-language distinctions are collapsed into a single target term, as described in linguistic frameworks for cross-linguistic analysis.^[35] From a theoretical perspective, cognitive linguistics provides a framework for understanding taxonomic conflation through prototype theory, which posits that categories have fuzzy boundaries rather than rigid definitions, allowing peripheral members to blur hierarchical levels. George Lakoff's prototype theory (1987) explains this as arising from embodied cognition, where categorization relies on prototypical examples (e.g., a goldfish as central to "fish") that extend to atypical cases, fostering conflation when boundaries overlap across taxonomic tiers.^[36] This approach contrasts with classical Aristotelian categories by emphasizing graded membership, which inherently risks merging superordinate and subordinate levels in natural language use.^[37] The implications of taxonomic conflation extend to clarity in specialized discourse, where imprecise hierarchies can obscure meaning and lead to misinterpretation. In legal writing, for example, conflating neutral roles with gender-specific terms like "spokesman" may undermine inclusivity and enforce outdated assumptions, prompting reforms toward terms like "spokesperson" to maintain hierarchical precision.^[33] Similarly, in technical contexts, extending "fish" beyond its biological scope can confuse discussions in ecology or fisheries management, highlighting the need for disambiguating terminology to preserve conceptual accuracy.^[34] Overall, addressing taxonomic conflation enhances linguistic fidelity by reinforcing distinct classification levels.^[35]

Broader Applications

In Science and Classification

In scientific research and classification systems, conflation occurs when distinct categories, data sources, or concepts are merged without adequate distinction, leading to erroneous interpretations and hindering empirical progress. This issue is particularly prevalent in taxonomy and data analysis, where imprecise boundaries can distort evolutionary understanding or statistical validity. For instance, in biology, taxonomic conflation has historically obscured evolutionary relationships by grouping variants under broader or incorrect labels, while in research methodologies, blending incompatible datasets introduces biases that undermine conclusions. A notable example of taxonomic errors in biology involves the early 19th-century classification of Darwin's finches from the Galápagos Islands. During his 1835 voyage, Charles Darwin collected specimens but misclassified them, assigning the birds to four different genera based on superficial similarities to mainland species rather than recognizing them as a distinct adaptive radiation of closely related species. This conflation delayed appreciation of their role in speciation until later ornithological work by John Gould in 1837 and subsequent studies revealed 13 species differentiated primarily by beak morphology adapted to varied food sources. Such errors highlight how initial taxonomic lumping of subspecies-like variations into existing species categories can mask biodiversity and evolutionary processes.^[38] In research data integration, conflation arises when datasets from differing methodologies—such as observational studies versus randomized controlled trials—are merged without accounting for inherent biases, often resulting in invalid meta-analyses. In epidemiology, observational data are prone to confounding factors like selection bias, whereas experimental data from trials minimize these through randomization; combining them without adjustment can exaggerate or attenuate effect estimates. Meta-epidemiological analyses have found systematic differences, with observational studies often yielding larger effect sizes than RCTs, leading to heterogeneous results and potentially misleading policy implications if not stratified properly. Historically, medieval and Renaissance alchemy exemplified conflation by intertwining chemical substances with philosophical and mystical principles, which impeded the emergence of modern chemistry as an empirical discipline. Paracelsus (1493–1541), a key figure, proposed the tria prima—salt, sulfur, and mercury—not merely as chemical components but as archetypal principles embodying body, soul, and spirit, respectively, thus blending material analysis with Neoplatonic and hermetic philosophy. This fusion, while advancing medical applications like mineral-based remedies, prolonged reliance on speculative transmutation over systematic experimentation, contributing to a delay in chemistry's separation from occult traditions until the 17th century with figures like Robert Boyle. In modern genetics, conflation between phenotypic traits and genotypic markers has affected genome-wide association studies (GWAS), particularly in interpreting complex traits post-2000. Phenotypes reflect environmental influences alongside genetics, yet early GWAS often treated measured traits as direct proxies for underlying genotypes, leading to measurement errors that inflate false positives or dilute associations. For example, inaccuracies in phenotyping subcutaneous fat thickness in a GWAS of 940 individuals reduced statistical power and biased variant detection, underscoring the need for precise disentanglement to avoid attributing environmental variance to genetic markers.^[39]

In Media, Politics, and Propaganda

In political rhetoric, conflation often serves to simplify complex policy issues by merging distinct concepts, thereby influencing public opinion and electoral outcomes. During the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Donald Trump's campaign frequently equated immigration with criminality, portraying Mexican immigrants as "rapists" and linking undocumented migration to violent crime, despite evidence showing immigrants commit crimes at lower rates than native-born citizens.^[40] This rhetorical strategy exploited fears of gangs like MS-13 to broadly criminalize Latino immigrants, reinforcing a narrative that conflated legal status with inherent danger and bolstering support among voters concerned about border security.^[41] Such tactics not only shaped policy debates but also contributed to heightened anti-immigrant sentiment, as analyzed in studies of campaign discourse.^[42] In media framing, conflation can blend factual reporting with interpretive bias, leading audiences to attribute multifaceted events to singular causes, particularly in economic coverage. During the 2008 financial crisis, U.S. news outlets often merged the broader economic downturn—driven by housing bubbles, deregulation, and financial speculation—with direct blame on government policies, such as the Community Reinvestment Act, despite its minimal role in subprime lending excesses.^[43] This framing amplified narratives of governmental failure, with television newscasts allocating roughly 40% of blame to federal actions in segments on the recession, overshadowing corporate irresponsibility and contributing to public distrust in regulatory institutions.^[44] By intertwining objective market data with partisan critiques, such coverage influenced perceptions of accountability, as evidenced in analyses of frame-building interactions between press and policymakers.^[45] Propaganda techniques have historically weaponized conflation to demonize targeted groups, fusing ethnic identities with ideological threats to justify aggression. In Nazi Germany during the 1930s and 1940s, state propaganda under Joseph Goebbels promoted the myth of "Judeo-Bolshevism," portraying Jews as the architects of communism and responsible for both Soviet expansionism and Germany's post-World War I woes, thereby rationalizing antisemitic policies and the Holocaust.^[46] This deliberate merging of Jewish identity with Bolshevik ideology appeared in films, posters, and speeches, such as those linking the "Jewish conspiracy" to the hammer and sickle, fostering widespread acceptance of persecution as a defense against a fabricated existential enemy. The myth's endurance, rooted in earlier antisemitic tropes like The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, underscored propaganda's power to conflate unrelated threats for totalitarian ends, as detailed in historical scholarship on Nazi ideology. In contemporary digital media, social media algorithms exacerbate conflation by prioritizing engaging content that blends verifiable scientific information with unsubstantiated claims, accelerating the spread of misinformation and eroding trust. During the 2020s COVID-19 pandemic, platforms like Facebook and Twitter amplified vaccine hesitancy by surfacing posts that merged legitimate concerns about side effects—drawn from clinical trial data—with conspiracy theories alleging government microchipping or depopulation plots, reaching millions through recommendation systems designed for virality.^[47] This algorithmic bias contributed to increased hesitancy among exposed users, as studies of content diffusion revealed how conflated narratives outpaced fact-checks, blending peer testimonials with distorted epidemiology.^[48] Such dynamics highlight the role of platform mechanics in scaling conflation, informing efforts to mitigate public health risks through targeted interventions.^[49]

Cognitive Dimensions

Psychological Mechanisms

Conflation in psychological processes often arises from the overgeneralization of mental schemas, where individuals reconstruct experiences by assimilating new information into pre-existing knowledge structures, leading to the merging of distinct elements. In schema theory, developed by Frederic Bartlett, schemas serve as active frameworks that organize and interpret incoming stimuli, but this can result in distortions when unfamiliar details are forced to fit familiar patterns. For instance, in Bartlett's seminal experiments, participants exposed to culturally unfamiliar stories, such as the Native American folktale "The War of the Ghosts," recalled events by conflating them with their own cultural schemas, transforming canoes into boats and ghosts into more conventional figures like wind or dreams.^[50] This reconstructive process highlights how schemas promote efficiency in cognition but at the cost of accuracy, as overgeneralization blends disparate concepts into a coherent yet altered narrative.^[51] Heuristics and cognitive biases further contribute to conflation by simplifying complex judgments through merged associations. The availability heuristic, as described by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, involves assessing the likelihood of events based on the ease with which examples come to mind, often leading individuals to conflate vivid or recent instances with overall frequency. This bias causes people to overestimate rare events, such as shark attacks, by merging them associatively with more common water-related activities like swimming, despite statistical rarity.^[52] Such merged associations arise because easily retrievable memories dominate, overshadowing less salient but more representative data, thereby fostering a distorted integration of probabilities and experiences.^[53] Neurologically, conflation is underpinned by associative networks in the brain, where overlapping activations facilitate the blending of ambiguous stimuli. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies, including one from 2004, reveal that the prefrontal cortex, particularly the left dorsolateral region, plays a key role in resolving semantic ambiguity by integrating multiple meanings within associative pathways. For example, when processing words with multiple senses, such as "bank," increased activation in the prefrontal cortex reflects the effort to disambiguate, but incomplete resolution can lead to persistent conflation of meanings through shared neural representations.^[54] Additionally, a 2010 study on associative memory encoding shows that prefrontal and medial temporal lobe interactions during retrieval promote flexible binding across episodes.^[55] Developmentally, conflation manifests prominently in early childhood during Piaget's preoperational stage (approximately ages 2 to 7), when cognitive structures are immature and prone to blending concepts. Jean Piaget observed that children at this stage exhibit animism, attributing life and intentions to inanimate objects, such as believing the sun follows them or that clouds are angry, thereby conflating living and non-living categories.^[56] Similarly, centration causes children to focus on a single salient feature, conflating it with the object's entirety—for instance, judging the quantity of liquid by height in a tall thin glass rather than volume, ignoring width. These patterns stem from limited logical operations and egocentrism, where children merge perspectives without differentiation, as detailed in Piaget's observations from the 1920s and 1930s. As cognitive schemas develop, such conflations diminish, giving way to more differentiated thinking in later stages.

Implications for Decision-Making

Conflation in decision-making processes can distort individual and collective judgments by merging distinct concepts, thereby reinforcing confirmation bias as people selectively interpret blended information to align with prior beliefs. This fusion often leads to erroneous conclusions, where nuanced evidence is oversimplified or misrepresented, amplifying errors in high-stakes environments like legal proceedings. For example, the Loftus and Palmer study from 1974 demonstrated how participants conflated eyewitness accounts with misleading post-event information, resulting in altered memory recall that could contribute to biased judgments.^[57] More recent research on the misinformation effect shows that misleading details introduced after an event become integrated into memory, causing hybrid versions of testimony in juror deliberations that confirm initial suspicions. Such reinforcement of confirmation bias not only undermines objective evaluation but also perpetuates systemic injustices in judicial outcomes.^[58] In organizational settings, conflation of market trends with consumer behavior has precipitated major strategic failures, as leaders misjudge shifts in preferences by treating technological advancements as mere extensions of established patterns. A prominent case is Kodak's mishandling of the digital photography revolution in the 2000s, where executives conflated the rise of digital imaging—a clear market trend—with unchanging consumer attachment to film-based rituals of memory preservation. This error led to delayed investment in digital products, allowing competitors to capture the market as consumers rapidly adopted instant, shareable digital formats over traditional prints.^[59] By the time Kodak attempted a pivot, its revenue from film had plummeted, contributing to bankruptcy in 2012 and illustrating how such conflation can erode competitive advantages and organizational viability.^[60] Mitigation strategies focus on training individuals and groups in critical thinking techniques to disentangle conflated elements, thereby reducing bias reinforcement and improving choice accuracy. Socratic questioning, which involves probing questions to clarify definitions and challenge assumptions, helps separate merged concepts by encouraging deliberate examination of their distinct boundaries.^[61] Complementing this, debiasing exercises—such as prospectively imagining failure scenarios or seeking disconfirming evidence—counter the tendency to blend supportive information, as detailed in Kahneman's framework for addressing cognitive illusions in judgment. These interventions, when integrated into decision protocols, promote more analytical System 2 thinking over intuitive conflations, fostering robust outcomes in personal and professional contexts. Societally, conflation exacerbates policy errors by intertwining socioeconomic disparities with cultural anxieties, influencing collective decisions in referendums and elections. The 2016 Brexit referendum exemplifies this, where campaigns and voter perceptions conflated economic inequality—stemming from long-term regional deprivation—with cultural issues like immigration and national identity, driving support for leaving the EU among affected demographics. This merger obscured targeted economic remedies, leading to polarized outcomes that prioritized symbolic cultural grievances over data-driven inequality alleviation.^[62] Consequently, such conflations have prolonged societal divisions and hindered effective governance, underscoring the need for discourse that isolates these factors to inform equitable policies.^[63]

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http://www.sulloway.org/Finches.pdf
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[PDF] categories-an-essay-in-cognitive-linguistics-lakoff-1982.pdf
The Fregean paradigm (including assumptions 1 and 2) extended to fuzzy set theory is the only way to characterize a theory of meaning based on Rosch's results.
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[PDF] Trump's Lies - Digital Commons @ UConn - University of Connecticut
Jul 14, 2025 · This is despite Latin American immigrants committing crimes at lower rates than native-born citizens. Further, his presidency continued the ...
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How Trump's Lies about the Wall Undermine Our Criminal Justice ...
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Booms, Bailouts, and Blame - Anthony Palmer, Andrea Tanner, 2012
This study examines the framing of economic news in national television newscasts during the height of the economic crisis of 2008.
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[PDF] mad as hell, but still going to take it? media frames, affective ...
The financial crisis of 2008 and the recession that followed in its wake ... coverage would blame government (40%) as it would blame financial institutions.
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Aug 7, 2025 · This study explores the dynamic interaction between government and news media in the frame-building process, the process of shaping journalistic news frames.
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An Antisemitic Conspiracy: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
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Social media and the spread of misinformation - NIH
Mar 31, 2025 · Misinformation and conspiracy theories contributed to COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy ... social media algorithms contribute to the misinformation ...Missing: conflation 2020s
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Misinformation About COVID-19 Vaccines on Social Media
Aug 4, 2022 · These studies implied that the misinformation spread on social media had a negative effect on vaccine hesitancy and uptake. Only 1 study ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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The impact of misinformation on the COVID-19 pandemic - PMC - NIH
Since the inception of the current pandemic, COVID-19 related misinformation has played a role in defaulting control of the situation.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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Remembering - Cambridge University Press & Assessment
In 1932, Cambridge University Press published Remembering, by psychologist, Frederic Bartlett. The landmark book described fascinating studies of memory and ...
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(PDF) Bartlett's concept of schema in reconstruction - ResearchGate
Aug 10, 2025 · The concept of schema was advanced by Frederic Bartlett to provide the basis for a radical temporal alternative to traditional spatial ...
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Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability
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Availability Heuristic: Examples and Effects on Decisions
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https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1053811904001417
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Flexible Memories: Differential Roles for Medial Temporal Lobe and ...
Nov 3, 2010 · Neuroimaging studies have identified a network of regions including prefrontal cortex (PFC) and medial temporal lobe (MTL) that support ...
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Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development - Simply Psychology
Jan 24, 2024 · Piaget's preoperational stage is the second stage of his theory of cognitive development. It begins around age two and lasts until approximately age seven.Missing: 1920s 1930s
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[PDF] Loftus_Palmer.pdf - UT Psychology Labs
Josh Descriptions of individuals play an extremely important part in the testimony of witnesses. ... elegance of Loftus and Palmer's experiment contrasts sharply ...
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The impact of misinformation presented during jury deliberation on ...
Jan 26, 2024 · These findings suggest that misinformation in jury deliberations may distort memory for trial evidence and bias decision-making.
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The rise and fall of Kodak's moment | University of Cambridge
Mar 14, 2012 · Thousands of words have been written recently seeking to explain Kodak's failure. The company, all agree, was slow to adapt to digital, its ...
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Kodak's Downfall Wasn't About Technology
Jul 15, 2016 · A generation ago, a “Kodak moment” meant something that was worth saving and savoring. Today, the term increasingly serves as a corporate bogeyman.
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Socratic Questioning in Psychology: Examples and Techniques
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It is the interplay between economic factors and individual attitudes ...
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Understanding the social and cultural bases of Brexit* - Chan - 2020
Oct 24, 2020 · The first and perhaps dominant narrative starts with the observation that Leave-vote share tends to be higher in economically deprived areas.Missing: conflation | Show results with:conflation<|control11|><|separator|>