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Choroidal neovascularization

Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is a sight-threatening ocular condition defined by the abnormal proliferation of fragile blood vessels originating from the choriocapillaris, penetrating through Bruch's membrane into the subretinal space or retinal pigment epithelium, resulting in leakage, hemorrhage, and progressive vision loss.^[1] This process disrupts the blood-retina barrier and leads to macular edema, subretinal fluid accumulation, and fibrosis if untreated.^[2] CNV most frequently manifests as a complication of neovascular age-related macular degeneration (wet AMD), accounting for approximately 90% of severe visual acuity loss in AMD cases among individuals over 50 years in developed countries.^[3] Other etiologies include pathologic myopia, inflammatory chorioretinopathies (such as punctate inner choroidopathy or multifocal choroiditis), hereditary disorders like angioid streaks, and idiopathic causes, with congenital abnormalities predominant in pediatric presentations.^[4] Risk factors encompass advanced age (prevalence rising from 0.04% at age 50 to 10.49% at age 90), Caucasian ethnicity, smoking (4.55-fold increased risk), genetic variants in complement factor H (CFH) and age-related maculopathy susceptibility 2 (ARMS2) genes, oxidative stress, and high body mass index.^[3] Clinically, patients often experience sudden or gradual central vision decline, metamorphopsia (distorted vision), relative scotoma, and reduced best-corrected visual acuity.^[2] CNV lesions are classified into types based on location: Type 1 (sub RPE, occult), Type 2 (subretinal, classic), and Type 3 (intraretinal, retinal angiomatous proliferation), with polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy as a variant featuring aneurysmal dilations.^[2] Diagnosis relies on multimodal imaging, including optical coherence tomography (OCT) for detecting subretinal fluid and intraretinal cysts, fluorescein angiography for leakage patterns, and indocyanine green angiography or OCT angiography (OCTA) for non-invasive visualization of neovascular complexes like seafan or coraliform patterns.^[2] Treatment strategies prioritize inhibiting angiogenesis, with intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) agents—such as ranibizumab, aflibercept, or bevacizumab—serving as first-line therapy, improving visual acuity by an average of 7-10 letters in trials like MARINA and ANCHOR while reducing CNV progression.^[3] In specific cases, photodynamic therapy with verteporfin or laser photocoagulation may be adjunctive, particularly for extrafoveal lesions or polypoidal variants, though anti-VEGF remains effective across etiologies with low recurrence rates (e.g., mean 1.4 injections in pediatric CNV).^[4] Emerging approaches include gene therapies targeting VEGF and complement pathways to reduce injection frequency, such as ABBV-RGX-314 in phase 3 trials as of 2025.^[3]^[5]

Background

Definition

Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is defined as the abnormal proliferation of fragile, leaky blood vessels that originate from the choriocapillaris within the choroid and penetrate through Bruch's membrane, invading the sub-retinal pigment epithelium (sub-RPE) space or the subretinal space.^[6] These new vessels are prone to leakage, hemorrhage, and fibrosis, leading to progressive damage to the overlying retina and central vision impairment.^[7] Unlike retinal neovascularization, which arises from the retinal vasculature in conditions such as diabetic retinopathy or retinal vein occlusion, CNV specifically originates from choroidal vessels and is confined to the posterior segment structures posterior to the retina.^[8] This choroidal origin distinguishes it from other forms of ocular angiogenesis and underscores its association with diseases affecting the outer retinal layers. CNV serves as the hallmark pathological feature of the neovascular (wet) form of age-related macular degeneration (AMD).^[1] The condition was first described in the late 19th century in the context of AMD, with early observations by ophthalmologists such as Otto Haab in 1885, who identified senile macular degeneration as a distinct entity involving retinal changes, and Jonathan Hutchinson in 1874, who noted choroidal deposits and hemorrhages linked to vision loss.^[9] Modern understanding of CNV was solidified in the 1960s through angiographic studies, particularly the work of J. Donald M. Gass in 1967, who detailed disciform macular degeneration and the role of neovascularization using fluorescein angiography to visualize vessel leakage and proliferation.^[9]

Anatomy of the choroid

The choroid is a vascular layer of the eye located between the retina and the sclera, playing a critical role in nourishing the outer retina. It is characterized by a highly perfused vascular bed that supports the metabolic demands of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and photoreceptors. The choroid's structure is organized into distinct layers, facilitating efficient nutrient and oxygen delivery while maintaining structural integrity.^[10] The choroid consists of several layered components, starting from the outermost suprachoroid, which lies adjacent to the sclera and contains loose connective tissue, melanocytes, fibroblasts, and endothelium-lined lacunae that may aid in fluid regulation. Beneath this is Haller's layer, composed of large-caliber blood vessels that serve as the primary conduits for blood flow. Sattler's layer follows, featuring medium-sized arteries, arterioles, and veins that branch to supply the inner regions. The innermost layer is the choriocapillaris, a thin (approximately 10 μm at the fovea), fenestrated capillary network directly adjacent to Bruch's membrane, which provides essential oxygen and nutrients to the RPE and photoreceptor outer segments through high-permeability endothelium.^[10]^[11] Blood supply to the choroid is derived from the short posterior ciliary arteries (typically 6-12 in number), which penetrate the sclera near the optic nerve and arborize into larger vessels within Haller's and Sattler's layers before forming terminal arterioles that perfuse the choriocapillaris lobules. This arrangement ensures one of the highest blood flow rates per unit tissue weight in the body, meeting the substantial oxygen demands required for retinal metabolism, particularly in the avascular outer retina. Venous drainage occurs via post-capillary venules that converge into vortex veins exiting at the scleral equator.^[11]^[10] At the interface between the choroid and RPE lies Bruch's membrane, a thin (2-4 μm), acellular, pentalaminar extracellular matrix that acts as a semipermeable barrier supporting nutrient diffusion and structural stability. It comprises five distinct layers from the RPE side to the choriocapillaris: the basement membrane of the RPE, the inner collagenous zone (rich in collagen types I, III, and V, along with fibronectin and proteoglycans), the elastic layer (containing elastin fibers), the outer collagenous zone (similar to the inner but interfacing with the choriocapillaris), and the basement membrane of the choriocapillaris endothelium. This composition of basement membranes, elastin, and collagen enables selective transport while preventing uncontrolled vascular ingrowth under normal conditions.^[12]^[13]

Pathophysiology

Mechanisms of vessel growth

Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is primarily driven by the upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which is induced by hypoxic conditions or inflammatory signals within the choroid.^[1] Hypoxia stabilizes hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), leading to transcriptional activation of VEGF expression in retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells and other local tissues.^[14] Inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), further amplify VEGF production by activating nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathways in endothelial and immune cells.^[15] Elevated VEGF binds to receptors VEGFR-1 and VEGFR-2 on choroidal endothelial cells, triggering intracellular signaling cascades like the PI3K/Akt and MAPK/ERK pathways that promote endothelial cell proliferation, survival, and directed migration toward avascular areas.^[1] This process begins with the enzymatic degradation of Bruch's membrane, facilitated by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) such as MMP-2 and MMP-9, which are secreted by activated endothelial cells, RPE cells, and infiltrating immune cells to remodel the extracellular matrix (ECM).^[14] The compromised integrity of Bruch's membrane allows endothelial sprouts from the underlying choriocapillaris to invade the sub-RPE or subretinal space, forming immature, fenestrated neovessels.^[1] These nascent vessels exhibit increased permeability due to VEGF-mediated disruption of endothelial tight junctions, including downregulation of occludin and claudin-5, resulting in leakage of plasma components that cause subretinal fluid accumulation and hemorrhage.^[14] Macrophages play a pivotal role by infiltrating the lesion site via chemokines like CCL2, differentiating into pro-angiogenic M2 phenotypes that secrete additional VEGF and MMP-9 to support ECM degradation and vessel maturation.^[15] Fibroblasts contribute to the process by proliferating in response to fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), depositing collagen and other ECM components that stabilize the neovasculature while promoting fibrosis.^[16] Overall, this coordinated interplay of molecular signals and cellular activities culminates in the aberrant growth of leaky choroidal vessels characteristic of CNV.^[1]

Classification of CNV lesions

Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) lesions are classified primarily based on their morphological appearance and location relative to the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) as observed through imaging modalities such as fluorescein angiography (FA), which helps delineate lesion boundaries and leakage patterns.^[17] This classification into classic and occult subtypes, originally established in the Macular Photocoagulation Study, guides clinical assessment and prognosis, with classic lesions often showing more aggressive leakage.^[18] Classic CNV, also termed Type 2 CNV, is characterized by well-defined hyperfluorescent areas on FA that exhibit distinct lacy boundaries and prominent early leakage, reflecting neovascular membranes located above the RPE in the subretinal space.^[17] These lesions typically demonstrate a lacy pattern of hyperfluorescence with rapid filling in the early phase, indicating a more superficial position that allows for clear delineation from surrounding tissues.^[17] Occult CNV encompasses two main variants: fibrovascular pedestal-type and plaque-type, both situated below the RPE, resulting in ill-defined imaging features.^[17] The fibrovascular subtype appears as irregular, stippled hyperfluorescence with late leakage on FA, lacking the sharp borders of classic lesions, while the plaque subtype shows blocked fluorescence from overlying RPE irregularities and minimal leakage.^[18] These Type 1 lesions are more common in early neovascular age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and tend to have a slower progression compared to classic CNV.^[19] Beyond classic and occult categories, distinct subtypes include polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV) and retinal angiomatous proliferation (RAP). PCV, considered a variant of Type 1 CNV, features aneurysmal dilations or polyps at the edges of branching vascular networks, identifiable by indocyanine green angiography (ICGA) as reddish-orange protrusions with surrounding notches.^[19] RAP, or Type 3 CNV, involves intraretinal neovascularization originating from deep retinal capillaries that anastomose with choroidal vessels, progressing through stages from intraretinal loops (stage 1) to subretinal neovascularization (stage 2) and finally retinal-choroidal anastomoses (stage 3), often presenting with intraretinal hemorrhages and exudates.^[20] These subtypes highlight the heterogeneity of CNV and influence tailored therapeutic approaches, such as photodynamic therapy for PCV.^[19]

Etiology

Primary associations

Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is predominantly associated with age-related macular degeneration (AMD), particularly its neovascular or wet form, the leading cause of CNV and responsible for approximately 90% of severe visual loss associated with CNV in individuals over 50 years in developed countries.^[21] In wet AMD, CNV arises in conjunction with drusen accumulation and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) atrophy, leading to abnormal vessel growth from the choroid into the sub-RPE or subretinal space.^[22] This etiology is most common in patients older than 50, where oxidative stress, inflammation, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) dysregulation contribute to the progression.^[3] Within the AMD spectrum, CNV develops in approximately 10-15% of cases, typically progressing from advanced dry (non-neovascular) AMD to the wet form over several years.^[23] This transition often occurs in eyes with large drusen and pigmentary changes, with a 5-year cumulative incidence of about 18% from intermediate AMD stages.^[24] Early detection through regular monitoring can help mitigate rapid vision loss associated with this progression.^[25] Demographically, CNV in AMD shows a higher incidence among Caucasians compared to other ethnic groups, with a 10-year incidence of late-stage AMD of 0.9% in whites versus 0.3% in Blacks.^[26] Genetic factors significantly influence risk, including variants in the complement factor H (CFH) gene (e.g., Y402H polymorphism) and age-related maculopathy susceptibility 2 (ARMS2) gene (e.g., A69S polymorphism), which are strongly associated with neovascular AMD susceptibility in Caucasian populations.^[27] These variants disrupt complement regulation and extracellular matrix integrity, elevating CNV risk by up to several-fold in carriers.^[28]

Secondary causes

Secondary causes of choroidal neovascularization (CNV) encompass a range of non-age-related macular degeneration (AMD) etiologies, such as congenital or degenerative conditions, inflammatory disorders, and traumatic or neoplastic processes. These secondary forms often affect younger patients and involve disruptions to Bruch's membrane or choroidal integrity, leading to abnormal vessel growth from the choriocapillaris. Like primary associations, these causes frequently involve upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), promoting neovascularization through similar angiogenic pathways.^[29]

Pediatric and idiopathic CNV

In pediatric presentations, CNV is often idiopathic or associated with congenital abnormalities, such as optic disc pits, colobomas, or other chorioretinal anomalies, accounting for a significant portion of cases in children and adolescents. Idiopathic CNV, without identifiable underlying pathology, is another common secondary cause in younger patients, typically affecting the peripapillary or macular region and responsive to treatment.^[4] In pathologic myopia, defined as high myopia with axial length exceeding 26 mm and degenerative changes, CNV develops in approximately 5-10% of cases. This prevalence is attributed to progressive choroidal thinning and mechanical stretching of Bruch's membrane, resulting in lacquer cracks—linear ruptures that serve as entry points for neovessels. These cracks, often visible as yellowish lesions on fundus examination, predispose the macula to CNV, particularly in myopic degeneration stages, and account for a significant portion of vision loss in affected individuals under 50 years old.^[30]^[29]^[31] Inflammatory and idiopathic conditions, particularly forms of posterior uveitis, are another key secondary cause, where immune-mediated damage to the chorioretinal interface triggers CNV. Punctate inner choroidopathy (PIC), a syndrome affecting young myopic women, features multiple small yellow-white retinal spots and is associated with CNV in 25-40% of cases, often emerging within the first year of onset due to focal choroidal inflammation and Bruch's membrane defects.^[32] Similarly, multifocal choroiditis (MFC) involves punched-out chorioretinal lesions and vitritis, with CNV complicating 30-75% of cases through granulomatous inflammation disrupting the retinal pigment epithelium.^[33] Serpiginous choroiditis, characterized by creeping, geographic atrophy patterns, leads to CNV in about 10-15% of patients, typically at the edges of active lesions where ischemia and inflammation promote vessel leakage.^[34] Other secondary etiologies include presumed ocular histoplasmosis syndrome (POHS), angioid streaks, trauma, and certain tumors. POHS, linked to Histoplasma capsulatum exposure in endemic areas, presents with "histo spots"—peripapillary atrophy and punched-out choroidal scars—and causes CNV in approximately 10-25% of cases, particularly in eyes with macular involvement, through immune-mediated scarring that breaches Bruch's membrane, making it a leading cause of vision loss in young adults in regions like the Ohio-Mississippi River valleys.^[35] Angioid streaks, crack-like breaks in Bruch's membrane often secondary to pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE), a systemic connective tissue disorder due to ABCC6 gene mutations, result in CNV in 70-85% of advanced cases, as the streaks facilitate neovessel ingrowth and subretinal hemorrhage.^[36] Traumatic CNV arises from blunt or penetrating ocular injury causing choroidal rupture, with neovascularization developing in 5-15% of such cases within months, driven by wound-healing responses at rupture sites.^[37] Finally, tumors like circumscribed choroidal hemangioma, a benign vascular lesion, rarely associate with CNV (in <5% of cases), typically at the tumor margin where chronic exudation or photodynamic therapy induces ischemic changes favoring neovascular growth.^[38]

Clinical Presentation

Symptoms

Patients with choroidal neovascularization (CNV) often experience central vision loss, which can manifest as gradual or sudden blurring that impairs activities such as reading and recognizing faces.^[39]^[40] This blurring typically affects the central field of vision, making fine details indistinct and contributing to overall diminished visual acuity.^[41] Metamorphopsia, or distorted vision, is another common symptom, where straight lines appear wavy or irregular, often detectable through abnormalities on an Amsler grid.^[40] This distortion arises from subretinal fluid accumulation associated with the neovascular membranes, which displaces the retinal layers and alters visual perception.^[8] A central or paracentral scotoma, presenting as a blind spot in the visual field, frequently develops and can progress if the condition remains untreated, leading to further vision impairment over days to months.^[41]^[40]^[8] CNV is commonly associated with underlying age-related macular degeneration, particularly the wet form.^[8]

Ocular signs

On fundus examination, choroidal neovascularization (CNV) typically presents as a grayish-green subretinal elevation or membrane, often accompanied by subretinal hemorrhage that appears as a dark or reddish layer beneath the retina.^[42] ^[21] Subretinal fluid may cause a dome-shaped elevation of the neurosensory retina, while pigment epithelial detachment manifests as a rounded, dome-like separation of the retinal pigment epithelium from Bruch's membrane, sometimes with associated lipid exudates appearing as yellowish spots.^[21] ^[43] In cases linked to age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the neovascular lesion is frequently centered at or adjacent to the fovea, disrupting central macular architecture and surrounded by drusen—yellowish subretinal deposits that signal underlying retinal pigment epithelial dysfunction.^[44] ^[45] This foveal involvement contributes to the high risk of central vision impairment, with drusen often serving as a precursor marker in AMD progression to CNV.^[46] As CNV advances, the lesion undergoes fibrosis, evolving into a white or grayish disciform scar composed of fibrovascular tissue that contracts and distorts the retina, ultimately resulting in permanent structural damage and vision loss.^[44] ^[47] These fibrotic changes represent the end-stage of untreated or refractory CNV, where neovascular proliferation transitions to irreversible scarring.^[48]

Diagnosis

Clinical evaluation

The clinical evaluation of choroidal neovascularization (CNV) begins with a detailed patient history to identify the onset of visual symptoms and relevant risk factors. Patients typically report a painless, subacute loss of central vision, often accompanied by metamorphopsia (distorted vision), paracentral or central scotomas, or perceived changes in image size.^[41] Key risk factors elicited include advanced age (particularly over 75 years, which confers more than a threefold increased risk), current or past cigarette smoking (doubling the likelihood of progression to neovascular age-related macular degeneration), and a family history of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), which indicates genetic susceptibility such as variants in the complement factor H gene.^[49]^[50]^[49] Visual acuity testing is a cornerstone of the initial assessment, performed using Snellen or Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study charts to quantify central vision impairment. In cases of CNV, best-corrected visual acuity is frequently reduced, with advanced lesions often resulting in 20/200 or worse, reflecting involvement of the fovea and macular region.^[51]^[52] Basic ocular examinations follow, including slit-lamp biomicroscopy to evaluate the anterior segment (typically unremarkable in CNV) and rule out confounding conditions, and dilated funduscopy to directly visualize posterior segment abnormalities. Funduscopy reveals characteristic macular lesions such as subretinal hemorrhage, fluid, lipid exudates, or pigment epithelial detachments, which raise suspicion for CNV and necessitate confirmatory imaging.^[49]^[53]

Imaging techniques

Fluorescein angiography (FA) serves as the traditional gold standard for diagnosing choroidal neovascularization (CNV) by revealing patterns of dye leakage that differentiate lesion types. In FA, classic CNV manifests as well-defined areas of early hyperfluorescence with progressive leakage extending beyond the lesion borders in later phases, while occult CNV appears as ill-defined hyperfluorescence with indistinct borders or stippled late leakage. This modality provides dynamic visualization of retinal and choroidal circulation but requires intravenous dye injection, carrying risks such as allergic reactions.^[54] Optical coherence tomography (OCT) offers high-resolution cross-sectional imaging of CNV lesions, detecting structural changes including subretinal fluid (SRF), retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) elevation, and lesion thickness. Active CNV typically presents as hyperreflective material adherent to or disrupting the RPE band, often accompanied by dome-shaped RPE elevations or pigment epithelial detachments (PEDs), with SRF accumulation indicating exudative activity. Quantitative measurements of central retinal thickness via OCT correlate with disease progression and guide anti-VEGF therapy adjustments, as increases exceeding 100 µm signal retreatment needs.^[55]^[56] Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA), emerging in the mid-2010s, provides non-invasive, depth-resolved vascular mapping of CNV without dye administration, enabling segmentation of retinal and choroidal flow layers. It visualizes CNV as irregular vascular networks with flow signals above the Bruch's membrane, offering superior detail for type 1 (sub-RPE) and type 2 (subretinal) lesions compared to traditional angiography, with sensitivity and specificity around 84-89% and 85-91% when combined with structural OCT. OCTA's advantages include rapid acquisition (under 6 seconds) and 3D quantification of lesion size and activity, though it may miss low-flow components and is limited by a smaller field of view.^[57]^[54]^[58] Indocyanine green angiography (ICGA) excels in imaging deeper choroidal structures, particularly for occult CNV and polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV), by penetrating RPE, blood, and fluid with near-infrared light. It highlights feeder vessels and branching vascular networks in occult lesions as late-phase hyperfluorescent plaques or stippled patterns, and in PCV as early hypercyanescent polyps with late leakage or washout. Compared to FA, ICGA better delineates sub-RPE neovascularization and PCV components, aiding precise targeting in treatments like photodynamic therapy.^[59] These techniques collectively confirm CNV diagnosis and characterize lesion morphology to inform treatment strategies.

Management

Pharmacological treatments

Pharmacological treatments for choroidal neovascularization (CNV) primarily revolve around anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) agents, which have become the standard of care, particularly for CNV associated with age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and other conditions.^[60] These intravitreal injections work by binding to and neutralizing VEGF, a key mediator of angiogenesis, thereby inhibiting the growth of abnormal choroidal vessels, reducing vascular permeability, and promoting regression of neovascular membranes.^[61] Commonly used agents include ranibizumab (Lucentis), aflibercept (Eylea), bevacizumab (Avastin, used off-label), faricimab (Vabysmo, approved 2022), and brolucizumab (Beovu, approved 2019), all of which demonstrate comparable efficacy in suppressing CNV activity across various etiologies.^[60]^[62] Dosing regimens typically involve an initial loading phase of monthly injections, followed by either pro re nata (PRN, as-needed) monitoring based on optical coherence tomography (OCT) and fluorescein angiography findings, or a treat-and-extend approach to personalize intervals and minimize injection frequency.^[61] For instance, ranibizumab protocols often start with three monthly doses (0.5 mg), with subsequent injections averaging 1.6 to 4.0 over 6 to 24 months, while aflibercept (2 mg) and faricimab (6 mg) follow similar patterns but may require fewer overall injections in some cases due to longer durability.^[60] Brolucizumab (6 mg) is dosed every 8-12 weeks after loading. Clinical trials have shown that these therapies stabilize or improve visual acuity in approximately 90% of patients with neovascular (wet) AMD-related CNV, with many avoiding significant vision loss (defined as fewer than 15 ETDRS letters lost) over 1 to 2 years.^[63] In cases of inflammatory or uveitic CNV, adjunctive therapies such as corticosteroids are employed alongside anti-VEGF agents to address underlying inflammation. Intravitreal or systemic corticosteroids, like triamcinolone, can reduce choroidal endothelial permeability and inflammatory mediators, leading to better long-term visual acuity and OCT thickness reductions compared to anti-VEGF monotherapy, as seen in presumed ocular histoplasmosis syndrome (POHS).^[64] For uveitis-associated CNV, systemic immunosuppression (e.g., with agents like infliximab or adalimumab) combined with corticosteroids and anti-VEGF injections achieves lesion stabilization in 86% to 90% of cases, often requiring 2 to 3 anti-VEGF doses after initial inflammation control.^[65] Emerging pharmacological approaches as of 2025 include gene therapies targeting VEGF pathways to reduce the need for frequent injections. For example, RGX-314 (AbbVie/REGENXBIO) and Ixo-vec are in phase 3 clinical trials for neovascular AMD-associated CNV, delivering sustained anti-VEGF expression via one-time suprachoroidal or subretinal administration.^[66]^[67]

Procedural interventions

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) involves the intravenous administration of verteporfin, a photosensitizing agent, at a dose of 6 mg/m² body surface area over 10 minutes, followed by activation with a nonthermal diode laser at 689 nm wavelength delivering 50 J/cm² fluence for 83 seconds, approximately 15 minutes after injection.^[68] This process generates reactive oxygen species that damage the endothelium of abnormal choroidal vessels, leading to thrombosis and selective occlusion while sparing larger choroidal vessels and the overlying retina.^[69] PDT is indicated for predominantly classic subfoveal choroidal neovascularization (CNV) associated with conditions such as neovascular age-related macular degeneration, pathologic myopia, or presumed ocular histoplasmosis syndrome, as established in the Treatment of Age-related Macular Degeneration with Photodynamic Therapy (TAP) study.^[70] It is also utilized for polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV), a variant of CNV, particularly when combined with anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) therapy to achieve vessel closure.^[68] Laser photocoagulation employs thermal energy from an argon or krypton laser to ablate extrafoveal CNV lesions, creating confluent white retinal burns that cover the entire neovascular membrane with spots of 200 to 500 µm in size and 0.2 to 1.0 seconds duration.^[71] This treatment is reserved for well-defined extrafoveal lesions located 200 to 2500 µm from the foveal center, as well as select classic juxtafoveal lesions (1 to 199 µm from the fovea) where the entire CNV can be treated without involving the foveal center, thereby minimizing the risk of central scarring and vision loss.^[71] The Macular Photocoagulation Study (MPS) demonstrated that this approach seals leaking vessels by inducing fibrosis, though it is now less commonly used due to the availability of less invasive options. Surgical interventions for CNV, such as submacular surgery, involve vitrectomy followed by removal of submacular hemorrhage or the CNV membrane using a vitreoretinal pick or forceps to access the subretinal space through a retinotomy.^[72] Experimental approaches in some cases have included autologous transplantation of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) as a patch graft from the patient's peripheral retina or choroid-RPE complex to potentially restore the blood-retinal barrier, though this is not routinely performed.^[73] These procedures are rarely performed owing to significant risks, including intraoperative bleeding, retinal detachment, and iatrogenic RPE damage, as evidenced by the Submacular Surgery Trials (SST), which highlighted limited benefits relative to natural history.^[74]

Prognosis and Complications

Visual outcomes

In untreated cases of choroidal neovascularization (CNV), particularly in neovascular age-related macular degeneration, the condition leads to rapid and progressive central vision loss due to leakage, hemorrhage, and fibrosis from abnormal vessel growth. Natural history studies indicate that approximately 52% of untreated eyes progress to visual acuity worse than 20/200 (defining legal blindness) within 3 years, with 63% losing 6 or more lines of vision during this period.^[75] This swift deterioration underscores the critical need for intervention, as the majority of patients experience irreversible damage to the macula without treatment. Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) therapies have transformed the visual prognosis for CNV, markedly reducing the risk of severe vision loss compared to historical untreated rates. In pivotal randomized controlled trials like MARINA, intravitreal ranibizumab (0.5 mg) resulted in 33.8% of patients gaining 15 or more letters of visual acuity at 2 years, while 94.6% avoided a loss of 15 or more letters; in contrast, only 5% improved and 62.2% stabilized in the sham (untreated) group.^[76] Similar results are seen with other anti-VEGF agents like aflibercept and bevacizumab, where 30-40% of treated patients achieve meaningful visual improvement, and over 90% experience stabilization or better outcomes in the first 1-2 years post-diagnosis. Newer agents like faricimab have demonstrated improved durability, with sustained visual gains and reduced injection frequency in studies up to 2024.^[77] Early detection plays a pivotal role, as prompt initiation of therapy before extensive leakage or scarring occurs yields superior gains in visual acuity and longer-term preservation compared to delayed treatment. Several factors modulate these visual outcomes in CNV patients. Lesion size is a key determinant, with smaller CNV areas (<1 disc area) at baseline associated with significantly better final visual acuity after anti-VEGF therapy, as larger lesions (>2 disc areas) correlate with more extensive retinal damage and poorer recovery.^[78] Subfoveal location portends the worst prognosis, given the direct impact on central vision, leading to higher rates of legal blindness than extrafoveal or juxtafoveal CNV even with treatment.^[79] Patient-specific variables, including younger age at onset (which facilitates better anatomical response and less baseline degeneration) and absence of comorbidities like hypertension or diabetes (which exacerbate vascular instability), further influence long-term visual trajectory, with older patients (>75 years) showing reduced improvement rates despite equivalent therapy.^[80]

Associated risks

Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is associated with several ocular complications that can exacerbate retinal damage and impair visual function beyond initial neovascular growth. These include subretinal hemorrhage, which occurs in a significant proportion of cases and can lead to rapid visual decline due to blood accumulation under the retina, and subsequent fibrous scarring or disciform fibrosis that causes permanent structural changes in the macula. In CNV secondary to central serous chorioretinopathy, subretinal hemorrhage affects approximately 56.7% of eyes, while subretinal turbid exudation is observed in 80%.^[81] Recurrence of CNV is another key risk, reported in up to 30% of treated cases following suspension of anti-VEGF therapy, often requiring reinitiation of treatment to prevent progression. Additionally, CNV can contribute to retinal pigment epithelium atrophy and, in rare instances, macular detachment, particularly in inflammatory or infectious etiologies. Treatment of CNV, primarily through intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) injections, introduces further risks despite their efficacy. Endophthalmitis, a severe infectious complication, has an incidence of about 1 in 3,000 injections and can result in profound vision loss if not promptly managed. Other injection-related risks include retinal detachment (less than 1 in 10,000 cases), traumatic lens capsule injury leading to cataract formation, and transient increases in intraocular pressure. Inflammatory responses, such as sterile intraocular inflammation or, in specific agents like brolucizumab, retinal vasculitis, represent additional concerns, potentially worsening macular ischemia or causing cystoid macular edema. Photodynamic therapy, an alternative for certain CNV types, carries risks of choroidal nonperfusion or inflammatory reactions in up to stage IV severity. Systemic associations also heighten overall risks; for instance, hypertension is a risk factor for neovascular AMD (OR ≈2.7) and may compound cardiovascular complications from repeated anti-VEGF administration, though large-scale vascular events remain rare (less than 1-2% in trials).^[82] In high myopia, where CNV risk is approximately 5-11%, progression to pathologic myopia amplifies the potential for axial elongation-related detachments.^[83] Monitoring for these multifactorial risks is essential to mitigate long-term sequelae.

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The inner collagenous layer (ICL) is about 1.4 μm thick containing crossed layers of collagen I, III, and V fibronectin, chondroitin sulphate, dermatan sulphate ...
[13]
Matrix Metalloproteinases in Age-Related Macular Degeneration ...
The dynamic metabolism of the ECM is closely regulated by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and the tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs).
[14]
Diverse roles of macrophages in intraocular neovascular diseases
Dec 18, 2017 · This review mainly summarizes diverse roles of macrophages and discusses the possible mechanisms in retinal and choroidal neovascularization.
[15]
Mast Cell and Fibroblast Infiltration in Laser-Induced Choroidal ...
These data suggest that MCs may play a role in the early stages of laser induced CNV working in tandem with FBs to promote pathologic deposition of collagen.
[16]
Guidelines for the management of neovascular age-related macular ...
Classic CNV represents a lesion that has penetrated the RPE layer and is located in the subretinal space (figure 1), whereas occult CNV refers to a neovascular ...
[17]
Imaging-Guided Classification of Neovascularization in Neovascular ...
Oct 5, 2024 · Based on the patterns of hyperfluorescence observed, the study described choroidal neovascularization (CNV) as classic or occult. Classic ...
[18]
Response to Aflibercept Therapy in Three Types of Choroidal ...
Jun 10, 2019 · CNV are classified into four types [1]: Type 1 lesions (occult), when the neovascular membrane is located below the RPE; Type 2 lesions (classic) ...
[19]
Angiographic Subtypes of Neovascular Age-related Macular ...
Jul 4, 2019 · The most common types of neovascular AMD were PCV (36.3%) and MCV (26.8%). Classic CNV, occult CNV, and RAP were identified in 12.1%, 8.8%, and ...
[20]
Morphologic Criteria of Lesion Activity in Neovascular Age-Related ...
According to some authors, RAP can be classified into three stages: intraretinal neovascularization (stage 1), subretinal neovascularization with retinal ...
[21]
Choroidal Neovascularization (CNV) - Medscape Reference
Jan 5, 2023 · Choroidal neovascularization describes the growth of new blood vessels that originate from the choroid through a break in the Bruch membrane ...<|separator|>
[22]
Wet Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD) - StatPearls - NCBI
Aug 11, 2024 · RAP (type 3 MNV), which is characterized by anastomosis between retinal and choroidal vessels and shows early hyperfluorescence, intraretinal ...
[23]
Age-related macular degeneration—emerging pathogenetic and ...
AMD is generally thought to progress along a continuum from atrophic or 'dry' AMD to neovascular 'wet' AMD with approximately 10%–15% of all AMD patients ...
[24]
Progression from intermediate to neovascular age‐related macular ...
Aug 12, 2021 · The 5-year cumulative incidence of progression to nAMD from intermediate AMD was 17.8% and 17.0% in eyes with soft drusen and pachydrusen, respectively.<|control11|><|separator|>
[25]
Age-Related Eye Disease Studies (AREDS/AREDS2)
Dec 27, 2024 · The AREDS studies were designed to learn more about the natural history and risk factors of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and cataract.AREDS Frequently Asked... · AREDS 2 Supplements · Clinical Trials
[26]
Incidence of Age-Related Macular Degeneration in a Multi-Ethnic ...
The highest prevalence of any AMD occurred in individuals aged 75 to 84 years old, varying from 7.4% in blacks to 15.8% in whites and Chinese Americans. Similar ...
[27]
Associations of ARMS2 and CFH Gene Polymorphisms with ...
Mar 11, 2021 · This study aimed to determine the association of ARMS2 A69S, ARMS2 del443ins54, and CFH Y402H polymorphisms with neovascular age-related macular degeneration ( ...
[28]
Genetic and Functional Dissection of ARMS2 in Age-Related ...
ARMS2 was suggested to be associated with neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD) and polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV) in multiple genetic ...
[29]
Choroidal neovascularisation in pathological myopia - NIH
Choroidal neovascularisation (CNV) secondary to pathological myopia is an important cause of significant visual impairment in young and middle aged adults ...
[30]
Choroidal neovascularization secondary to pathological myopia
It has been estimated that mCNV develops in 5%-11% of individuals with pathological myopia[2,3]. Affected individuals are often young and in their working life.
[31]
Optical coherence tomography of choroidal neovascularization in ...
Mar 20, 2002 · These findings suggest that CNV in high myopia might be caused by a wound-healing mechanism after an acute rupture of Bruch's membrane. Because ...Abstract · Patients And Methods · Case Reports
[32]
Choroidal neovascularization due to punctate inner choroidopathy
At least 25%–40% of patients develop choroidal neovascularization (CNV), usually within the first 6 months, although CNV may occur years after the initial ...
[33]
Inflammatory choroidal neovascularization: an update on diagnosis ...
Etiologies that have been noted to have iCNV at presentation include multiple evanescent white dot syndrome, punctate inner choroidopathy, serpiginous ...
[34]
Evidence and Consensus-Based Imaging Guidelines in Multifocal ...
Aug 29, 2025 · Detection of choroidal/subretinal neovascularization as an abnormal vascular network with flow signal. TABLE 1. Imaging-Based Consensus Criteria ...
[35]
Ocular histoplasmosis syndrome - ScienceDirect.com
Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) secondary to OHS is considered one of the principal causes of central vision loss among young adults in endemic areas.
[36]
Angioid Streaks - EyeWiki
Sep 18, 2025 · Angioid streaks are bilateral, narrow, irregular lines deep to the retina configured in a radiating fashion emanating from the optic disc.Disease · Systemic Associations · Diagnosis · Diagnostic Procedures
[37]
Choroidal Rupture - EyeWiki
Apr 29, 2025 · A choroidal rupture is a break in the choroid, Bruch membrane, and the retinal pigment epithelium usually a result of open or closed globe ...
[38]
Choroidal neovascular membrane in a treated choroidal hemangioma
Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) rarely occurs in association with circumscribed choroidal hemangioma (CCH) or after its treatment. Shields et al.[1] in their ...
[39]
Choroidal neovascularization - Refocus Eye Health
Choroidal neovascularization occurs when abnormal new blood vessels grow beneath the retina from the choroid, the layer of blood vessels that supplies oxygen ...
[40]
Choroidal neovascularization (CNV): Symptoms and treatments
Mar 13, 2023 · Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is the growth of abnormal blood vessels in the choroid. The choroid is the blood vessel-filled middle layer of the eye.What Causes Choroidal... · Symptoms Of Choroidal... · Conditions That May Cause...
[41]
Choroidal Neovascularization (CNV) Clinical Presentation
Jan 5, 2023 · Causes ; Degenerative conditions. ARMD. Myopia. Angioid streaks ; Inflammatory or infectious conditions. Histoplasmosis · Sarcoidosis. Multifocal ...
[42]
Macular Degeneration - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
On fundus examination, CNV is seen as a grayish-green tissue below the retina along with fluid or blood in the intraretinal or subretinal plane.[16].
[43]
Pigment Epithelial Detachment - EyeWiki
Jun 3, 2025 · Retinal pigment epithelial detachments (PEDs) are structural splitting within the inner aspect of Bruch membrane separating the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE)
[44]
Age-Related Macular Degeneration - EyeWiki
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is an acquired degeneration of the retina that causes significant central visual impairment.Disease Entity · Disease · General Pathology · Diagnosis
[45]
Relationship of Drusen and Abnormalities of the Retinal Pigment ...
We graded macular features of 127 fellow eyes of participants in the Macular Photocoagulation Study who had an extrafoveal choroidal neovascular.
[46]
Age-related macular degeneration: Epidemiology, genetics ...
In CNV, choroidal capillaries grow to the RPE and BrM lesions, resulting in choroidal neovascularization. Because the structure of neovascularization is not ...
[47]
Fibrosis in age-related neovascular macular degeneration in the anti ...
Aug 28, 2024 · The natural history of neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD) leads to scarring and loss of vision.
[48]
Risk of Scar in the Comparison of Age-related Macular ...
Dec 4, 2013 · Because untreated choroidal neovascularization (CNV) progresses from a neovascular bundle to a variably mixed fibrovascular structure and ...Abstract · Assessment Of Images · Fibrotic Scars And...
[49]
Age-Related Macular Degeneration - EyeWiki
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is an acquired degeneration of the retina that causes significant central visual impairment.
[50]
Clinical risk factors for age-related macular degeneration
Dec 13, 2010 · Increasing age, current cigarette smoking, previous cataract surgery, and a family history of AMD showed strong and consistent associations ...
[51]
Visual acuity outcomes of patients 50 years of age and older with ...
Visual acuity in the study eye 1 year after CNV diagnosis was 20/40 or greater in 3 (14%) patients, 20/50 to 20/150 in 3 (14%) patients, and 20/200 or less in ...
[52]
A Model of the Incidence and Consequences of Choroidal ... - PubMed
A Model of the Incidence and Consequences of Choroidal Neovascularization Secondary to Age-Related Macular Degeneration. ... visual acuity of 20/200 or worse.
[53]
Clinical course after the onset of choroidal neovascularization in ...
Aug 27, 2021 · Based on the patients' medical records, we observed the change of clinical pattern, best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) and central macular ...
[54]
Optical coherence tomography angiography for identifying choroidal ...
Nov 24, 2020 · Fundus fluorescein angiography (FA) is considered the “gold standard” diagnostic test for identifying choroidal neovascularisation (CNV) in nAMD ...
[55]
retinal fluid and thickness as measures of disease activity ... : retina
In practice, clinicians evaluate OCT scans for qualitative evidence of intraretinal fluid (IRF), subretinal fluid (SRF), and irregular elevation of the RPE.
[56]
Spectral-domain OCT in anti-VEGF treatment of myopic choroidal ...
Apr 27, 2012 · In this study, we used SD-OCT to evaluate macular morphological changes associated with active myopic CNV, and determined their clinical significance.
[57]
A review of optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA)
Apr 15, 2015 · Both the retinal and the choroidal microvasculature can be visualized using OCTA while FA is used for seeing the retinal vessels and ICGA is ...
[58]
OCTA vs. Dye: The Pros and Cons - Review of Ophthalmology
Jan 5, 2019 · OCTA, on the other hand, is a quick and noninvasive tool that combines angiographic visualization of the exact site, size and extent of neovascular lesions.
[59]
Indocyanine Green Angiography - EyeWiki
Nov 5, 2024 · Indocyanine green angiography (ICGA) provides improved imaging of choroidal vasculature compared to fluorescein angiography.
[60]
Efficacy of Anti-Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) Therapy ...
Nov 29, 2024 · Most studies have shown a considerable effect of anti-VEGF drugs on improving neovascular age-related macular edema. The disease has no cure, ...
[61]
Anti-VEGF therapies in the treatment of choroidal neovascularisation ...
May 2, 2015 · Evidence from RCTs and non-randomised comparative studies shows that anti-VEGF therapies show consistent benefit in non-ARMD CNV conditions.
[62]
Optimizing Anti-VEGF Treatment Outcomes for Patients with ... - PMC
In clinical trials over periods up to 2 years, each of the 3 agents maintained VA in at least 90% of nAMD patients, as evaluated by the endpoint of losing fewer ...
[63]
Use of Adjunctive Corticosteroid With Antivascular Endothelial ...
Adjuvant corticosteroid treatment in patients with CNV secondary to POHS may provide better long-term vision and OCT outcomes than anti-VEGF alone.
[64]
Management of Uveitis-Related Choroidal Neovascularization
Apr 10, 2014 · Inflammatory choroidal neovascularization is a severe but uncommon complication of uveitis, more frequent in posterior uveitis such as punctate ...Missing: corticosteroids | Show results with:corticosteroids
[65]
Verteporfin Photodynamic Therapy for the Treatment of Chorioretinal ...
Jun 10, 2024 · Verteporfin PDT has been shown to be safe and effective for the treatment of patients with choroidal neovascularization (CNV) due to neovascular age-related ...
[66]
https://www.abbvieclinicaltrials.com/study/?id=RGX-314-2102
[67]
Laser photocoagulation | amdbook.org
Laser photocoagulation remains currently indicated for the treatment of well-defined extrafoveal choroidal membranes. For classic juxtafoveal membranes, laser ...
[68]
Human embryonic stem cell-derived retinal pigment epithelium ...
Sep 11, 2018 · ... choroidal neovascularization, RPE retinal pigment epithelial. Full size image. The CNV membrane was completely removed without bleeding, and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[69]
Transplantation of Autologous Iris Pigment Epithelium After Removal ...
A NUMBER of investigators have postulated that the transplantation of retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells may be a useful approach for the treatment of age- ...
[70]
NEOVASCULAR AGE-RELATED MACULAR DEGENERATION
At the 3-year examination, 74% of untreated eyes had lost ≥2 lines of visual acuity, 63% had lost ≥6 lines, and 52% had visual acuity worse than 20/200.17 By ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[71]
Ranibizumab for Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration
Oct 5, 2006 · Intravitreal administration of ranibizumab for 2 years prevented vision loss and improved mean visual acuity, with low rates of serious adverse events.
[72]
Prognostic factors for visual outcomes 2-years after intravitreal ...
Jan 21, 2011 · Smaller CNV size was a significant prognostic factor that predicts better visual acuity. Patients with lower pre-treatment BCVA had better ...
[73]
A Model of the Incidence and Consequences of Choroidal ...
Because the BSD population forms 6.69% of the general population, this corresponds to 1.21% (18.05%×6.69%) of the general population older than age 45, ...
[74]
Prognostic factors influencing visual outcome of photodynamic ...
Conclusion: Age and baseline visual acuity have an effect on visual outcome in patients receiving PDT due to CNV secondary to pathologic myopia.