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Clouded monitor

The clouded monitor (Varanus nebulosus) is a medium-sized species of monitor lizard in the family Varanidae, distinguished by its brown-grey body marked with scattered yellow spots and a total length reaching up to 1.5 meters, though individuals rarely exceed 1 meter in practice.^[1] Native to Southeast Asia, it features nostrils positioned midway between the eye and snout tip, aiding in its identification from similar species like the Malayan water monitor.^[1] This semi-arboreal reptile is oviparous, laying eggs in clutches, and exhibits a solitary lifestyle, often basking in groups during youth but becoming more isolated as adults.^[2] Primarily terrestrial yet adept at climbing with sharp claws, the clouded monitor inhabits diverse environments ranging from lowland rainforests and scrublands to mangroves and even urban green spaces, such as Singapore's Botanic Gardens, where it seeks refuge amid habitat fragmentation.^[1]^[3] Its distribution spans southern Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, southern Vietnam, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Java, the Riau Archipelago in Indonesia, and possibly Yunnan Province in China.^[3] An opportunistic carnivore, it forages by digging in leaf litter and preys mainly on insects like beetles, along with other invertebrates, small vertebrates such as geckos and juvenile lizards, and occasionally carrion or discarded food in human-altered areas.^[4]^[1] Feeding activity peaks on sunny days, reflecting its ectothermic nature, and it may brumate during cooler periods in northern parts of its range.^[5]^[6] Although not separately evaluated on the IUCN Red List—sometimes treated as a subspecies of the Bengal monitor (V. bengalensis), which is Least Concern—the clouded monitor faces threats from deforestation, illegal trade, and hunting for meat and skins across its range.^[3]^[7] It is listed under CITES Appendix I to regulate international trade, and receives national protection in countries like Indonesia and Thailand, yet ongoing habitat loss and exploitation underscore the need for further taxonomic clarification and ecological research to inform conservation efforts.^[3]^[8] Predators such as king cobras and reticulated pythons occasionally prey on it, but human activities pose the greatest risks.^[3]

Taxonomy

Classification

The clouded monitor, Varanus nebulosus, is classified within the domain Eukarya, kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Reptilia, order Squamata, suborder Anguimorpha, family Varanidae, genus Varanus, subgenus Empagusia, and species V. nebulosus. The binomial nomenclature for this species is Varanus nebulosus Gray, 1831, originally described by John Edward Gray based on specimens from Southeast Asia. As a member of the Varanidae family, the clouded monitor is one of approximately 85 recognized species in the genus Varanus, which encompasses all extant monitor lizards; it is distinguished from congeners such as the Bengal monitor (V. bengalensis), with which it shares the subgenus Empagusia but differs in morphology, distribution, and genetic markers, having been elevated from subspecies status in the late 20th century.^[9]

Taxonomic history

The clouded monitor was first described by John Edward Gray in 1831 as Monitor nebulosus, based on specimens from Java in Southeast Asia.^[10] This original description placed it within the genus Monitor, later reclassified under Varanus. Initially, the species was regarded as a subspecies of the Bengal monitor (Varanus bengalensis), denoted as V. b. nebulosus, due to similarities in morphology and distribution.^[11] This classification persisted through much of the 20th century, as proposed by Mertens in 1942 and supported by Grandison in 1972. Other historical synonyms include Monitor nebulatus (Schlegel, 1839) and Varanus vietnamensis (Yang & Liu, 1994). In the late 20th century, the clouded monitor was elevated to full species status (Varanus nebulosus) based on morphological differences and evidence of sympatry with V. bengalensis in regions like Thailand and Myanmar, as detailed by Böhme and Ziegler in 1997.^[11] This recognition highlighted distinct scale patterns, body proportions, and habitat preferences that warranted separation from the Bengal monitor complex. However, taxonomic status remains debated, with the IUCN Red List continuing to treat V. nebulosus as a subspecies of V. bengalensis (assessed as Least Concern).^[12] Recent genetic analyses have confirmed V. nebulosus as a distinct species within the subgenus Empagusia, separate from African (Polydaedalus and Psammosaurus) and Australian (Odatria and Euprepiosaurus) monitor clades. Molecular phylogenies, including mitochondrial DNA studies by Ast (2001) and broader genomic evidence from Vidal et al. (2012), support an Asian origin for Empagusia species and underscore the clouded monitor's divergence during Tertiary dispersals.^[11]

Physical characteristics

Size and morphology

The clouded monitor (Varanus nebulosus) is a medium-sized lizard, with adults reaching a maximum total length of up to 160 cm, though typical lengths are approximately 120-150 cm for males and 100-120 cm for females.^[13] Snout-vent length (SVL) typically measures up to 61 cm in males (average 58 cm) and 46 cm in females (average 46 cm), with sexual maturity attained at around 100 cm total length.^[13] The tail comprises about 60% of the total length, being roughly 1.5 times the SVL, and is laterally compressed with a dorsal keel for enhanced maneuverability.^[13] The body is robust and muscular, supported by strong limbs with five-toed feet bearing sharp, curved claws adapted for gripping surfaces.^[13] The head is triangular with a somewhat bulbous snout in larger individuals, and the neck is sturdy, facilitating a powerful overall build. A long, forked tongue aids in chemosensory detection, while the jaws are strong and equipped with conical teeth suited for grasping prey. Nostrils are prominent and slit-shaped, positioned midway between the eye and the snout tip.^[13]^[1] Dorsal scales are small and overlapping, arranged in 120-122 rows around the midbody, contributing to the species' characteristic "clouded" appearance through their textured arrangement.^[13] Ventral scales number 70-90 rows along the belly (average 78), and tail scales form continuous rings that are moderately keeled mid-length and sharply keeled toward the tip, with dorsal and ventral tail scales similar in size.^[13] Sexual dimorphism is minimal, primarily expressed in males being slightly larger than females, with no pronounced differences in scale patterns or limb proportions.^[13]

Coloration and patterning

The clouded monitor (Varanus nebulosus) displays a dorsal coloration ranging from light brown to dark brown, overlaid with irregular dark blotches or spots that often merge into wavy lines or a network-like pattern, evoking its "clouded" common name; the tail features similar speckling with yellowish or golden ocelli arranged in transverse rows that may fuse into broken crossbands toward the tip, while the underside remains paler, typically whitish to yellowish with subtle marbling or faint crossbands.^[13] The head is pale orange to reddish-brown, sometimes with small darker spots, and the throat shows reddish crossbands on a light ground color.^[13] Legs are gray-black or reddish-brown, accented by intense yellow mottling or spots on each scale.^[13] Juveniles exhibit more vivid and contrasting patterns than adults, with a gray-black dorsum marked by larger yellow spots in narrow cross rows, a distinct dark V-shaped marking at the neck, and a banded tail where light and dark rings widen toward the end; the underside includes dark transverse bands or reticulations on a whitish to yellowish base.^[13] These brighter markings provide juveniles with heightened visual distinction.^[13] In contrast, adults show lighter, more subdued tones with faded spots and less pronounced banding.^[11] Ontogenetic shifts in patterning occur as the lizard matures, with juveniles' striking dark colors and prominent yellow spots gradually fading; by approximately 18 months, black-rimmed yellow ocelli emerge on a gray background, transitioning to the integrated, less contrasting adult network of dark blotches and lines.^[13]^[11] The clouded patterning blends the lizard with leaf litter, bark, and rocky substrates in forested and semi-arboreal environments.^[13] Coloration exhibits considerable individual and populational variation, with some specimens displaying darker tones potentially linked to humid habitats, enhancing crypsis in diverse microenvironments across its Southeast Asian range.^[13]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The clouded monitor (Varanus nebulosus) is native to Southeast Asia, occurring across southern Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Peninsular Malaysia (including Pulau Tioman), Singapore, and Indonesia on the islands of Sumatra, Java, and in the Riau Archipelago (such as Pulau Kundur and Pulau Combol) as well as the Natuna Islands.^[1]^[11] Isolated records also indicate presence in Yunnan Province, China. Although unconfirmed reports suggest possible occurrence on Borneo, verified distributions do not include this island.^[3] The species is not endemic to any single country but is regionally restricted to the Indochinese and Sundaic bioregions, reflecting its adaptation to diverse tropical environments in mainland and insular Southeast Asia.^[11] Populations are found from sea level to elevations of up to about 1,000 meters, with records in areas such as Taksin Maharat National Park in Thailand, where the terrain reaches approximately 1,068 meters.^[14] However, habitat fragmentation from human activities has resulted in discontinuous distributions, isolating groups in remnant forest patches across its range.^[3] Historically, the species may have had a more continuous northern extent, but deforestation has likely caused contraction in these limits, particularly in northeastern Thailand where it is now considered rare outside protected zones.^[3]^[7] Recent confirmed sightings persist in protected areas, including national parks in Thailand (such as Taksin Maharat) and Malaysia (such as Taman Negara), where conservation efforts help maintain viable populations.^[15]

Habitat preferences

The clouded monitor (Varanus nebulosus) primarily inhabits forested environments across Southeast Asia, favoring tropical rainforests and scrublands where it can exploit diverse microhabitats. This species is mainly terrestrial but exhibits semi-arboreal tendencies, frequently climbing tree trunks and utilizing hollows in large trees such as Shorea henryana for shelter and refuge.^[1]^[16]^[16] Foraging occurs predominantly on the ground, where individuals dig through leaf litter in search of invertebrates, aided by their sharp claws that also facilitate climbing.^[1]^[1] The species demonstrates notable tolerance for habitat disturbance, occurring in secondary forests, human-modified landscapes, and even urban parklands with remnant rainforest elements.^[7]^[17] These preferences extend to areas with dense vegetation cover, allowing it to persist in fragmented environments near its broader geographic range in mainland Southeast Asia and associated islands.^[16] Clouded monitors are adapted to lowland and mid-elevation zones, from sea level to about 1,000 m above sea level, within humid tropical climates characterized by seasonal dry periods, such as tropical savanna conditions.^[7]^[14] Their climbing prowess enables effective navigation of vertical forest structures, supporting both diurnal activity and shelter-seeking behaviors in these warm, moist environments.^[1]

Ecology and behavior

Diet and foraging

The clouded monitor (Varanus nebulosus) is a carnivorous lizard with an opportunistic diet dominated by invertebrates, which constitute approximately 97% of observed prey items in stomach flushes from individuals on Pulau Tioman, Malaysia. Insects such as cockroaches (comprising 45% of the diet), ants, beetles, locusts, and termites form the bulk of this intake, supplemented by other invertebrates including land snails, centipedes, scorpions, and grubs. These prey are typically small and abundant in forest floor litter, reflecting the lizard's role in controlling invertebrate populations within its habitat.^[4]^[18] Vertebrate prey is less common but includes small lizards (e.g., geckos and juvenile sun skinks), occasional small mammals like rats or mice, and reports of fish consumption in grassy areas. The species also opportunistically feeds on carrion, broadening its trophic niche as a scavenger and predator in diverse ecosystems from rainforests to agroforests. Juveniles rely more heavily on invertebrates due to their smaller size, gradually incorporating vertebrates as they grow.^[4]^[13]^[18] Foraging occurs primarily on the ground in semi-open areas near rainforests, with individuals covering small territories of about 0.3 hectares and dedicating up to 8 hours daily (averaging 5.5 hours) to active hunting between 10:00 and 18:00. The preferred strategy involves digging through soil and leaf litter, accounting for 71% of foraging time, to unearth buried or hidden prey like grubs and snails, which are then crunched and swallowed whole. As a semi-arboreal species, clouded monitors may also employ ambush tactics from low trees or branches to capture passing prey, aided by their keen chemosensory detection via frequent tongue-flicking to the vomeronasal organ. This behavior positions them as mid-level predators that help regulate insect and small vertebrate abundances in Southeast Asian forests.^[4]^[13]^[18]

Activity patterns and locomotion

The clouded monitor (Varanus nebulosus) is primarily diurnal, exhibiting activity confined to daylight hours with no recorded nighttime movement. Individuals typically emerge in the morning to bask, thermoregulating at body temperatures around 26–29 °C, often on elevated perches or open ground to absorb solar radiation before initiating foraging or exploratory behaviors. At dusk, they retreat to sheltered sites such as tree hollows or burrows for rest, utilizing these refuges to avoid nocturnal predators and maintain energy conservation.^[7]^[19] In terms of locomotion, the clouded monitor demonstrates versatility across terrestrial, arboreal, and aquatic environments. On land, it employs a deliberate, quadrupedal gait suited to navigating forest floors and scrublands, with its robust limbs enabling efficient movement over uneven terrain.^[1] As a proficient climber, it ascends trees using sharp, curved claws for grip and a muscular, prehensile tail for balance and propulsion, allowing access to high branches or hollows up to 15 meters above ground.^[1]^[17] It is also capable of swimming, propelling itself through water via lateral undulations of its body and tail, though less specialized for aquatic life than congeners like the water monitor.^[20] In cooler northern portions of its range, such as northeastern Thailand, the clouded monitor undergoes brumation—a period of dormancy analogous to hibernation in endotherms—during the dry and cool season from November to February.^[7] This inactivity, triggered by temperatures dropping below 22°C and humidity under 75%, lasts an average of 100 days (range 86–113 days), with individuals sheltering in east- to south-facing tree hollows to minimize exposure.^[7] Brumation is absent in warmer, equatorial regions like Singapore, where consistent tropical conditions support year-round activity.^[17] Adults maintain a largely solitary lifestyle, interacting minimally outside of breeding periods and occasionally engaging in territorial displays such as hissing or tail whipping to deter intruders.^[17] Their home ranges in forested habitats support this asocial behavior, encompassing areas sufficient for individual foraging without frequent overlap.^[7]

Reproduction

Mating and courtship

The mating season of the clouded monitor (Varanus nebulosus), often considered a subspecies or synonym of the Bengal monitor (V. bengalensis), typically aligns with the wet season across much of its Southeast Asian range, spanning May to August and influenced by increased rainfall that enhances activity and resource availability.^[21]^[22] Observations in related populations confirm breeding activity peaking from June to September, with male combat behaviors emerging as early as April in anticipation of peak mating.^[23] Courtship involves males pursuing females across the ground or low vegetation, attempting to immobilize them by grasping the neck or shoulders with forelimbs while mounting.^[24] Females often resist these advances by vigorously whipping their tails and twisting their bodies to escape.^[23] Pre-copulatory signaling may include scent marking via cloacal or femoral glands, where males and females release pheromones to indicate breeding readiness and territory, facilitating mate location in dense habitats.^[25] Male-male competition is intense and ritualized, with rivals rising onto hind legs to grapple necks and shoulders, accompanied by hissing, rapid head jerking, and occasional biting or wrestling maneuvers that establish dominance without typically causing injury; such combats can last several minutes and determine access to receptive females.^[24] Mate selection favors larger, more dominant males, as females appear to assess competitors based on the outcomes of these displays and physical prowess, supporting a polygynous mating system where victorious males copulate with multiple partners.^[23] Copulation itself is brief, averaging around 84 seconds per event, often repeated in quick succession with short basking intervals between attempts.^[24]

Egg-laying and development

Females of the clouded monitor lay clutches of 4 to 12 eggs, typically every two months in captivity, with up to three clutches possible per year; clutch size varies with female body size and is generally smaller in the wild (4-7 eggs).^[13] Eggs are deposited in humid sites such as tree hollows, termite mounds, or burrows, providing protection and suitable moisture levels for development.^[13] The eggs possess elongated shapes and leathery shells, characteristic of oviparous squamates, which allow flexibility and gas exchange during incubation. Incubation requires temperatures of 28-30°C and lasts 158-174 days in controlled settings, or up to 180 days under slightly cooler conditions around 28°C.^[13] Upon hatching, juveniles measure 25.5-28.6 cm in total length and weigh 20-26 g on average, emerging fully independent without parental care. These young lizards exhibit high mortality rates primarily due to predation by birds, mammals, and larger reptiles in their early stages.^[13] Sexual maturity is attained at 2-3 years of age, corresponding to snout-vent lengths of approximately 22.5-29.5 cm for females and 23.3 cm for males, though exact wild timelines may vary.^[13]

Conservation

Status and population

The clouded monitor (Varanus nebulosus) has not been individually assessed for the IUCN Red List and is currently classified as Not Evaluated (NE).^[3] It is listed under CITES Appendix II, which regulates international trade to prevent overexploitation while allowing sustainable commerce.^[8] No precise global population estimates exist for the species, reflecting limited field data across its range; however, it is described as relatively common in certain core areas, such as southern Thailand, where exploitation is lower.^[3] Population trends indicate stability in intact core ranges but a slow overall decline in fragmented habitats, primarily driven by habitat loss.^[3] Monitoring efforts in protected areas, including national parks in Thailand, suggest persistence in refugia but highlight regional declines in northern and northeastern populations due to exploitation for food.^[7] Key research gaps include the absence of comprehensive population surveys across the species' distribution and a need for genetic studies to assess population connectivity and structure, which could inform future conservation assessments.^[3]

Threats and protection

The clouded monitor (Varanus nebulosus) faces significant threats from habitat destruction, primarily driven by logging, agricultural expansion, and urbanization throughout its range in Southeast Asia. Deforestation rates in countries like Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand have reduced suitable forested habitats, exacerbating vulnerability for this semi-arboreal species.^[11]^[3] Hunting for meat, skins, and use in traditional medicine poses another major risk, with local consumption reported widely, including in Thailand where the species is exploited as food outside southern regions due to cultural factors.^[3] Despite its inclusion in CITES Appendix II, which aims to regulate international trade to avoid over-utilization, the pet trade continues illegally, with seizures documented in peninsular Malaysia.^[8]^[11] Secondary threats include the collection of eggs for human consumption, a common practice affecting monitor lizard reproduction across Southeast Asia, and roadkill in increasingly urbanized areas such as Singapore and West Malaysia.^[11] Climate change may further impact the species by altering wet season patterns essential for its activity and foraging, though specific effects remain understudied.^[26] Conservation efforts provide some safeguards, with the clouded monitor protected under national laws in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. In Indonesia, it is classified as nationally protected under the Regulation of the Minister of Environment and Forestry, prohibiting commercial exploitation.^[27]^[3] Thailand lists it as a protected species, limiting hunting and trade.^[3] The species occurs within wildlife reserves, such as those in peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, where anti-poaching patrols enforce regulations against illegal collection.^[11] Ongoing initiatives include research coordinated by the IUCN SSC Monitor Lizard Specialist Group, which evaluates threats, population trends, and conservation needs to inform Red List assessments.^[26] In Singapore, where habitat loss and human-wildlife conflicts are acute, community education programs by the Animal Concerns Research and Education Society (ACRES) promote tolerance and reduce persecution through public awareness campaigns on the ecological role of monitor lizards. These measures have contributed to localized stability, though broader population declines persist due to ongoing threats.^[3]

References

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Clouded Monitor - Varanus nebulosus - Ecology Asia
Its colouration comprises yellow spots on a brown-grey base. This mainly terrestrial species can be found in habitats as diverse as scrubland and rainforest, ...Missing: conservation | Show results with:conservation
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(PDF) Biodiversity Record: Clouded monitors, Varanus nebulosus ...
Adult clouded monitors lead a solitary life. They mainly frequent the ground, but also climb trees. A group of three young clouded monitors, each about 80 ...Missing: facts | Show results with:facts
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Varanus nebulosus - IUCN SSC MONITOR LIZARD
RED LIST STATUS: Not Evaluated (NE). CITES: Appendix II. NATIONAL PROTECTION: Indonesia. – Nationally protected according to the Regulation of the Minister of ...
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Aug 9, 2025 · It was found that their main diet consists of insects, invertebrates and occasionally small vertebrates such as geckos and juvenile sun lizards.
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(PDF) Brumation of the clouded monitor lizard Varanus nebulosus in ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The clouded monitor lizard (Varanus nebulosus), is a semi arboreal lizard widely distributed throughout much of South and Southeast Asia.
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(2) Feeding behaviour depends on the amount of sunshine. During 1969 there were 132 days when lizards fed regularly (`sunny' days), 42 when they fed ...
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[PDF] Brumation of the clouded monitor lizard Varanus nebulosus in north ...
Oct 14, 2021 · Their conservation status in the wild has yet to be assessed and the IUCN listing remains under Bengal monitor (Varanus bengalensis) as ...
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Here the number of monitor lizard species currently recognized are listed ... In contrast to the reptile database, where 85 species are listed, we list ...Missing: count | Show results with:count
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Mar 1, 2013 · Conservation status.—Varanus caerulivirens has not been assessed in the IUCN Red List. The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.
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IUCN Monitor Lizard Specialist Group: http://varanus.org/. Reptile ... macraei, Varanus melinus, Varanus nebulosus, Varanus obor,. Varanus prasinus ...
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Aug 1, 2001 · During January 1998 to February 2000, Twenty-two protected areas and seventeen villages in the southern part of Thailand were used as study ...
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May 3, 2023 · Varanus nebulosus is a semi-arboreal species widely distributed throughout South and Southeast Asia (Bennett, 1998;Auliya and Koch, 2020).Missing: Indochinese Sundaic
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Sep 10, 2024 · Its monitoring is indicated in proportion to the size of the environment, and the number of potential hiding places/refugia when the lizards ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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###Summary of Diet and Foraging Behavior of Clouded Monitor (Varanus nebulosus)
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Clouded Monitor Lizard Goes For A Swim - YouTube
Oct 8, 2021 · Unlike the more common water monitor lizards, the smaller clouded monitor lizard prefers forest habitats. This individual entered a private ...Missing: Varanus nebulosus locomotion climbing walking
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Bengal Monitor (Varanus bengalensis) - Wiki - Animal Pictures Archive
Bengal monitors breed mostly during the wet season, but some of these animals found in Sri Lanka reproduce during December or January. In Thailand they have ...
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They are often found in agricultural areas, and are mainly found below 1500m altitude.Bengal monitors are usually solitary and usually found on the ground, ...
[19]
[PDF] An Observational Note on Mating Behavior and Male-Male Combat ...
The Bengal monitor or common Indian monitor. (Varanus bengalensis) has a broad distribution that ranges from Afghanistan to Java, including southeastern.
[20]
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Dec 28, 2018 · A single observation of courtship, mating, and ritualized combat behavior is reported for Varanus bengalensis in Bangladesh. Some peculiar ...
[21]
[PDF] A-little-book-of-monitor-lizards.pdf - ResearchGate
Colour and pattern do not differ significantly between juveniles and adults. They reach a maximum of about 60cm TL (25cm SVL). The spiny-tailed monitor ...Missing: coloration | Show results with:coloration
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Except the species included in Appendix I and Pteropus brunneus which is not included in the Appendices ... Varanus nebulosus. Family. Xenosauridae. Chinese ...
[23]
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IUCN SSC - MONITOR LIZARD SPECIALIST GROUP. Varanus nebulosus, West Malaysia © Mark Auliya ; PHILLIPINE SPECIES. Varanus olivaceus © Mark Auliya ; AFRICAN SPECIES.
[24]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329972137_An_Observational_Note_on_Mating_Behavior_and_Male-Male_Combat_of_the_Bengal_Monitor_Varanus_bengalensis_Daudin_1802_in_the_National_Botanical_Garden_Dhaka