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Colored

"Colored" is a historical racial term used in the United States, primarily from the late 18th century through the mid-20th century, to designate individuals of African descent, especially in legal and social contexts of segregation.^[1] During the Jim Crow era (approximately 1877–1965), the term appeared ubiquitously on signage enforcing "separate but equal" facilities, such as restrooms, drinking fountains, schools, and transportation, restricting non-white persons—chiefly African Americans—to designated areas apart from whites.^[2]^[3] This usage stemmed from post-Civil War racial classifications, where "colored" served as a polite or legal euphemism for Black people, adopted even by African American organizations like the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), founded in 1909 to combat lynching, disenfranchisement, and segregation.^[4] The 1896 Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson enshrined the constitutionality of such separations between "white" and "colored" races in public accommodations, justifying de facto inferior provisions for the latter until overturned by Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 and subsequent civil rights legislation.^[5] Though self-embraced by some freedmen as a symbol of racial pride in the 19th century, "colored" gradually yielded to "Negro," "Black," and "African American" amid evolving preferences and the civil rights movement's push against Jim Crow remnants, rendering it archaic and sometimes viewed as pejorative today despite its neutral historical connotations.^[6]^[7]

Etymology and Definitions

Linguistic Origins

The racial descriptor "colored," when applied to people of African or mixed descent, entered English usage in the late 18th century through translations and adaptations of French colonial terminology from the Caribbean. Specifically, it derives from "gens de couleur libres" (free people of color), a phrase documented in French legal codes as early as 1712 and in common use by the 1740s in Saint-Domingue (modern Haiti), where it denoted a distinct class of free individuals of non-European ancestry amid a tripartite social structure of whites, enslaved Blacks, and free people of intermediate status.^[8] The English equivalent first appeared in American newspapers reporting Caribbean news, such as the Connecticut Journal on June 10, 1778, and the Pennsylvania Packet on January 1, 1782, marking its initial linguistic adoption in the colonial press.^[8] Linguistically, "colored" functioned as an umbrella term emphasizing visible skin pigmentation as a marker of difference from the unpigmented European baseline, often interchangeable with "people of color" in early American documents. Usage peaked between 1820 and 1850, according to corpus analyses of historical texts, reflecting its integration into legal and social discourse for free non-whites, including those of unmixed African descent despite the term's frequent association with mixed-race individuals in French-influenced regions.^[8] In southern U.S. contexts like Louisiana—following the 1809 influx of approximately 5,000 gens de couleur refugees from Haiti—the 1808 Civil Code explicitly categorized "people of color" separately, embedding the term in statutes that recognized their limited rights while restricting privileges compared to whites.^[8] Similarly, in South Carolina, laws such as the 1848 prohibition on free people of color possessing firearms reinforced the descriptor's role in codifying racial hierarchies.^[8] By the early 19th century, "colored people" had evolved in northern U.S. usage to encompass broader free Black populations, diverging slightly from the French-derived specificity for mixed ancestry, as evidenced in conventions and petitions by self-identified groups.^[8] This shift aligned with Anglo-American legal traditions that increasingly applied one-drop ancestry rules, subsuming varied phenotypes under a single pigmented category, though the term retained its colonial roots in distinguishing status by hue rather than strict genealogy.^[8]

Dictionary and Lexical Evolution

The adjective "colored," denoting possession of hue or tint, first appeared in English dictionaries in the 14th century, reflecting its literal application to objects or substances imbued with pigment.^[9] This primary sense persisted across editions of major lexicons, such as Noah Webster's 1828 American Dictionary of the English Language, where it emphasized staining or dyeing without racial connotation.^[10] By the late 18th century, however, an extended usage emerged in American and British contexts to describe individuals of non-white complexion, particularly those of African descent, drawing from French gens de couleur (people of color), a term documented in revolutionary-era records for free people of mixed or African heritage.^[11] In the 19th century, dictionaries incorporated this racial denotation as standard, often without pejorative labeling; for instance, the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) traces quotable instances to 1821, such as references to "the Colored School" in educational contexts, and 1834 mentions of "coloured dance" denoting segregated social events.^[12] American lexicons, including later Webster's revisions, reflected its prevalence in legal, census, and social discourse, where "colored" served as a neutral descriptor for freed slaves and their descendants post-emancipation, adopted by Black-led organizations like the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (founded 1909) as a marker of self-identification and pride.^[11] Usage peaked in printed English around 1890–1920, per corpus analyses, aligning with Jim Crow-era institutionalization.^[11] Lexical treatment shifted in the mid-20th century amid civil rights advocacy favoring "Negro" (endorsed by figures like W.E.B. Du Bois around 1920s) and later "Black," rendering "colored" increasingly archaic.^[13] By the 1960s–1970s editions, dictionaries began qualifying it as dated; modern entries, such as Merriam-Webster's (updated 2024), acknowledge its "common and widespread use well into the 20th century" for racial reference but note contemporary perceptions of offensiveness due to associations with segregation.^[9] The OED similarly flags the racial sense as "now usually considered offensive," reflecting evolving social norms rather than inherent semantics, though compound forms like "person of color" (revived post-1970s) retain utility in some multicultural contexts without standalone stigma.^[12] This evolution underscores dictionaries' responsiveness to usage shifts, prioritizing descriptive accuracy over prescriptive morality.

Historical Usage in the United States

Colonial and Antebellum Periods

In colonial America, the term "colored" began appearing in the late 17th and early 18th centuries to refer to persons of African descent, often in legal and social contexts distinguishing free individuals from enslaved "negroes" or "blacks."^[14] This usage was particularly evident in colonies with French or Spanish influences, such as Louisiana and Natchez under colonial rule (1700–1798), where "gens de couleur libres" translated to "free people of color," denoting free mixed-race or African-descended individuals who held property and sometimes participated in militia service.^[15] In British colonies like Virginia, early laws primarily employed "negro" for racial classification, but "person of color" emerged by the mid-18th century in records of manumissions and court documents to identify free non-whites of varied skin tones, reflecting a pigmentocracy where lighter complexion afforded limited privileges.^[16] By the antebellum period (roughly 1783–1861), "free colored persons" or "free people of color" became a standard designation in U.S. legal and census records for the approximately 250,000 free African-descended individuals in the South, comprising a small but distinct class amid four million enslaved people.^[17] The 1820 U.S. Census first explicitly categorized "free colored persons" separately from "free white persons" and slaves, a practice continuing through 1860 when 488,070 such individuals were enumerated nationwide, with over half residing in slave states like Louisiana, where they numbered tens of thousands and often owned property, businesses, or even slaves themselves.^[18] In Louisiana, free people of color enjoyed relative prosperity under codes inherited from French colonial law, forming an intermediate social stratum that included artisans, landowners, and educators, though restricted from voting or testifying against whites.^[19] This terminology underscored causal distinctions in status—free versus enslaved—while reinforcing racial hierarchies, as states like Mississippi and Virginia imposed curfews, registration requirements, and bans on free colored migration to prevent alliances with slaves.^[20] The term's adoption by both white authorities and the free colored population itself highlighted its neutrality in era-specific discourse, used interchangeably with "people of color" to encompass mixed African, European, and sometimes Native ancestries without the pejorative connotations later attached.^[1] Free colored communities, such as in New Orleans, leveraged the label for self-organization, establishing mutual aid societies and schools, yet faced escalating restrictions post-1831 Nat Turner rebellion, including expulsion laws in some states that reduced their numbers through forced removal or re-enslavement.^[21] Despite comprising only about 1-2% of the Southern population, their existence challenged slavery's binary, prompting laws like Virginia's 1806 gradual emancipation restrictions tied to "colored" status verification via court petitions.^[22]

Post-Emancipation to Mid-20th Century

Following the emancipation of enslaved African Americans via the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865, "colored" emerged as the primary self-designated term among freedmen, signifying racial pride and differentiation from the white population during Reconstruction and beyond.^[6] This usage persisted into the early 20th century, appearing in community institutions such as the Colored Farmers' National Alliance, founded in 1886 to represent black agricultural interests amid sharecropping and economic disenfranchisement.^[23] In governmental classifications, the U.S. Census Bureau consistently categorized non-white free persons as "colored" from the 1820 enumeration onward, with the 1870 census— the first post-emancipation count—recording 4,880,009 "colored" individuals alongside whites and a diminishing slave population.^[24] This terminology extended to vital records and legal documents, where states like Texas reclassified Mexicans as "colored" in civil registrations by the 1930s to enforce segregation, reflecting the term's broad application to non-European ancestries under Jim Crow statutes.^[25] The Jim Crow era, spanning roughly 1877 to the 1960s, institutionalized "colored" through de jure segregation laws mandating separate facilities, with signage explicitly stating "for colored only" on water fountains, restrooms, restaurants, and transportation depots across the South.^[2] Notable examples include "colored" waiting rooms at bus terminals in Georgia in 1943 and enforced separations in public spaces documented in photographs from Oklahoma in 1939, underscoring the term's role in daily enforcement of racial hierarchy until federal interventions in the 1950s.^[26] Civil rights organizations embraced the term, as evidenced by the founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) on February 12, 1909, in New York City, which pledged to eradicate racial prejudice and promote equality using language resonant with contemporary black leadership and publications.^[27] By the mid-20th century, amid rising challenges to segregation via NAACP litigation like Brown v. Board of Education (1954), "colored" remained embedded in advocacy nomenclature and public signage, though "Negro" gained traction among intellectuals like W.E.B. Du Bois, signaling gradual lexical shifts without supplanting its practical dominance in segregated contexts.

Historical Usage Outside the United States

South African Context

In the South African context, "Coloured" designates a multiracial ethnic group primarily descended from intermarriages and unions between European settlers, indigenous Khoisan populations, and enslaved people imported from Southeast Asia, Madagascar, and other regions during the Dutch colonial era beginning in the 17th century. This group developed a distinct creole culture, often centered in the Cape region, incorporating Afrikaans language, Islamic influences from Malay slaves, and traditions blending African, European, and Asian elements.^[28]^[29] The term gained formal legal significance under the apartheid system implemented by the National Party government after 1948, particularly through the Population Registration Act of 1950, which mandated classification of all citizens into racial categories: White, Coloured, Bantu (later Black African), and Indian/Asian. Coloured individuals were deemed neither fully White nor Black, receiving an intermediate socio-economic status that included separate residential areas under the Group Areas Act of 1950, dedicated schools and amenities, and restricted but preferential access to certain jobs and urban zones compared to Black Africans. This classification was enforced via subjective assessments of appearance, ancestry, and social habits, leading to arbitrary reclassifications and family separations; for instance, some individuals of partial Black African descent were categorized as Coloured to evade harsher restrictions.^[30]^[31]^[32] Apartheid policies disadvantaged Coloured communities relative to Whites, confining them to townships like those in Cape Town's Cape Flats and imposing pass laws that limited mobility, yet the category's privileges prompted opportunistic reclassifications, with estimates suggesting thousands of Black South Africans successfully petitioned for Coloured status by the 1960s to access better opportunities. The system's racial pseudoscience, including pencil tests for hair texture and community reputation inquiries, underscored its arbitrary nature, contributing to internal divisions within non-White groups.^[33]^[32] Following apartheid's dismantling in the early 1990s, legal racial classifications were abolished, rendering "Coloured" an optional self-identifier rather than a state-imposed label. As of 2022 estimates, Coloured South Africans number approximately 5.3 million, comprising 8.5% of the national population, with over 40% concentrated in the Western Cape and Northern Cape provinces where they form significant pluralities. Many continue to embrace the term as reflective of a unique identity, supported by cultural institutions and political parties like the African Christian Democratic Party, though a minority—particularly those tracing Khoisan heritage—have begun re-identifying as indigenous groups amid post-apartheid restitution claims. Genetic analyses confirm extensive admixture, with Coloured genomes showing 30-50% Khoisan ancestry alongside European and Bantu components, distinguishing them biologically from both Black Africans and Whites.^[34]^[35]^[36]

Other Global Applications

In the British West Indies, the term "coloured" historically referred to free individuals of mixed European and African ancestry, who were positioned socially between white planters and enslaved black populations under colonial rule.^[37] British colonial policy often elevated lighter-skinned coloured persons into intermediate roles, such as overseers or clerks, to serve as a buffer against potential unrest among the black majority, a strategy evident from the 18th century through emancipation in 1834.^[37] This usage persisted post-emancipation, with coloured communities maintaining distinct privileges, such as access to certain education and militia positions, until broader racial hierarchies eroded in the 20th century.^[38] In Canada, particularly among black communities in the Maritimes and Ontario during the 19th and early 20th centuries, "colored" designated free black residents and their descendants, often in organizational contexts. The North American Convention of Colored Freemen, held in Toronto in 1851, addressed anti-slavery efforts and rights for black North Americans, reflecting the term's acceptance in formal black-led gatherings. Similarly, the Colored Hockey League of the Maritimes, established in Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1895 by black Baptist leaders, organized interracial competition while using "colored" to unify black players amid segregationist barriers in sports.^[39] These applications highlighted "colored" as a self-identifier for communities navigating British-influenced racial categories, distinct from U.S. Jim Crow connotations. In the United Kingdom, "coloured" emerged as a descriptor for non-white immigrants from Commonwealth colonies, especially the Caribbean, from the early 20th century onward. The League of Coloured Peoples, founded in London in 1931 by Jamaican physician Harold Moody, advocated for the rights of coloured subjects across the Empire, addressing discrimination in employment, housing, and military service during the interwar period and World War II.^[40] By the 1950s, amid post-war migration waves, official documents and police reports routinely applied "coloured" to West Indian and South Asian arrivals, as in a 1950 Cabinet committee on restricting "coloured" immigration, underscoring its role in policy debates over integration.^[41] This usage waned by the 1970s, supplanted by terms like "black" amid rising anti-racism activism.^[42]

Institutional and Governmental Applications

United States Census Classifications

The United States Census Bureau introduced the term "colored" in the 1820 census through the category "free colored persons," which specifically enumerated free individuals of primarily African descent, distinguishing them from enslaved persons and free whites amid growing free Black populations and differing legal rights.^[43] This category, determined by enumerator observation rather than self-reporting, accounted for approximately 13% of the Black population at the time and was retained in the 1830 and 1840 censuses without substantive changes.^[44] ^[43] Subsequent censuses refined classifications under the "colored" umbrella to capture perceived degrees of African ancestry. The 1850 census added "mulatto" as a subcategory for free and enslaved persons with detectable mixed Black-White heritage, while maintaining "free colored persons" alongside white and slave counts.^[43] By 1870, post-Civil War emancipation prompted publications aggregating data as "white, colored, free colored, slave, Chinese, and Indian," with enumerators instructed to record "black" for those with "no distinction of color" from full African descent, "mulatto" for mixtures, and other markers, though slaves were no longer enumerated separately.^[45] ^[46] The 1880 and 1890 censuses continued using "color" in data collection alongside race, but expanded to include "mulatto, quadroon, octoroon" for fractions of Black ancestry (e.g., quadroon as one-fourth Black blood in 1890), reflecting pseudoscientific efforts to quantify racial mixtures rather than self-identification.^[43] However, by the 1900 census, "colored" was officially replaced with "Negro," a term favored by many in the African American community, signaling a terminological shift toward what was seen as more precise or dignified nomenclature.^[44] Twentieth-century censuses phased out "colored" entirely, adopting "Negro" through 1930 (with the one-drop rule classifying any African ancestry as Negro), then "Black" from 1970 onward, and eventually "Black or African American" in self-reported formats starting in 2000.^[44] These evolutions prioritized enumerator judgments in early decades, transitioning to respondent-driven categories, driven by legal, social, and statistical needs rather than consistent biological metrics.^[43]

Civil Rights Organizations like NAACP

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was founded on February 12, 1909, by an interracial group of activists, including W.E.B. Du Bois, Ida B. Wells, and Mary White Ovington, in direct response to surging racial violence such as the 1908 Springfield, Illinois, race riot that left at least six Black residents dead and displaced thousands.^[47] The organization's charter emphasized ending lynching, disenfranchisement, and segregation through investigative reporting, legal challenges, and legislative lobbying, marking it as the preeminent civil rights entity dedicated to advancing the status of those denoted as "colored people."^[47] Du Bois specifically advocated for "colored" over "Negro" in the name to underscore the international scope of racial oppression, aligning with the term's widespread acceptance as a self-identifier among African Americans during the early 20th century.^[27] Parallel to the NAACP, the National Association of Colored Women (NACW), formed in July 1896 via the merger of the National Federation of Afro-American Women and the National League of Colored Women in Washington, D.C., represented a key women's civil rights counterpart. Led initially by Mary Church Terrell, the NACW aggregated over 100 local clubs to promote education, temperance, economic self-reliance, and protective legislation for Black women and children, while confronting lynching and racial stereotypes through conventions and publications.^[48]^[49] Its motto, "Lifting as We Climb," encapsulated a strategy of mutual aid and advocacy, with "colored women" chosen to reflect the demographic focus and era-specific terminology preferred in Black-led institutions.^[50] Both entities illustrate the institutional embrace of "colored" as a pragmatic, non-pejorative label in organizational branding amid Jim Crow-era constraints, enabling focused mobilization without the era's later terminological debates. The NAACP, for instance, spearheaded 345 legal cases by 1940, including challenges to residential segregation, while retaining its name to preserve historical continuity despite mid-century shifts toward "Negro."^[27]^[47] The NACW similarly expanded to address suffrage and health disparities, influencing broader civil rights frameworks until its evolution into the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs, Inc., in the 20th century.^[48] These groups' use of the term prioritized evidentiary action—such as the NAACP's Crisis magazine circulation reaching 100,000 by 1919—over symbolic rebranding, underscoring causal links between nomenclature and effective grassroots organizing.

Modern Usage and Perceptions

Shift to Terms like "People of Color"

The decline of "colored" as a primary descriptor for non-white Americans, particularly Black individuals, began in earnest during the 1960s with the Black Power movement's embrace of "Black" as a term of empowerment and self-definition, supplanting earlier preferences like "Negro" and "colored" that had dominated mid-20th-century discourse.^[11] This shift rendered "colored"—once standard in organizations like the NAACP and census classifications—archaic and associated with segregation-era connotations, prompting searches for broader, coalition-building alternatives amid rising multiculturalism.^[11] "People of color" re-emerged in the 1970s among Black, feminist, and progressive activists, who adopted it to unite diverse non-European groups—including Hispanics, Asians, and Native Americans—under a shared narrative of marginalization, extending Black experiences of racism to inter-ethnic solidarity.^[8] Initially sparse in usage, with media mentions numbering in single digits annually through 1985, the term diffused into journalism, social sciences, and political rhetoric from the 1980s to 2010s, peaking in frequency during the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests when references in U.S. media outlets surged 55% over "minorities."^[8] Corpus data from Google Ngram Viewer corroborates this trajectory: "colored people" reached maximum print usage around 1970 before plummeting, while "people of color" ascended steadily, cresting by 2003 in analyzed texts up to 2008.^[11] The term's institutional entrenchment in academia and media reflects preferences for inclusive framing over precise ethnic distinctions, though its vagueness has prompted refinements like BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, and people of color) to highlight specific subgroups amid critiques of overgeneralization.^[8] This evolution underscores a pattern of nomenclature changes driven by activist and elite institutional priorities rather than uniform empirical consensus on offensiveness or utility.^[11]

Recent Political and Media Incidents (2020-2025)

In July 2023, U.S. Representative Eli Crane (R-AZ) referred to Black service members as "colored people" during House floor debate on an amendment to the National Defense Authorization Act, proposing to rename Fort Moore in honor of a Black soldier from World War II; the remark drew immediate criticism from Democrats, including Rep. Joyce Beatty (D-OH), who called it "offensive" and demanded an apology, citing its association with Jim Crow-era segregation.^[51]^[52] Crane responded that he had "misspoken," clarifying his intent was to reference "people of color" and emphasizing respect for Black military contributions, while defending the amendment's purpose amid broader partisan divides over military naming conventions.^[52] The incident highlighted ongoing tensions in congressional discourse over racial terminology, with Republican supporters dismissing the backlash as overreaction to an inadvertent word choice.^[51] In March 2024, a white news anchor at KTVI Fox 2 in St. Louis referred to minority homeowners as "colored" during a segment on housing discrimination, prompting the station to issue a public apology for the "inappropriate and offensive" language and affirming their commitment to inclusive reporting.^[53] The anchor's phrasing, used while discussing redlining's legacy, was criticized by the National Association of Black Journalists as evoking outdated racial classifications, though the station attributed it to a verbal slip without evidence of intent to demean.^[53] This event underscored media sensitivities to historical terms in coverage of racial inequities, particularly in local news where factual reporting intersects with viewer perceptions of bias. In April 2022, a planning commissioner in Greenbush Township, Michigan, used "colored people" during a public meeting to describe potential impacts of a development project on minority residents, leading to community complaints and a personal apology from the official, who stated he meant no offense and drew from "older terminology."^[54] Local residents and civil rights advocates viewed the remark as insensitive amid national debates on racial equity, prompting calls for sensitivity training, though the commissioner retained his position without formal repercussions.^[54] The backlash reflected broader local political frictions over language in zoning discussions, where empirical data on demographics often collides with evolving norms on terminology. Media discussions in 2020 also revisited the term's implications, as NPR reported discomfort among some activists with "people of color" (POC) for echoing "colored," arguing it diluted specific Black experiences in favor of broader coalitions during Black Lives Matter protests.^[55] Similarly, a New York Times analysis noted the term's historical precedence in U.S. racial nomenclature—from "colored" to "Negro" to contemporary preferences—amid post-George Floyd debates on identity, with no single incident but widespread contention over its revival in political rhetoric.^[56] These episodes illustrate a pattern where inadvertent or deliberate uses of "colored" in political and media contexts from 2020 to 2025 triggered apologies and partisan critiques, often prioritizing perceived offensiveness over the term's continued presence in organizations like the NAACP.

Controversies and Debates

Claims of Offensiveness and Historical Associations

The term "colored" became prominently associated with racial segregation in the United States during the Jim Crow era, spanning roughly from the late 19th century to the 1960s, where it designated separate and often inferior facilities for African Americans, such as "Colored Only" entrances, restrooms, and waiting areas enforced by state and local laws.^[57] These usages, including signs like "Waiting Room for Colored Only" mandated by police departments, underscored a system of legal discrimination that relegated African Americans to second-class status.^[58] Historical records from the period, including photographs from Oklahoma City in 1939 and Georgia motels in the 1970s, document the term's role in marking segregated spaces even as civil rights challenges mounted.^[4] Claims of offensiveness largely stem from these historical ties, with critics arguing that "colored" evokes the humiliation and oppression of segregation, rendering it derogatory in contemporary contexts despite its once-neutral or self-adopted usage by African American communities.^[59] Linguist John McWhorter posits that the term's hurtful connotation arises not from being a direct slur but from its reminder of eras when African Americans were systematically denied equal access, contrasting with euphemistic shifts like "people of color" that invert word order to soften associations.^[11] Media outlets and style guides, such as those referenced in BBC reporting, have warned against its use, citing its linkage to Jim Crow signs and facilities as perpetuating outdated racial hierarchies.^[58] Proponents of viewing the term as offensive often highlight its application under the one-drop rule, where any African ancestry classified individuals as "colored" during extreme oppression, amplifying perceptions of it as a marker of subjugation rather than mere description.^[6] This perspective gained traction post-civil rights era, with usage peaking in print around 1970 before declining amid evolving terminology preferences.^[11] However, such claims coexist with the term's retention in institutions like the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), founded in 1909, where it symbolized respectability among early 20th-century black leaders without inherent pejorative intent.^[4]

Defenses of the Term's Neutrality or Positive Heritage

The term "colored" was historically self-adopted by African Americans as a marker of racial pride and community identity, particularly among freedmen in the mid-to-late 19th century, who used it to assert dignity and solidarity distinct from enslavement-era dehumanization.^[6] This self-application persisted into the early 20th century, appearing in Black-owned newspapers, fraternal organizations, and civil society groups as a neutral descriptor of complexion-based heritage rather than a imposed slur.^[14]^[7] The founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) on February 12, 1909, by Black and white activists including W.E.B. Du Bois and Ida B. Wells, exemplifies this positive heritage, selecting "colored" as a polite, self-chosen term amid widespread use of harsher alternatives like "negro" in derogatory contexts.^[60] The organization's retention of its original name and acronym, despite post-1960s linguistic shifts, underscores arguments for historical continuity, with proponents asserting that altering it would erase a legacy of self-determination forged when the term denoted empowerment within legal and social constraints of segregation.^[61]^[62] Literary and cultural endorsements further defend its neutrality, as seen in Zora Neale Hurston's 1928 essay "How It Feels to Be Colored Me," where she reframes the term through personal agency and vibrancy, rejecting victimhood narratives tied to it by external observers.^[63] Similarly, contemporary artist Carrie Mae Weems's 1980s series Colored People reclaimed it for photographic portraits of Black children, highlighting familial joy and resilience over historical baggage.^[11] Etymologically rooted in Latin coloratus (having color) and early English references to visible complexion since the 16th century, "colored" functions as a descriptive adjective without intrinsic pejorative intent, akin to terms for other ethnic groups based on phenotype; its neutrality is argued to derive from this factual basis, predating Jim Crow appropriations and paralleling self-referential uses in pre-1865 documents like "free people of color."^[12]^[64] Defenders contend that associations with offense stem more from contextual enforcement under discriminatory laws than the word itself, advocating discernment over blanket prohibition to honor eras when it facilitated intra-community organization and advocacy.^[65]

Comparative Analysis with "Person of Color"

The term "colored," historically prevalent in the United States from the late 18th century through the mid-20th century, primarily denoted individuals of African descent, often in contexts of legal and social classification such as census categories and segregation laws.^[11] Its usage peaked around the 1920s-1940s according to Google Ngram data, reflecting self-identification in organizations like the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (founded 1909), but became stigmatized post-Civil Rights era due to associations with Jim Crow-era signage and discriminatory policies.^[11] In contrast, "person of color" emerged in the late 1970s among U.S. activists, initially in multiracial coalitions, as a broader umbrella for non-white groups including Asians, Latinos, and Indigenous peoples, emphasizing solidarity against systemic exclusion rather than specific ethnic focus.^[66] This shift prioritized inclusivity, with usage surging in the 1990s and becoming standard in academic and media discourse by the 2010s.^[11] Linguistically, the inversion in "person of color" alters perception: placing "person" first foregrounds humanity over racial descriptor, rendering it palatable in contemporary settings despite semantic overlap with "colored person," which evokes archaic offense tied to historical dehumanization.^[59] Empirical patterns show "colored" retained niche persistence in proper nouns (e.g., certain church denominations) and non-U.S. contexts like South Africa's self-identified "Coloured" population (about 4.7 million in 2022 census, comprising mixed-heritage communities), where it lacks pejorative weight.^[67] "Person of color," however, faces critique for vagueness, lumping heterogeneous groups under a color-based metric that critics argue perpetuates racial essentialism without addressing intra-group diversity or socioeconomic factors, as noted in linguistic analyses questioning its precision over terms like "Black" or "Asian American."^[66] Usage data indicates "person of color" dominates U.S. progressive institutions, but surveys reveal varied acceptance; for instance, 2021 Pew Research found 52% of Black Americans prefer "Black" over broader terms, highlighting not universal endorsement.^[11] Causal factors in the transition include activist rebranding to distance from segregation's legacy, with "person of color" gaining traction via 1980s-1990s multicultural movements, yet both terms share a foundational reliance on skin pigmentation as identity marker, differing mainly in temporal and ideological framing rather than inherent neutrality.^[59] While "colored" is empirically rejected in mainstream U.S. vernacular (e.g., style guides like AP since 2010 advise against it), "person of color" encounters pushback in empirical studies for implying a monolithic non-white bloc, potentially obscuring group-specific histories—such as Native American sovereignty claims or East Asian immigration patterns—subordinated under its generality.^[67] This comparison underscores how term evolution reflects social power dynamics over fixed truth, with neither escaping scrutiny for color-centrism in an era favoring self-identification metrics like those in the 2020 U.S. Census, where write-in options captured nuanced preferences.^[11]

References

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The Lexicon Origins of People of Color - AAIHS
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Sep 12, 2023 · Jim Crow laws are a very sad part of American history. ... Black people, and all colored people, could not share many facilities, like schools, ...
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Upholding School Segregation: The Roberts Case. Five-year-old Sara Roberts was forced to walk past several white schools to reach the “colored” primary school.
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... Colored People (NAACP). The NAACP's goals were the abolition of segregation, discrimination, disenfranchisement, and racial violence, particularly lynching.
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Feb 8, 2022 · The ruling in this Supreme Court case upheld a Louisiana state law that allowed for equal but separate accommodations for the white and colored races.
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Dyed - Webster's 1828 dictionary
Evolution (or devolution) of this word [dyed] ; DY'ED, pp. Stained; colored. ; DY'ED, pp. Stained; colored. ; N / A.
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The Journey From 'Colored' To 'Minorities' To 'People Of Color' - NPR
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When Did the Word Negro Become Socially Unacceptable? - 2010
Colored was the preferred term for black Americans until W.E.B. Du Bois, following the lead of Booker T. Washington, advocated for a switch to Negro in the ...Missing: dictionaries | Show results with:dictionaries
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African American and Black Identity and Research Terms
Aug 20, 2021 · Uncapitalized, the term has been used by both white people and Black people since the eighteenth (and possibly seventeenth) century. Colored ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
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Free People of Color in Colonial Natchez (1700-1798) - 2015-05
This article highlights the struggle of free people of color in Natchez to carve out a life of liberty in an utterly hostile environment.
[16]
Pigmentocracy, Freedom's Story, TeacherServe®, National ...
Value based on skin tones led to some interesting historical developments both within and outside African American communities. ... Colored Man (1912). Similarly ...<|separator|>
[17]
Beyond Slavery's Shadow: Free People of Color in the South
Sep 1, 2023 · ... people. There were 4 million enslaved persons in the region during the antebellum period. There were also 250,000 free people of color in ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Population of the United States in 1860: Introduction - Census.gov
The following summary exhibits the numbers of the colored race, and their rates of increase during the last seventy years:. Census of slaves and free colored.Missing: antebellum | Show results with:antebellum<|separator|>
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Free Negro - Wikipedia
Census enumeration found a total of 488,070 "free colored" persons in the United States in 1860. Abolitionism. edit. Most organized political and social ...
[20]
Free People of Color in Louisiana - LSU Libraries
At the nexus of slavery and freedom were free people of color, the tens of thousands of people of African descent who overcame incredible odds and lived free in ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
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Free Black People in Antebellum Mississippi, 1820–1860 - 2000-05
But whether free people of color lived in Jackson, Natchez, Hinds or Adams counties, their location mattered less than their racial identity. As a group, they ...
[22]
The Free People of Color of Pre-Civil War New Orleans - JSTOR Daily
Feb 20, 2019 · A large population of free people of color, gens de couleur libres, lived amid enslaved people of color. Some of these gens were quite well off; a few owned ...<|separator|>
[23]
NARA Records Pertaining to Free Blacks in the Antebellum Period ...
Sep 27, 2021 · (For more information on this, you can read my article, “The Rejection of Elizabeth Mason: The Case of a "Free Colored" Revolutionary Widow” ...
[24]
[PDF] Black Farmers in America, 1865-2000 - USDA Rural Development
Black participation was accomplished by establishing an organizationally seg- regated branch of the movement, the Colored Farmers'. National Alliance and ...
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https://gwern.net/doc/history/2012-fox.pdf
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[PDF] Blacks, Mexicans, and European Immigrants, 1890–1945 - Gwern.net
As a result, following the Census. Bureau, they reclassified Mexicans as “colored” on birth, death, and other civil records, as, they claimed, officials in ...
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Photos: What Segregation Looked Like in Jim Crow-Era America
Mar 31, 2023 · ... historical photos show what segregation looked like in Jim Crow-era America ... Hotel Clark with sign "The Best Service for Colored Only" in ...
[28]
Founding and Early Years - NAACP: A Century in the Fight for ...
... Colored People. The NAACP pledged “to promote equality of rights and eradicate caste or race prejudice among citizens of the United States; to advance the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[29]
Coloureds in South Africa - Minority Rights Group
The communities designated as coloured are primarily descended from the Khoisan people who originally inhabited the western parts of South Africa.
[30]
What does being 'Coloured' mean in South Africa? - - Expat Panda
Jul 18, 2019 · In South Africa, 'Coloured' refers to a multiracial group, neither 'white' nor 'black', originating from Dutch colonization and mixed-race ...
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Racial Classification Under Apartheid - ThoughtCo
May 8, 2025 · Legally, under Apartheid, race was a matter of public opinion. A person could be white, native, or colored depending on how they were ...
[32]
Understanding the effects of racial classification in Apartheid South ...
At the onset of apartheid, an individual's racial classification was determined by the criteria set out in the Population Registration Act of 1950, and the 1951 ...
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How to understand the Coloured role in South Africa's history
Sep 25, 2023 · Some were Black people who chose to be classified as Coloured during apartheid because it had slightly more social and economic advantages.
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The Classification of Race in South Africa - Fair Observer
Mar 11, 2022 · The notorious apartheid system that divided every man, woman and child into four racial subdivisions: “African,” “Indian,” “colored,” “white.”
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South Africa's population
Sep 4, 2025 · The remaining 18.3% is made up of 5.3 million coloured people (8.5%), 1.6 million Indian/Asian people (2.6%) and 4.5 million white people (7.2%) ...
[36]
Gauteng's 'Coloured' community feels unsafe: who they are and why ...
Oct 9, 2025 · The Coloured population is concentrated mainly in the Western Cape (42.1%) and the Northern Cape (41.6%). There are smaller proportions in the ...
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Wide-scale geographical analysis of genetic ancestry in the South ...
Jul 22, 2025 · The South African Coloured (SAC) population is among the most admixed populations in the world, and SAC individuals trace their genetic roots to ...
[38]
Colour and contemporary society in the Caribbean - Persée
The historical policy of the British had been to use the coloured people as a bulwark against the black masses. The more lightly coloured were admitted to ...
[39]
Imperial Identity in Colonial Minds: Harold Moody and the League of ...
This chapter examines how the League of Coloured Peoples, founded in London in 1931 by Jamaican physician Harold Moody, used a colonial version of ...
[40]
Before There was an NHL: The Colored Hockey League of the ...
The Colored Hockey League of the Maritimes was formed in 1895 in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Organized by Black Baptists and Black intellectuals, the league ...
[41]
Black History - English Heritage
The campaigner for racial equality Dr Harold Moody founded the League of Coloured Peoples in 1931. Ira Aldridge. In 1833 Ira Aldridge became the first black ...<|separator|>
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https://blackhistorystudies.com/resources/resources/15-facts-about-black-londoners-before-1948/
[43]
15 facts about Black Londoners before 1948
In 1931, Dr Harold Moody (1882-1947) founded the League of Coloured Peoples (LCP) in 1931, the first Black pressure group and the largest British Pan-African ...
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Measuring Race and Ethnicity Across The Decades: 1790—2010
Sep 4, 2015 · 1820, 1830, 1840: In the 1820 Census, a new racial category for “Free Colored Persons” was introduced, reflecting the different rights free ...
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Chapter 1: Race and Multiracial Americans in the U.S. Census
Jun 11, 2015 · At first, blacks were counted only as slaves, but in 1820 a “free colored persons” category was added, encompassing about 13% of blacks. In a ...How the Census Asks About... · Census History of Counting...
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1870 Census: Volume 1. The Statistics of the Population
Jul 15, 2025 · Table I. Population, 1870-1790, By States and Territories, in Aggregate, and as White, Colored, Free Colored, Slave, Chinese, and Indian · Table ...The General Tables · Of Aggregate Population, With... · Of Occupations, 1870
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How the Census collected race and ethnicity data from 1790 to 2020
May 26, 2021 · The 1820 census renamed the “all other free persons” category to “free colored persons.” Blank certificate for the 1820 census confirming ...
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Our History - NAACP
Founded in 1909, the NAACP was created after a deadly race riot, aiming to secure rights and eliminate race prejudice. It has been on the front lines of civil ...Our Founders · A Period Of Growth · Civil Rights Era
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ABOUT US - NACWC
The National Association of Colored Women's Clubs, Inc. (NACWC) established in 1896, stands as the first national organization for African American women. We ...
[50]
The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow. Jim Crow Stories . National ...
Black women organized a club movement that led to the formation of the National Association of Colored Women (NACW) in Washington, DC in 1896.
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National Association of Colored Women - Crusade for the Vote
The NACW was formed in 1896, with the goal of promoting equality for African American women. One of Talbert's more famous speeches, “Women and Colored Women,” ...
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Rep. Eli Crane refers to Black Americans as 'colored people' on ...
Jul 14, 2023 · Rep. Eli Crane, R-Ariz. referred to Black people as "colored people" Thursday in floor debate over his proposed amendment to an annual defense policy bill.Missing: controversy | Show results with:controversy
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Arizona GOP Rep. Eli Crane says he "misspoke" when he referred to ...
Jul 14, 2023 · Arizona Republican Rep. Eli Crane said he "misspoke" after he used the racially charged term "colored people" on the House floor and drew swift rebuke.
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US TV station apologizes after anchor calls minority homeowners ...
Mar 5, 2024 · A television station in St Louis has issued an apology after a white news anchor referred to minority homeowners as “colored” while introducing a segment on ...
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Northern Michigan township official apologizes for 'colored people ...
Apr 1, 2022 · The northern Michigan planning commissioner who referred to “colored people” in a public meeting says he didn't mean to offend anyone.
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Is It Time To Say R.I.P. To 'POC'? : Code Switch - NPR
Sep 30, 2020 · "The term 'people of color' is something that I do not feel comfortable using, because it sounds a lot like the term colored, which was a term ...
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A Debate Over Identity and Race Asks, Are African-Americans 'Black ...
Jun 26, 2020 · The acceptable terms in America for identifying black people have evolved over generations, from colored to Negro to black and African-American.
[58]
What was Jim Crow
In other cases, there were no black facilities -- no Colored public restroom, no public beach, no place to sit or eat. Plessy gave Jim Crow states a legal ...
[59]
Warning: Why using the term 'coloured' is offensive - BBC News
Jan 27, 2015 · Jim Crow ... Sign reading: "Waiting room for colored only by order of police dept." ... Historically, the word is associated with segregation, ...
[60]
Why Is Colored Person Hurtful and Person of Color OK? A Theory of ...
Aug 24, 2016 · The reason “colored people” is offensive without being a term of abuse is that it reminds many people of times when we were, whatever we ...
[61]
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
The following year, in 1910, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is formally chartered, with "Colored" replacing "Negro" in ...
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Why is it wrong to refer to 'colored people' yet NAACP still means ...
Mar 10, 2024 · Well the NAACP was formed when “colored people” WAS a more politic way of referring to black people. Nowadays it's not very nice. It's much ...
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Petition · Stop racism ! Stop the NAACP - United States · Change.org
Aug 16, 2019 · It is unfair for heritage and history can't be invalid defenses for everything but "colored people" in the NAACP name. If action is being taken ...
[64]
How It Feels to Be Colored Me | Facing History & Ourselves
Jun 1, 2017 · How It Feels to Be Colored Me ... Zora Neale Hurston describes her sense of identity and experience being a black woman in this 1928 essay.
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The Label Identity Shift from "Negro" to "Black" in the 1960s.
15 Tom Smith, Changing Racial Labels: From “Colored” to “Negro” to “Black ... people of color, and some African- American leaders wanted to maintain ...Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
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Black Identity and the Power of Self-Naming - AAIHS
Sep 10, 2021 · Presently, “African American” and “Black” have largely replaced the terms “Colored” and “Negro,” yet the question of respect continues to be ...
[67]
Is "People of Color" an Acceptable Term? - Sapiens.org
Dec 7, 2016 · I am old enough to remember when blacks were called “colored,” especially in the South, roughly from the 19th century to the middle of the 20th.
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[PDF] The inclusion of the term 'color' in any racial label is racist, is it not?
Feb 1, 2020 · Over time, colored and. Negro were replaced for reasons that included their direct reminder of slavery and racial oppression. The currently used ...