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Composite construction

Composite construction is a structural engineering method that integrates distinct materials, most commonly steel and concrete, to form unified structural elements capable of resisting loads more efficiently than the materials alone.^[1]^[2] By connecting the materials through mechanisms such as shear studs or connectors, composite construction allows concrete to handle compressive forces while steel manages tensile stresses, resulting in enhanced overall strength, stiffness, and durability.^[1]^[3] This approach has been widely adopted in modern building design, particularly for multi-storey non-residential structures, where it has dominated for over 30 years due to its efficiency in creating lightweight yet robust frames.^[1] Historically, composite techniques trace back to the late 19th century, with early examples like the 1894 Rock Rapids Bridge in Iowa and the Methodist Building in Pittsburgh, evolving through systematic testing in the early 20th century and significant advancements in the 1960s, including Fazlur Khan's pioneering use in high-rise buildings such as the 1970 Control Data Building.^[3] Key principles involve ensuring composite action via force transfer between materials, as outlined in standards like Eurocode 4 (BS EN 1994-1-1) for design of beams, slabs, and columns, which can double load resistance and triple stiffness compared to non-composite alternatives.^[1]^[2] Common applications include composite beams (e.g., downstand or shallow-floor types spanning up to 12 meters), composite slabs using profiled steel decking for floors (typically 3-6 meters unpropped), and composite columns such as encased or filled steel sections, all of which reduce self-weight, foundation demands, and overall building height.^[1]^[2] In bridges and tall buildings, it supports large spans and seismic resilience, with examples like the Bank of China Tower (1989, 1,209 feet tall) demonstrating reduced steel usage (as low as 12-23 psf) and cost savings through value engineering.^[3] The advantages of composite construction are multifaceted: it accelerates erection times by leveraging steel's prefabrication with concrete's in-situ casting, improves fire resistance and damping (1.5-2% critical damping versus 1% for steel alone), and lowers lifecycle costs by minimizing material quantities and service demands.^[3]^[1] However, design must address challenges like differential shortening from concrete creep and shrinkage, as well as erection stability to prevent instability during construction.^[3] Overall, its integration of material synergies makes it a cornerstone of efficient, sustainable structural systems in contemporary civil engineering.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition and Scope

Composite construction refers to building techniques that integrate two or more dissimilar materials to function collaboratively, achieving structural performance superior to that of the individual components alone. This approach leverages the complementary strengths of each material, such as the tensile capacity of steel paired with the compressive resistance of concrete in beams and slabs, or the lightweight reinforcement provided by fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP) in various structural elements.^[1]^[2] The scope of composite construction extends across multiple engineering domains, including civil engineering where it is applied to beams, slabs, and bridges for enhanced load-bearing efficiency; marine engineering for hulls and vessel components that benefit from corrosion resistance and reduced weight; and residential applications such as deck panels and cladding systems that prioritize durability and ease of installation. Emerging uses also encompass infrastructure retrofitting, where FRP wraps or sheets are bonded to existing structures to improve seismic resilience and extend service life without extensive demolition.^[2]^[4]^[5] Unlike monolithic construction, which relies on a single uniform material throughout a structure, composite construction emphasizes the synergistic interaction—known as composite action—between distinct layers or elements to optimize overall behavior. It further differs from pure composites in materials science, which typically involve microscopic reinforcements embedded homogeneously within a matrix, whereas structural composite construction employs macroscopic assemblies of prefabricated or cast components. Precursors to modern composite construction can be traced to ancient practices, such as mud-straw bricks used in Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations around 3000 BCE, where straw fibers reinforced sun-dried mud to prevent cracking and enhance tensile strength.^[1]^[6]

Historical Development

The origins of composite construction trace back to ancient civilizations that ingeniously combined materials to enhance strength and durability. Around 3500 BC, ancient Egyptians created the earliest known plywood by gluing thin layers of wood at different angles, which provided greater rigidity than solid wood alone.^[7] Similarly, during the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181–2055 BC), ancient Egyptians developed cartonnage, a layered composite of linen or papyrus soaked in plaster, primarily used for funerary masks but demonstrating early principles of material lamination for structural integrity.^[8] By around 1200 BC, composite bows emerged among ancient steppe nomads, incorporating wood, horn, and sinew bonded with animal glue to achieve superior power and range compared to simple wooden bows.^[9] In the 19th century, composite construction advanced significantly in civil engineering with the integration of steel and concrete. Austrian engineer Josef Melan patented a system in the early 1890s for reinforcing concrete arches with steel bars, allowing for longer spans and reduced material use in bridge design; this innovation was first applied in structures like the 1893 Melan Arch Bridge in Iowa.^[10] Concurrently, French engineer François Hennebique patented a comprehensive reinforced concrete system in 1892, featuring steel rods embedded in concrete to resist tensile forces, which enabled the construction of multi-story buildings and marked a shift toward industrialized structural methods.^[11] The 20th century saw rapid evolution driven by wartime needs and postwar infrastructure demands. During World War II, fiberglass-reinforced polymers (FRP) were developed for aerospace applications, such as radomes, due to their lightweight strength and radar transparency, later influencing civil engineering for corrosion-resistant components.^[12] In the post-1950s era, steel-concrete composite beams became standard in building construction, with shear connectors ensuring effective load transfer; German standards like DIN 1078 (1955) for bridges and DIN 4239 (1956) for buildings formalized these designs, enabling efficient high-rise frames.^[13] By the 1970s, FRP materials were introduced in bridge engineering, with early applications in deck panels and repairs offering durability in harsh environments.^[14] Entering the 21st century, standardization and sustainability shaped further milestones. Eurocode 4, initially drafted in the 1980s and published in 2004 with updates in the 2010s, provided unified European guidelines for designing composite steel-concrete structures, emphasizing safety and efficiency in seismic zones. Post-2010, sustainable composites gained prominence, incorporating bio-based fibers and recycled polymers to reduce environmental impact in construction, as seen in low-carbon building envelopes and infrastructure retrofits.^[15]

Principles and Design

Composite Action Mechanisms

In composite construction, particularly steel-concrete systems, composite action arises from the mechanical interlocking and force transfer between dissimilar materials, enabling them to share loads in a manner that enhances overall structural efficiency beyond the sum of their individual contributions.^[16] This interaction primarily occurs at the interface, where shear forces are transmitted to prevent relative movement and achieve monolithic behavior.^[17] Shear connections are essential for this mechanism, with devices such as headed shear studs welded to the top flange of a steel beam and embedded in the overlying concrete slab serving to transfer longitudinal shear forces across the interface.^[17] These connectors resist direct shear, accommodate deformation under bending, and counter potential separation forces, ensuring that horizontal shear from differential straining is effectively mobilized.^[17] The studs' ductility, typically requiring a length of 3–4 times their diameter, allows them to deform without failure, maintaining force transfer up to ultimate loads.^[17] The extent of composite action is classified as full or partial based on the shear connection's rigidity and capacity. Full interaction assumes no slip at the interface, akin to a rigid connection, which maximizes the beam's moment capacity and minimizes deflections by fully engaging both materials.^[18] Partial interaction, common in practice due to finite connector stiffness, permits relative slip, which reduces axial force engagement in the concrete (e.g., by up to 2% compared to full interaction) and overall strength while increasing deformations.^[18] Slip effects, modeled as nonlinear springs at the interface, directly diminish stiffness, with lower connection stiffness leading to greater slip and up to 67% higher deflections under load.^[18] Analysis of composite beams relies on the transformed section method, which converts the cross-section into an equivalent homogeneous section using the modular ratio n = E_s / E_c, where E_s and E_c are the elastic moduli of steel and concrete, respectively.^[16] This transformation scales the concrete area by n to account for stiffness differences, preserving the neutral axis location. The effective slab width b_{eff} = \min(L/4, b), with L as the beam span and b as the slab width, limits the participating concrete to mitigate shear lag effects.^[19] The composite moment of inertia is then computed as

I_{comp} = I_{steel} + n A_{conc} y^2,

where I_{steel} is the steel section's inertia, A_{conc} is the transformed concrete area, and y is the distance from the neutral axis to the concrete centroid.^[16] These parameters enable stress and deflection calculations under service loads. Through composite action, loads are distributed synergistically: bending moments induce compressive stresses in the concrete slab and tensile stresses in the steel beam, shear is primarily resisted by the connectors and web, and axial forces are shared proportionally based on stiffness, with the interface preventing decoupling.^[20] This combined resistance can increase flexural capacity by over 20% compared to non-composite sections, depending on the interaction degree.^[20]

Key Design Considerations

In composite construction, design must address structural integrity, serviceability, and longevity while adhering to established codes that incorporate safety factors for load and resistance. For steel-concrete composites, Eurocode 4 (EN 1994-1-1) provides general rules for buildings, integrating with EN 1990 for basis of design, EN 1992 for concrete, and EN 1993 for steel, emphasizing partial safety factors for actions (e.g., 1.35 for permanent loads, 1.5 for variable loads) and materials (e.g., 1.0 for steel yield strength, 1.5 for concrete compressive strength) to ensure resistance exceeds required strength.^[21] Similarly, the AISC 360-22 specification governs structural steel buildings in the United States, with Chapter I detailing composite members using Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) load combinations from ASCE/SEI 7 (e.g., 1.2D + 1.6L) and resistance factors such as φ = 0.90 for flexural strength and φ = 0.75 for axial compression in encased members.^[22] For fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites in concrete, ACI 440.1R-15 supplements ACI 318 with guidelines for nonprestressed FRP reinforcement, applying environmental reduction factors (e.g., 0.7 for tensile strength in aggressive exposures) alongside standard load factors to account for lower modulus and ductility compared to steel.^[23] Construction sequencing is critical to prevent excessive deformations during concrete placement and curing, often requiring temporary propping for spans exceeding decking capacity (e.g., >3.5 m for shallow profiles). Propping, typically at mid-span or third points and braced for stability, supports the steel framework until concrete achieves at least 75% of its design strength (around 7-8 days), after which props are removed following compression tests; this approach minimizes construction time while avoiding ponding that could increase concrete volume.^[24] Deflection limits ensure serviceability, with common criteria including span/250 for total load on composite floors to control vibrations and finishes damage, and stricter span/360 for live loads on beams, as derived from codes like BS EN 1994-1-1 and AISC 360 to limit long-term creep and shrinkage effects.^[24]^[22] Key performance factors include fire resistance, where concrete cover protects embedded steel from rapid temperature rise, achieving ratings of 1-2 hours with minimum depths such as 70 mm for normal-weight concrete over trapezoidal decking in 1-hour exposure, per BS 5950 Part 8 and SCI guidance, allowing the slab to maintain insulation without additional spray protection.^[25] Fatigue under cyclic loading demands verification of stress ranges at connections, with Eurocode 3 (integrated in EN 1994) classifying details into fatigue categories (e.g., studs as Category 80) and requiring infinite-life design below threshold values (e.g., 90 MPa for welded joints), while AISC addresses distortion-induced fatigue through detailing to limit out-of-plane flexing in bridges and buildings.^[26] Durability against corrosion relies on concrete's alkaline environment passivating steel reinforcement, with engineered cementitious composites (ECC) enhancing resistance by limiting crack widths to ~0.1 mm, extending service life over 15 times compared to traditional mortar under accelerated exposure, and FRP systems inherently avoiding metallic corrosion through non-conductive polymers.^[27]^[23] Sustainability in design incorporates recyclability assessments, promoting deconstructable systems with bolted connections and clamping shear anchors that facilitate disassembly of steel-concrete composites, enabling up to 100% material reuse and reducing landfill waste, as validated in full-scale tests maintaining structural performance equivalent to traditional welded designs.^[28]

Materials and Components

Common Composite Materials

In composite construction, steel-concrete systems represent the most established material combination, where steel beams or girders, often in I- or W-shapes, are integrated with concrete slabs to form structural elements.^[29] The steel component primarily resists tensile forces, while the concrete slab manages compressive loads, enabling efficient load distribution through their bonded interface.^[30] Common configurations include composite beams with concrete cast atop steel decking, which serves as both formwork and reinforcement during construction.^[31] Effective composite action in these systems relies on specialized connectors that transfer shear forces between materials. Shear studs, typically welded steel headed anchors, are the predominant choice for steel-concrete interfaces, embedding into the concrete to ensure monolithic behavior.^[32]

Material Properties and Interactions

In composite construction, the constituent materials possess distinct mechanical properties that govern their performance under load. Steel commonly exhibits a high tensile strength of approximately 400 MPa and a modulus of elasticity (E_s) of around 200 GPa, enabling it to handle tensile forces effectively. In contrast, concrete has a significantly lower tensile strength of about 3 MPa and a modulus (E_c) of approximately 30 GPa, making it suitable for compressive loads but prone to cracking in tension. These differences necessitate careful integration to achieve composite action, as seen in common steel-concrete combinations where the materials' stiffness disparity influences load distribution.^[33]^[34] A key challenge arises from the thermal expansion mismatch between materials; steel has a coefficient of linear thermal expansion of about 12 × 10^{-6}/°C, while concrete ranges from 10 to 12 × 10^{-6}/°C, leading to potential internal stresses under temperature fluctuations. At the interfaces, bond strength is critical for force transfer, with shear bond values at the steel-concrete interface typically ranging from 1 to 3.6 MPa, influenced by surface roughness and concrete compressive strength. Creep, a time-dependent deformation under sustained load, is prominent in concrete, causing gradual stress redistribution in composites, while cementitious materials experience shrinkage due to water loss during hydration, which can induce tensile stresses at interfaces.^[35]^[36] Corrosion protection is enhanced in steel-concrete systems through the concrete's alkaline environment (pH > 12.5), which forms a passive oxide layer on steel, inhibiting oxidation; additional coatings like epoxy further mitigate risks in aggressive environments. Adhesion and bond integrity are evaluated using standardized tests, such as pull-off tests per ASTM C1583, which measure tensile strength at concrete surfaces or interfaces by applying a perpendicular load until failure, and tensile tests following ASTM C496 for splitting tensile strength in concrete components.^[37]^[38] Environmental factors can degrade material interactions over time. In cement-based composites, the alkali-silica reaction (ASR) occurs when alkalis in the cement react with reactive silica in aggregates, forming an expansive gel that absorbs water and causes cracking, compromising the interface bond and overall durability.^[39]

Applications in Civil Engineering

Structural Systems

In composite structural systems for large-scale commercial buildings, beams and girders often utilize downstand steel beams supporting an overlying concrete slab connected through shear connectors, such as headed studs welded to the top flange, to leverage the tensile strength of steel and compressive capacity of concrete, forming a unified element that resists bending and shear forces. These systems typically involve hot-rolled or fabricated steel I-sections embedded in the slab to achieve composite action. This configuration allows for spans up to 20 meters in long-span applications, significantly improving structural efficiency in multi-story frames.^[29]^[24] Composite floor systems incorporating these beams enable substantial depth reductions of 30-50% compared to non-composite alternatives, minimizing overall building height and facilitating the integration of mechanical services in the reduced soffit space. For instance, shallow floor beam solutions, such as ultra-shallow floor beams (USFB), combine asymmetric steel sections with concrete encasement to achieve effective depths as low as 200-300 mm for spans exceeding 10 meters, reducing material use and construction costs while maintaining load-bearing capacity. The composite interaction, governed by shear transfer through connectors, approximately doubles the moment resistance and triples the stiffness relative to bare steel beams.^[29]^[40] Composite slabs in these systems commonly employ profiled steel decking filled with in-situ concrete, where the decking—typically trapezoidal or re-entrant profiles 50-200 mm deep—serves as permanent formwork and tensile reinforcement. The concrete topping, ranging from 100-250 mm thick and reinforced with mesh or fibers, bonds to the decking via embossments and mechanical interlock, enabling unpropped spans of 3-6 meters during construction. In contrast, precast methods involve factory-produced concrete planks placed on steel beams and topped with a thin in-situ layer for composite action, offering faster erection but requiring careful joint detailing to ensure shear transfer; however, in-situ pouring remains predominant for its adaptability in irregular layouts and superior continuity. These slabs support typical commercial loads of 3-5 kN/m² while controlling deflections to span/360 limits.^[24]^[41] Columns in composite frameworks are designed as encased steel sections or concrete-filled steel tubes (CFST), where the steel provides confinement to the concrete core, enhancing axial and buckling resistance for high-rise applications. Encased columns feature open steel profiles (e.g., H-sections) surrounded by reinforced concrete, with load transfer occurring through bond friction, end bearing, and supplementary shear connectors like studs or ties at interfaces. In CFST variants, circular or rectangular hollow steel tubes are filled with high-strength concrete, achieving up to 20-30% higher load capacity than equivalent reinforced concrete columns due to the biaxial stress state and ductility. Load transfer mechanisms ensure uniform stress distribution, with shear keys or perforations in the tube wall facilitating horizontal force transmission from beams to the composite core.^[29]^[42] Composite construction is also prominent in bridge engineering, where steel girders with concrete decks connected by shear studs allow for efficient long spans up to 100 meters or more, reducing material weight and improving durability against environmental loads.^[1] A notable example of steel-concrete composite construction in structural systems is the Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, completed in 1998, which utilized reinforced concrete perimeter columns and core walls with composite floor systems consisting of steel beams on metal decking topped with concrete, demonstrating enhanced seismic performance and reduced foundation demands through integrated load paths.^[43]

Residential and Deck Applications

In residential construction, structural insulated panels (SIPs) are widely used for walls and roofs, featuring a rigid foam core—typically expanded polystyrene (EPS) or polyurethane—sandwiched between oriented strand board (OSB) skins to create energy-efficient building envelopes.^[44] These panels provide superior thermal insulation and airtightness, reducing energy consumption for heating and cooling by up to 50% compared to traditional stick-framed homes.^[44] Additionally, fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) siding panels enhance durability and contribute to energy efficiency through their high thermal resistance, helping maintain consistent indoor temperatures in homes.^[45] For deck applications, wood-plastic composites (WPCs) dominate outdoor residential spaces, typically comprising a blend of approximately 60% wood fibers and 40% recycled plastic to mimic wood aesthetics while offering low-maintenance performance.^[46] These materials resist rot, decay, and insect damage without requiring staining or sealing, extending deck lifespan in humid or insect-prone environments.^[47] Steel-concrete composite systems are employed for raised floor decks in residential settings, where steel decking acts as a formwork that bonds with poured concrete to create lightweight, durable platforms suitable for elevated patios or multi-level homes.^[48] Installation of SIPs in house building leverages modular panel systems, which can reduce on-site construction time by about 50% relative to conventional framing by minimizing labor for framing, insulation, and sheathing.^[44] For decks, snap-lock or hidden clip systems secure WPC boards without visible fasteners, speeding up assembly by up to 50% and ensuring expansion gaps for longevity.^[49] The adoption of composite decking in U.S. suburban areas has grown significantly since 2000, driven by demand for low-maintenance alternatives amid rising home improvement trends, with the market expanding strongly through 2010 due to repair and remodel activities.^[50]

Cement-Polymer Systems

Cement-polymer systems, also known as polymer-modified cementitious materials, involve the incorporation of polymers into cement-based mixtures to enhance the performance of concrete and mortar in construction applications. These composites combine the rigidity of cement with the flexibility and bonding properties of polymers, resulting in materials that exhibit improved durability and workability compared to traditional plain cement mixes.^[51] The composition of cement-polymer systems typically includes Portland cement as the primary binder, with polymers such as styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) latex or epoxy resins added at 5-20% by weight of the cement to promote flexibility and adhesion. This polymer dosage allows the mixture to form a continuous film during hydration, which bridges microcracks and reduces water demand, leading to denser microstructures. Aggregates and water complete the formulation, with the polymer content carefully controlled to balance cost and performance without compromising the cement's hydraulic setting.^[52]^[53] Development of these systems originated in the 1960s, with pioneering research in Japan focusing on latex-modified mortars for improved waterproofing and adhesion in infrastructure projects. Subsequent advancements in the United States and Europe expanded their use, driven by needs for repair materials that could withstand environmental stresses. Key standards, such as ASTM C1438 for latex and powder polymer modifiers and ASTM C1439 for evaluating their effects in hydraulic cement concrete and mortar, have guided their standardization and testing protocols.^[54]^[55])^[56] These systems demonstrate enhanced properties, including reduced permeability to chlorides and water—often by 50-80% compared to plain cement—due to the polymer film's sealing effect, which minimizes pore connectivity. Tensile strength is notably higher, reaching up to 5 MPa in polymer-modified mixes versus approximately 3 MPa in plain concrete, attributed to the polymer's ability to distribute stresses and inhibit crack propagation. Additionally, improved crack resistance arises from the increased ductility, allowing the material to accommodate shrinkage and thermal movements without brittle failure.^[57]^[58]^[59] In civil engineering applications, cement-polymer systems are widely used for bridge deck overlays, where thin layers (typically 1-2 inches thick) provide waterproofing and abrasion resistance to extend service life. They also serve as repair mortars for patching deteriorated concrete structures, offering strong bonding to substrates and rapid curing for minimal downtime. For thin-section elements, such as architectural facades, these composites enable lightweight panels with enhanced weather resistance and aesthetic versatility, as seen in glass fiber-reinforced variants that reduce overall structural load.^[60]^[57]^[61]

Specialized and Emerging Applications

Marine Construction

In marine construction, fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites have been widely adopted for shipbuilding, particularly in the fabrication of hulls for small vessels. These hulls typically utilize glass fiber reinforcements, such as E-glass in forms like chopped strand mat (CSM) and woven roving mat (WRM), embedded in polyester resin to create durable, lightweight structures that resist corrosion in saltwater environments.^[62] This construction method allows for efficient molding and layering, enabling the production of robust hulls that are approximately 20-30% lighter than equivalent steel designs, thereby improving fuel efficiency and speed.^[63] For larger naval applications, composites have been integrated into deckhouses, as demonstrated by the U.S. Navy's Integrated Technology Deckhouse (ITD) program initiated in the 1990s, which aimed to replace traditional steel superstructures with advanced composite panels to reduce topside weight and enhance stealth characteristics.^[64] In offshore structures, carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) reinforcements are employed to strengthen platforms against corrosion and fatigue, often applied as patches or wraps on tubular joints and girders to extend service life without significant added mass.^[65] Additionally, sandwich panels—consisting of composite skins bonded to lightweight foam or honeycomb cores—provide buoyancy and structural integrity in subsea and floating installations, such as protective devices for offshore wind turbines, where they offer superior impact resistance compared to metallic alternatives.^[66]^[67] These advantages are exemplified in modern vessels like the Barmen ferry in Norway, developed under the E-Lass project as the first glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) car ferry, which received design approval and certification processes aligned with DNV standards in the early 2020s, achieving weight reductions that support all-electric operation and reduced emissions.^[68] However, challenges persist, particularly delamination caused by water ingress, which can degrade the resin-fiber interface over time through hydrolysis and osmotic blistering in prolonged marine exposure.^[69] Repair techniques typically involve nondestructive evaluation to detect moisture ingress, followed by grinding out delaminated areas and applying composite patches with epoxy adhesives to restore integrity, ensuring minimal downtime for affected structures.^[70]

Advanced and Sustainable Uses

In the realm of retrofitting existing infrastructure, fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) wraps have been pivotal for seismic strengthening of bridges, particularly in seismically active regions like California during the 1990s. Following the 1989 Loma Prieta and 1994 Northridge earthquakes, which exposed vulnerabilities in pre-1950s bridge columns due to inadequate shear reinforcement and lap splice lengths, the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) pioneered the use of carbon FRP (CFRP) wraps as an alternative to traditional steel jacketing. These wraps confine concrete columns, enhancing ductility and shear capacity without significant added weight or disruption to traffic, as demonstrated in early applications on vulnerable reinforced concrete bridges.^[71]^[72] Sustainable advancements in composite construction emphasize natural fiber reinforcements such as hemp and flax, which significantly lower environmental impacts compared to synthetic alternatives. These bio-based composites exhibit a carbon footprint approximately 50% lower than glass fiber-reinforced polymers, primarily due to lower energy-intensive production processes and the fibers' carbon sequestration during growth. In construction applications, hemp and flax fibers are integrated into insulation panels and structural elements, further amplified by incorporating recycled content from post-consumer plastics or fibers, promoting circular economy principles and reducing reliance on virgin materials.^[73]^[74] As of 2025, emerging trends highlight multifunctional composites that embed sensors for real-time structural health monitoring and advanced insulation for energy efficiency in smart buildings. These composites, often incorporating piezoresistive materials like carbon nanotubes, enable self-sensing capabilities to detect strains as low as 10 microstrains, facilitating predictive maintenance and seismic resilience. Complementing this, structural battery composites (SBCs) integrate energy storage directly into load-bearing elements, such as walls or beams, using carbon fiber electrodes with lithium-based electrolytes to provide both mechanical strength and rechargeable power, potentially transforming buildings into active energy hubs.^[75]^[76] Exemplifying these innovations, European Union Green Deal initiatives in the 2020s have funded projects leveraging bio-based resins and natural fibers for sustainable construction. The ITECH Research Pavilion 2024 in Stuttgart utilized filament-wound flax fiber beams and columns, processed with bio-resins for low-impact architectural structures, aligning with the Deal's goals for renewable materials. Similarly, the CERISEA project develops bio-based resins from food waste for composite applications, enhancing supply chains for eco-friendly building components and reducing greenhouse gas emissions across the sector.^[77]^[78]

Advantages and Challenges

Benefits in Performance and Construction

Composite construction offers significant performance advantages over non-composite systems, primarily due to the synergistic interaction between materials like steel and concrete, where steel handles tension and concrete manages compression. This results in a higher strength-to-weight ratio, enabling lighter structures that maintain structural integrity while reducing overall material use. For instance, steel-concrete composite beams can achieve up to three times the stiffness of steel beams alone, leading to reduced deflections under load and improved serviceability in buildings.^[1]^[79] In terms of fire resistance, the concrete component provides thermal mass and cover to the steel, delaying heat transfer and enhancing structural stability during exposure. Composite slabs can attain up to two hours of fire resistance without additional protection, while encased steel columns benefit from concrete infill that slows temperature rise and prevents buckling. These properties contribute to safer building designs, particularly in multi-story applications where fire performance is critical.^[1]^[80] From a construction perspective, composite systems facilitate faster erection times because the steel decking serves dual purposes as permanent formwork and a working platform, minimizing the need for temporary supports and reducing crane operations compared to traditional concrete methods. This efficiency translates to cost savings, with composite flooring often achieving significant reductions in steel tonnage for large spans, and overall building costs lowered by around 6% due to decreased foundation demands from lighter loads. Additionally, the shallower floor depths—typically reduced by 300 mm compared to non-composite floors of 500 mm—allow for more compact building heights or additional stories without increasing total height.^[1]^[81] Durability is another key benefit, especially in environments prone to corrosion; fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites exhibit excellent resistance to degradation from moisture, chemicals, and salts, extending service life. Proven durability tests indicate FRP components can last over 50 years with minimal maintenance, while steel-concrete composite decks similarly offer longevity exceeding 50 years through protective concrete encasement and inherent material robustness.^[82]^[83] These attributes reduce long-term maintenance needs and enhance the sustainability of structures like bridges and floors.^[84]

Limitations and Mitigation Strategies

One significant limitation of composite construction, particularly with fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) materials, is the high initial cost, which can be approximately 20% more than conventional bridges due to the expense of raw materials and fabrication processes.^[85] Connection failures represent another critical challenge, often occurring in shear connectors like studs in steel-concrete composite systems, where partial failure can lead to substantial reductions in structural displacement capacity and overall integrity.^[86] Environmental sensitivity further complicates application, as polymers in FRP composites are prone to degradation from moisture absorption, UV exposure, and chemical agents such as deicing salts, resulting in reduced mechanical properties like tensile strength over time.^[87]^[88] Additional issues include skill gaps in the workforce, where limited expertise in handling and installing advanced composites hinders widespread adoption in civil engineering projects.^[89] Recycling difficulties arise from the thermoset nature of many FRP matrices, making disassembly and material recovery challenging, with most waste currently landfilled or incinerated rather than reused.^[90] Regulatory hurdles also impede progress, as existing codes and standards are often ill-suited for composites, lacking comprehensive guidelines for design and performance validation.^[91] To mitigate high initial costs and environmental degradation, life-cycle assessments are employed to demonstrate long-term savings through reduced maintenance and durability enhancements, often showing FRP structures outperforming traditional materials over 50-100 years.^[92] Quality control measures during mixing and fabrication, including non-destructive testing for voids and delaminations, help prevent defects that could lead to premature failures.^[93] Protective coatings, such as UV-resistant gels or epoxy overlays, are applied to shield polymers from degradation, preserving over 80% of original strength in harsh environments.^[94] Hybrid designs combining FRP with steel or concrete address connection vulnerabilities and leverage complementary material properties, improving ductility and load transfer while reducing overall sensitivity to environmental factors.^[95] Modular prefabrication strategies minimize on-site errors by enabling factory-controlled assembly, cutting construction time by 30-50% and enhancing quality consistency in composite elements.^[96] Recent advancements in recyclable thermoplastic composites and bio-based resins are also emerging to address recycling challenges, promoting greater sustainability as of 2025.^[97] These approaches, supported by updated standards, facilitate broader implementation while tackling workforce and regulatory barriers through targeted training and code harmonization.^[91]

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Modeling composite beams with partial interaction - ScienceDirect
For a composite beam with rigid shear connection, there is full interaction between the steel and the concrete members. In this case, there is no relative slip ...
[19]
[PDF] Effective Width Criteria for Composite Beams - Engineering Journal
Effective width is the slab part acting compositely with the beam. AISC uses the smallest of: L/4, lb' + bf, or l6t,+bf, where L is beam span, b' is half beam ...
[20]
Moment–shear–axial force interaction in composite beams
Composite steel–concrete beams are frequently used in situations where axial forces are introduced. Some examples include the use in cable-stayed bridges or ...
[21]
Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures
EN 1994 Eurocode 4 applies to the design of composite structures and members for buildings and other civil engineering works.Missing: history | Show results with:history
[22]
[PDF] ANSI/AISC 360-16 Specification for Structural Steel Buildings
ANSI/AISC 360-16 is a specification for structural steel buildings, providing design criteria for routine use, and using both ASD and LRFD design methods.
[23]
ACI 440.1R-15: Guide for the Design and Construction of Structural ...
This guide offers general informa- tion on the history and use of FRP reinforcement, a description of the unique material properties of FRP, and guidelines for ...
[24]
[PDF] COMPOSITE SLABS AND BEAMS USING STEEL DECKING:
Propping should generally be avoided because it reduces the speed of construction and therefore affects the construction sequence and economy. When propping is.
[25]
[PDF] The Fire Resistance of Composite Floors with Steel Decking (2nd ...
The minimum depth of concrete needed to satisfy the insulation requirements of BS 476 shall not be less than that shown in Tables 2 or 3 as appropriate.
[26]
[PDF] Design for Fatigue - American Institute of Steel Construction
The fatigue behavior of a fabricated steel structure is affected by the presence of pre-existing cracks or crack-like discontinuities, which most often occur at ...
[27]
None
### Summary of Durability and Corrosion Resistance in Steel-Concrete Composites
[28]
Deconstructable Systems for Sustainable Design of Steel and ...
The proposed system not only maintains the benefits offered by composite construction but also enables disassembly and reuse of the structural components. This ...
[29]
Composite construction - SteelConstruction.info
Composite slabs comprise reinforced concrete cast on top of profiled steel decking, which acts as formwork during construction and external reinforcement at the ...
[30]
Steel-Concrete Composite Construction
Nov 6, 2021 · Concrete-encased steel elements has good resistance to buckling, fire, and corrosion. Composite beams can cover longer spans without the need ...<|separator|>
[31]
Composite construction – steel & concrete - constructsteel.org
Composite structural systems are those in which two or more materials act together, offering a unique solution to resolve the forces acting on the building.
[32]
Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) in Civil Engineering - IntechOpen
FRP composites in civil engineering are mainly used in three applications: (1) FRP profiles in new-build; (2) FRP-reinforcing bar in concrete members and (3) ...
[33]
Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites for Construction - MDPI
Oct 10, 2024 · Compared with traditional structural materials, a fiber-reinforced composite (FRP) has the advantages of being light weight, high strength, and ...
[34]
Experimental Studies and Application of Fiber-Reinforced Polymers ...
Jan 16, 2024 · For construction, an FRP is employed to improve the mechanical properties of reinforced concrete (RC) in terms of flexural and shear resistance ...
[35]
What is Wood Plastic Composite? | Oklahoma State University
Wood plastic composite is panel or lumber product made from recycled plastic and small wood particles or fibers.
[36]
Wood Plastic Composite Information | Washington State University
WPCs, also referred to as Natural Fiber Polymer Composites, are a mixture of wood, thermoplastic resins, and other additives.
[37]
polymer concrete Topic
Polymer concrete is a composite material in which the aggregate is bound together in a matrix with a polymer binder.
[38]
Utilization of Polymer Concrete Composites for a Circular Economy
Polymer concrete composites not only provide high strength properties but also provide specific characteristics, such as high durability, decreased drying ...
[39]
Shear connection in composite bridge beams - SteelConstruction.info
Shear connectors on the top flanges of the steel girders provide the means to achieve composite action between the slab and the girders, thus increasing both ...
[40]
[PDF] Composite Beams with Stud Shear Connectors
Essential parts of such beams are the shear connectors providing integral action of the steel beam and the concrete deck slab. They have the double function of ...
[41]
Eurocode 3 Table of design material properties for structural steel
Key properties include density ≈ 7850 kg/m³, unit weight ≈ 78.5 kN/m³, modulus of elasticity E = 210000 MPa, yield strength f_y (see table), and ultimate ...
[42]
Table of concrete design properties (fcd, fctm, Ecm, fctd) - Eurocode 2
Table of concrete design properties according to Eurocode 2 (EN1992-1-1) including compressive strength, tensile strength, elastic modulus, min. reinforcement.
[43]
Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficients of Materials
Linear thermal expansion coefficients of common materials, including metals, plastics, and composites. ; Concrete, 13 - 14 ; Concrete structure, 9.8 ; Constantan ...
[44]
[PDF] Interfacial Shear Bond Strength between Steel H-piles and Polymer ...
Mar 11, 2020 · It was concluded that the shear bond strength depends on the interface roughness and compressive strength of con- crete. Values up to 3.6MPa ( ...
[45]
Corrosion of Steel in Concrete
Concrete provides the ideal conditions to preserve steel due to its natural alkalinity. This promotes the formation of a passive layer which effectively ...
[46]
ASTM C1583-13: Tensile Strength of Concrete Surfaces ... - Intertek
A steel disk is bonded to the top surface of the test specimen. A tensile load is applied to the steel disk until failure occurs. The failure load and the ...Missing: composite | Show results with:composite
[47]
The influence of UV radiation on the properties of GFRP laminates in ...
Mar 28, 2024 · The article describes the phenomena occurring in glass fiber reinforced polyester laminates under the influence of ultraviolet radiation (UV) in an aquatic ...
[48]
Alkali-silica reaction in concrete - Understanding Cement
Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) can cause serious expansion and cracking in concrete, resulting in major structural problems and sometimes necessitating demolition ...
[49]
A Practical Design for Thin Composite Steel-Concrete Floor Systems
Shallower structural depth allows building floor-to-floor height to be lowered and the amount of materials used – such as exterior cladding, interior walls, ...
[50]
Steel profile composite floor deck versus precast concretes
Mar 24, 2021 · Compared to precast concrete, a composite floor deck constructed using a steel profile is lighter, faster, and safer to construct, ...
[51]
Load transfer mechanism in concrete-filled steel tubular columns
This article provides an in-depth review on the understanding of load transfer mechanism in concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) columns.
[52]
Building the Future: Famous Composite Steel Structures That ...
Apr 18, 2023 · At one time, the Petronas Twin Towers were the tallest buildings in the world. Their composite steel-concrete structure features perimeter ...
[53]
What are SIPs Overview - Structural Insulated Panel Association
Once installed, SIP panels deliver unrivaled insulation and airtightness, which reduces energy costs over the building's lifetime. SIPs are known to be about 50 ...
[54]
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-72955-3_32
[55]
Advantages and Disadvantages of Wood Plastic Composite Decking
Durability: WPC decking is highly resistant to rot, decay ... Low Maintenance: One of the key advantages of WPC decking is its low maintenance requirements.<|separator|>
[56]
What is the Best Low-Maintenance Decking? - Trex
Feb 8, 2024 · Ditch your annual deck prep. Composite decking is a low-maintenance option for anyone tired of sanding, sealing, and painting their deck.
[57]
Metal Decking For Concrete | Steel Floor Decking | Metaldeck.com
Composite metal floor decks are advantageous because they increase the strength of the floor without adding any additional weight.
[58]
DuraLife Step-Clip - It's a Snap - YouTube
Oct 12, 2017 · Ready to double your decks and double your money? It's a SNAP with Step-Clip! Step-clip reduces decking install time by 50%!<|separator|>
[59]
[PDF] Positioning and Market Analysis of the US Decking Materials Market
While the demand for decking products is expected to experience strong growth between 2000 and 2010, the sheer size of the repair and remodel market makes ...
[60]
Polymer Concrete - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The early research and development of the polymer concrete was done mainly in the Soviet Union (currently, Russia),1 the United States,2 Germany3 and Japan4 in ...Missing: origins | Show results with:origins
[61]
Experimental study and analytical model for the pore structure of ...
Apr 6, 2022 · Therefore, epoxy resin-to-cement ratios of 0, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% were chosen to investigate the effects of the various contents of epoxy ...
[62]
Effect of Polymer Additives on Improvement of Concrete Properties
Jan 31, 2025 · In latex-modified concrete, 15% and 25% styrene–butadiene rubber and 25% epoxy resin, by weight of cement, were used. Their research ...
[63]
Applications of Concrete-Polymer Composites: Where Are We Now ...
Nov 9, 2024 · PMC is a composite material made by partially replacing and strengthening the cement hydrate binders of conventional concrete with polymeric ...
[64]
Concrete-Polymer Composites – The Past, Present and Future
Polymer-impregnated mortar and concrete, which were developed. with great promise, in the United States, Japan and European Countries in the late 1960s to the.Missing: origins | Show results with:origins
[65]
C1439 Standard Test Methods for Evaluating Latex and Powder ...
Nov 19, 2019 · ASTM C1439-19. Standard Test Methods for Evaluating Latex and Powder Polymer Modifiers for use in Hydraulic Cement Concrete and Mortar.
[66]
[PDF] Flexible Polymer-Cement Based Repair Materials and Their ... - ICRI
The polymer modification results in an improvement in mechanical properties, a decrease in permeability, and an increase in chemical resistance. The typical ...
[67]
[PDF] Polymer-Modified Concrete for Military Construction. - DTIC
tensile and flexural strengths are at least 50% higher than would normal- ly be expected. Since it is commonly accepted that tensile and flexural. 11.
[68]
Experimental Study on the Mechanical Properties and Durability of ...
Polymer-modified cement concrete resolves the problems of penetration, wear resistance, sliding resistance, deformation, initial cracking, and shrinkage. In ...
[69]
Road Resurfacing & Bridge Overlays - Hybrid Polymer Concrete
A durable polymer concrete composite designed for bridge deck overlays, patching, and road resurfacing applications.
[70]
https://dl.asminternational.org/books/edited-volume/chapter-pdf/526144/a0003454.pdf
[71]
Effects of fabric combinations on the quality of glass fiber reinforced ...
E-glass fiber, in the forms of CSM and WRM, and polyester resin are primarily used as hull structure materials of small GFRP vessels. In addition, for ...
[72]
Marine Application of Fiber Reinforced Composites: A Review - MDPI
The study reported a reduction of weight of 20 ± 50% compared to an aluminum shaft of the same size [4]. The composite shaft offers better resistance to fatigue ...2.1. Naval Applications · 2.1. 1. Military... · 2.3. 1. Resins For Matrices
[73]
COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND NAVAL SURFACE COMBATANTS
The Integrated Technology Deckhouse (ITD) Project has been steadily progressing toward the goal of constructing naval combatant deckhouses out of an integrated ...Missing: 1990s | Show results with:1990s
[74]
Repair and strengthening of offshore platforms topside girders using ...
Mar 15, 2023 · This study explores the viability of an alternative repair method for offshore structures using FRP composites along with an associated adhesive.
[75]
Subsea - Diab
Engineered buoyancy and durability where it matters most. High-performance buoyancy foam and sandwich core solutions for subsea and offshore applications.
[76]
Design of an Innovative Hybrid Sandwich Protective Device for ...
The main goal of this study is to test the application of an innovative hybrid sandwich protective device in an offshore wind turbine (OWT).
[77]
[PDF] The development and approval process of the first GRP car ferry in ...
The outcome of the project will be new solutions for composite panel and door constructions, complying to the International code for application of fire test.Missing: certified 2020s
[78]
Environmental degradation of composites for marine structures
Jul 13, 2016 · An alternative approach to accelerating water ingress is to reduce specimen thickness, as time to saturation is often proportional to the square ...
[79]
Ship Structure Repairs - ASM International
Composite patching is one of the most com- mon techniques for repairing minor structural damage to small marine craft with hulls thinner than about 8 to 10 mm ( ...
[80]
[PDF] RETROFITTING HIGH-RISE STRUCTURES USING FRP ... - ICRI
One of the earliest uses of FRP composites in infrastructure applications was for seismically upgrading bridge structures, many of them built pre-1950s.Missing: cement | Show results with:cement
[81]
Reinforcing Bridges - Los Angeles Times
Nov 5, 1995 · But it was the Loma Prieta quake in 1989 that galvanized the current $2-billion program, making bridge retrofitting California's highest ...
[82]
Exploring the development and applications of sustainable natural ...
May 1, 2024 · The use of biocomposites reinforced by natural fibers can reduce carbon footprint by nearly 50% compared to composites made from petroleum.
[83]
[PDF] Carbon Footprint and Sustainability of Different Natural Fibres for ...
4.1 Comparison of the carbon footprint of flax, hemp, jute and kenaf ... Nevertheless, natural fibre composites have an about 50% lower carbon footprint compared ...
[84]
Adaptive Smart Materials in Architecture: Enhancing Durability and ...
Apr 8, 2025 · Beyond simply embedding sensors, smart bricks incorporate multifunctional materials like self-healing polymers, piezoresistive composites ...
[85]
1. Structural battery composites - Top 10 Emerging Technologies of ...
Jun 24, 2025 · Structural battery composites (SBCs) integrate load-bearing mechanical components and rechargeable energy storage. This means structural battery ...
[86]
European natural fibers emerge in bio-based architectural projects
May 21, 2025 · The Alliance for European Flax Linen and Hemp highlights several projects in which flax and hemp fibers are being used.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[87]
30 new projects driving Europe's bio-based future - CBE JU
May 26, 2025 · These 30 newly signed projects mark another step forward in Europe's transition to a circular and sustainable bio-based economy.Missing: composites construction 2020s
[88]
[PDF] Steel-concrete Composite Structures
Composite construction has several advantages over the traditional reinforced concrete or steel structures: these include high strength-to-weight ratios, ...
[89]
[PDF] Fire Resilience of a Steel-Concrete Composite Floor System
This experimental study showed that the protected steel beams and girders within the fire test bay achieved matching or superior fire resistance based on the ...
[90]
Cost comparison study - SteelConstruction.info
The total building cost for the steel options are on average around 6% lower than the concrete options as a result of the frame and upper floor costs noted ...
[91]
[PDF] Reimagining Architecture with FRP Composites
Excellent durability of composites. FRP Composites Offer Excellent Weathering Durability. ❑ Proven Durability in excess of 50 years. ❑ Accelerated testing ...
[92]
Why Does Composite Decking Last Longer Than Wood? - Ecoscape
Well-maintained composite decking can in excess of 30 years, and many industry experts agree that capped composite decking could last as long as 50 years in ...Composite Decking Types · Timber Decking Options · Why Composite Lasts Longer...
[93]
A Review of Fibre Reinforced Polymer Bridges - MDPI
Most civil engineering FRP composites have high flammability. This is one of ... FRP bridges cost 20% more than conventional bridges [8]. This claim ...
[94]
Effects of stud connection failure on displacement responses of ...
The analysis results show that the stud connection failure can significantly affect the bridge displacement responses even if a bridge girder suffers partial ...
[95]
Environmental effects on fibre reinforced polymeric composites
Their susceptibilities to degradation are dependent on the nature of environment and the different and unique responses of each of the constituents. All these ...
[96]
Durability Issues and Challenges for Material Advancements in FRP ...
Seawater, deicing salts, alkaline, and acid solutions are particularly harmful for AFRP (aramid fiber reinforced polymers) and GFRP, producing damage in both at ...
[97]
Rebuilding the civil engineering workforce - ASCE
Jul 1, 2025 · The profession faces a major workforce shortage. The rate of professionals leaving the field is increasing, while the rate of those entering and remaining in ...Missing: composite | Show results with:composite
[98]
A Review of Recycling Methods for Fibre Reinforced Polymer ... - MDPI
There are two main barriers to the wide adoption of reusing and repurposing FRP composites. First is the difficulty in establishing the material properties of ...2. Frp Waste Disposal Routes · 3. Waste Prevention And... · 4. Recycling
[99]
[PDF] Modernising composite materials regulations: A position paper
One of the major inhibitors to the uptake of composites in new sectors is that regulations, codes and standards are often inappropriate for composites.
[100]
[PDF] life-cycle costs of fiber-reinforced-polymer bridge decks
Comparing the Level 2 costs for the WC and concrete decks, the WC deck has lower initial construction costs ($473,179 versus $537,320), higher OM&R costs ($ ...
[101]
[PDF] METHODS FOR DETECTING DEFECTS IN COMPOSITE ...
This report addresses four specific aspects of defect identification: (1) identification of the types of defects in composite- strengthened concrete structural ...
[102]
and Vinylester-Based Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Pultruded ...
Apr 26, 2022 · This paper presents the results of experimental investigations on the durability of glass-fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) pultruded profiles.<|separator|>
[103]
Failure analysis and experimental study on bolted composite joints ...
Jan 1, 2023 · Composites are widely used in the aerospace field, in which more than 70 % of structural failures occur at the joints [1]. The failure mode of ...
[104]
Lifecycle Cost Analysis of Prefabricated Composite and Masonry ...
Dec 4, 2017 · This study evaluated the lifecycle cost (LCC) of a prefabricated fiber-reinforced composite (FRC) building in comparison with a masonry one. The ...