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Straw

Straw is an agricultural byproduct consisting of the dried stalks, leaves, and empty ears remaining after the harvest and threshing of cereal crops such as wheat, rice, barley, oats, maize, and rye.^[1] These fibrous residues are typically left in the field or baled for various purposes, representing a renewable resource generated in large quantities worldwide, with global production of cereal straw and other crop residues estimated at billions of tons annually.^[2] Historically, straw has been utilized for millennia in traditional applications including thatching roofs, weaving baskets and hats, and serving as bedding or fodder for livestock when supplemented with higher-quality feeds.^[3] In agriculture, it plays a key role in soil management, such as through straw returning practices that enhance soil ecology, improve nutrient cycling, and boost crop yields by increasing organic matter and microbial activity.^[3] Additionally, straw serves as garden mulch to suppress weeds and retain moisture, and in livestock diets to provide fiber for rumen health, particularly in beef cattle and dairy cows.^[4]^[5] In modern contexts, straw's versatility extends to sustainable technologies, including biofuel production for heating and ethanol, construction materials like straw-bale insulation, and innovative farming methods such as straw bale gardening, which allows vegetable growth in nutrient-releasing bales without traditional soil. Its low nutritional value for direct animal feed—primarily offering fiber with minimal protein or energy—necessitates supplementation, but its abundance makes it economical for these roles.^[6] Emerging uses also include conversion into hydrogels for water and nutrient retention in crops, reducing agricultural inputs and environmental impact.^[7]

Introduction and Basics

Definition

Straw is an agricultural byproduct consisting of the dry stalks of cereal plants, such as wheat, barley, rice, and oats, left after the grain and chaff have been removed during harvesting. These stalks, also known as culms, are typically 30-120 cm in length, depending on the crop variety and growing conditions, with averages around 70-90 cm for common cereals like winter wheat and barley.^[8]^[9]^[10] Unlike hay, which comprises dried grasses, legumes, or other herbaceous plants including leaves and stems harvested specifically for its nutritional content as animal fodder, straw is primarily the fibrous, low-nutrient residue valued for structural rather than feeding purposes. Chaff, in contrast, refers to the lightweight husks, seed coverings, and short fragments separated from the grain during threshing and winnowing processes.^[11]^[9] The word "straw" originates from Old English strēaw, denoting thatch or stalk, derived from Proto-Indo-European roots related to spreading or scattering, reflecting its historical use in roofing and bedding. Botanically, straw arises from the stems of plants in the Poaceae (grass) family, featuring a lignocellulosic structure composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, which provides rigidity and resistance to decay.^[12]^[8]^[13]

Production and Harvesting

Straw production begins with the harvesting of cereal crops such as wheat, barley, or rice, where the primary goal is to separate the grain from the straw while preserving the latter for subsequent uses. In traditional methods, farmers manually cut the standing crop using sickles or scythes a few days before full maturity to minimize grain loss from shattering, then bind the cut stalks into sheaves and arrange them into shocks—upright stacks of 8 to 12 sheaves leaning against each other to dry in the field while keeping the grain heads elevated off the ground.^[13]^[14] This shocking process allows natural drying over several days or weeks, depending on weather conditions, before threshing separates the grain from the straw.^[15] Modern harvesting relies on mechanized equipment for efficiency and scale. Combine harvesters cut the crop, thresh the grain in a cylinder-concave system, and separate the straw through straw walkers or rotary mechanisms that shake out remaining grains and chaff, depositing the cleaned straw into a windrow behind the machine in a single pass.^[16]^[15] Post-harvest, the windrowed straw may undergo conditioning, such as passing through a crimper or conditioner to break the stems and accelerate moisture evaporation, enabling faster field drying before baling.^[6] The straw is then collected and compressed into rectangular or large round bales using tractor-pulled balers, which tie or wrap the bales for transport.^[17] Straw yields vary based on crop variety, climate, soil fertility, and management practices, with taller varieties generally producing more biomass than shorter, high-grain-yield types. For wheat, average yields typically range from 1 to 3 tons per acre (2.2 to 6.7 metric tons per hectare), though exceptional conditions can exceed this while poor soils or drought may reduce it below 1 ton per acre.^[18]^[19] Proper storage is essential to maintain straw quality and prevent spoilage. Straw should be baled at 15-20% moisture content to inhibit mold growth and microbial activity, achieved by monitoring field drying after windrowing.^[20] Bales are then stacked in well-ventilated barns or covered areas to minimize exposure to rain, or arranged in fields with ends facing prevailing winds for outdoor storage, ensuring longevity for up to a year or more.^[6]

Types and Composition

Common Types

Straw is primarily derived from cereal crops, with variations in structure, color, and yield influenced by the source plant and growing conditions. Wheat straw, one of the most abundant types globally (second only to rice straw), features fine, flexible stems that are typically golden-yellow in color, making it a versatile byproduct of wheat harvesting.^[13]^[21] It constitutes a significant portion of agricultural residues in major wheat-producing areas such as Europe and North America, where wheat cultivation dominates temperate agricultural systems.^[21] Rice straw, the most prevalent type globally, arises from rice paddies and is characterized by its coarser, more rigid texture compared to wheat straw. Asia accounts for the majority of global rice straw production, generating approximately 770 million tons annually as of 2023, much of which is often burned in fields due to limited utilization options and logistical challenges in collection.^[22]^[23]^[24] This abundance underscores rice straw's role as a key renewable resource in densely cropped regions. Barley and oat straw tend to be sturdier than wheat varieties, with thicker stems suited to cooler, temperate climates where these grains are commonly grown. Rye straw, in particular, exhibits longer and more durable fibers, enhancing its suitability for structural agricultural uses in similar environments.^[13] Other notable types include corn stover, which consists of maize stalks and leaves, and sorghum straw, both providing bulky residues from grain crops. Non-cereal sources such as bamboo and esparto grass also yield straw-like fibers, though these are less common and more regionally specific to tropical or arid areas.^[25] Regionally, rice straw predominates in Asia, particularly in high-production countries like India and China, where it forms the bulk of crop residues. In contrast, wheat straw is primary in regions such as Australia, Europe, and North America, reflecting the distribution of major cereal cultivation patterns.^[26]

Physical and Chemical Properties

Straw exhibits a range of physical properties that make it suitable for various material applications, with bulk density typically varying from 50 to 150 kg/m³ depending on baling and processing conditions.^[27] Its tensile strength for fibers generally falls between 20 and 50 MPa, contributing to the material's structural integrity.^[28] Thermal conductivity is low, ranging from 0.05 to 0.1 W/m·K, which provides excellent insulation potential.^[27] Additionally, straw demonstrates significant moisture absorption, with equilibrium moisture content reaching up to 20% under ambient conditions, influenced by environmental humidity.^[20] The chemical composition of straw is predominantly lignocellulosic, consisting of 35-45% cellulose, 20-30% hemicellulose, and 15-25% lignin on a dry weight basis, which forms the structural framework of the material.^[29] It also contains 5-10% silica and ash, primarily from mineral uptake during growth, along with low protein content of 3-5%, limiting its nutritional value but enhancing certain mechanical traits.^[30]^[31] At the microstructural level, straw features hollow stems with thin walls reinforced by silica layers, often in the form of phytoliths, which provide rigidity and resistance to compression.^[32] This lignocellulosic structure contributes to its biodegradability, as microbial enzymes can break down the cellulose and hemicellulose components under suitable environmental conditions.^[33] Variations in composition occur across straw types; for instance, rice straw has a higher silica content of 15-20%, which increases its abrasiveness compared to wheat or barley straw.^[31]

Agricultural and Animal Uses

Animal Feed

Straw serves primarily as a roughage source in livestock diets, offering bulk and fiber essential for rumen function in ruminants such as cattle and sheep. Its nutritional value is constrained by high lignocellulosic content, resulting in low organic matter digestibility of approximately 40-50% in ruminants, which limits energy and protein availability.^[13]^[34] This low digestibility stems from structural barriers like lignin and silica that impede microbial fermentation, making straw unsuitable as a sole feed but valuable for maintaining digestive health when incorporated appropriately.^[4]^[35] To improve palatability and nutrient accessibility, straw undergoes various preparation methods. Physical processing involves chopping to reduce particle size and enhance intake, or pelleting to create compact, uniform feeds that facilitate mixing with other ingredients.^[36]^[37] Chemical treatments, particularly alkali applications like ammonia or sodium hydroxide, disrupt fiber bonds, boosting digestibility by 10-20 percentage points and increasing voluntary consumption.^[37]^[38] These treatments are especially beneficial for low-quality cereal straws, transforming them into more viable roughage options. Emerging methods, such as pre-treatment with insects like black soldier fly larvae, are being explored to enhance straw's nutritional profile for ruminants.^[39] Straw is typically supplemented with energy-dense feeds such as silage, legume hays, or concentrates to balance diets and prevent nutritional deficiencies in ruminants.^[4] Historically, it has been included in horse rations as a low-calorie filler to promote satiety without excess weight gain.^[40] Globally, straw utilization for feed varies by region, with nearly all production directed toward livestock in many tropical and subtropical areas, while in developed countries it forms a supplemental component amid abundant alternative forages; arid regions present challenges like seasonal shortages and the necessity for extensive treatment to counter inherent low quality.^[41]^[37]

Bedding and Mulching

Straw serves as an effective absorbent material in animal bedding, particularly for livestock such as horses, cattle, and pigs, where it soaks up urine and manure to maintain dry conditions and reduce odors.^[42] Wheat straw is often preferred for its relative softness and comfort compared to coarser alternatives, making it suitable for larger animals in barn settings.^[43] It exhibits strong absorptive properties, with wheat straw capable of holding 2.2 pounds of water per pound of dry material, aiding in waste management across various livestock operations.^[44] Straw is the most commonly used bedding material in many agricultural systems due to its availability and efficacy.^[42] In farming, straw is applied as mulch by spreading it 5-10 cm thick over soil surfaces to suppress weed growth, retain moisture, and prevent erosion.^[45] This layer reduces evaporation and runoff, potentially increasing soil moisture retention by up to 10-20% depending on environmental conditions, which supports crop establishment and reduces irrigation needs.^[45]^[46] Typical application rates range from 2-4 tons per hectare, ensuring adequate coverage without excessive compaction.^[47] As straw mulch decomposes naturally in the field over 6-12 months, it contributes organic matter to the soil, enhancing fertility and structure upon breakdown.^[48] Compared to alternatives like wood shavings, straw is generally cheaper and more readily available from agricultural residues, though it can be dustier, potentially affecting air quality in enclosed spaces.^[49]^[50]

Soil and Plant Applications

Straw serves as a valuable carbon-rich material in composting, where it is mixed with nitrogen-rich green wastes such as kitchen scraps or manure to achieve an optimal carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio of approximately 25:1 to 30:1 by weight, which promotes efficient microbial decomposition and accelerates the breakdown process.^[51] With a C:N ratio typically ranging from 40:1 to 100:1, straw helps balance high-nitrogen materials that might otherwise lead to odors or incomplete breakdown, resulting in a nutrient-dense compost suitable for soil enrichment.^[52] This practice enhances overall compost quality by providing structure that improves aeration during the thermophilic phase.^[53] As a soil amendment, straw is incorporated directly into the ground to enhance soil structure by increasing organic matter content, which fosters better aggregation and crumb formation.^[54] This addition improves aeration by creating pore spaces that allow oxygen to reach plant roots more effectively and boosts water retention, particularly in sandy soils where rapid drainage otherwise limits moisture availability.^[55]^[54] Studies show that returning straw to sandy soils can increase soil moisture content by 5–13% in the top 30 cm through improved porosity and organic binding.^[56] In horticulture, straw is applied as a mulch in strawberry beds to elevate fruits above the soil surface, thereby reducing contact with moist ground and preventing rot caused by pathogens like Botrytis or soil-borne fungi.^[57]^[58] A layer of 2-4 inches of clean straw around plants not only minimizes fruit soiling and decay but also moderates soil temperature fluctuations.^[59] For mushroom cultivation, pasteurized wheat or rice straw serves as an ideal lignocellulosic substrate, particularly for oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), supporting mycelial growth and fruiting bodies with biological efficiencies often exceeding 100% on properly prepared material.^[60]^[61] Home gardeners commonly use straw as a natural weed barrier by spreading a 3-6 inch layer over planting beds, which suppresses weed germination through light exclusion and physical smothering while decomposing to add organic matter over time.^[62] It is also effective for covering pathways in gardens to prevent mud and erosion, maintaining clean access without synthetic materials.^[62] Straw's compatibility with organic certification stems from its status as a non-synthetic, naturally derived input, allowable under National Organic Program standards when sourced as weed-seed-free material.^[62]

Industrial and Material Uses

Construction and Building

Straw bale construction utilizes compressed bales of straw, typically from wheat or rice, as a primary building material for walls, offering both structural support and insulation. In load-bearing methods, the bales directly support the roof load, suitable for single-story structures with proper compression and pinning, while post-and-beam approaches employ a timber frame where bales serve as infill for non-structural insulation.^[63] These walls provide high thermal performance, with R-values ranging from 1.5 to 2 per inch of thickness, enabling overall wall R-values of 30 or more for standard 18- to 24-inch bales, which significantly reduces heating and cooling demands compared to conventional framed walls.^[64]^[65] Thatching involves bundling straw, often long wheat straw or combed wheat reed, into layers applied to roofs, a practice prevalent in the United Kingdom and parts of Europe for centuries until the 19th century when it began to decline due to modern materials. The waterproofing effect arises from the dense, overlapping arrangement of bundles, which directs rainwater downward along the slope without penetration, typically lasting 30 to 50 years with maintenance.^[66]^[67]^[68] On construction sites, straw bales and wattles—cylindrical rolls of straw netting—function as temporary barriers to control erosion by intercepting sheet flow, trapping sediment, and slowing runoff velocity, thereby preventing pollutants from entering waterways. These measures can reduce sediment loads by 50 to 80 percent, depending on site conditions and maintenance, with wattles particularly effective on slopes up to 5:1 for filtering fine particles.^[69]^[70]^[71] Modern innovations expand straw's building applications through straw-clay mixtures, known as light straw-clay (LSC), where straw is lightly coated in clay slip and tamped into forms for infill walls or plasters, providing breathable insulation with R-values around 1.2 to 1.5 per inch while enhancing seismic flexibility.^[72] Fire-retardant treatments, such as borax solutions or lime plasters applied to straw surfaces, further improve safety, allowing walls to withstand flames for over two hours without ignition, as demonstrated in standardized tests.^[73]^[74]

Fuel and Energy

Straw serves as a viable biomass fuel for direct combustion in baled form, particularly in specialized boilers designed for heating applications in agricultural and rural settings. These systems load intact bales into furnaces, where the straw burns efficiently to produce heat for homes, greenhouses, or district heating. The net calorific value of straw typically ranges from 14 to 17 MJ/kg, comparable to that of dry wood, making it an effective alternative for thermal energy generation.^[75]^[76] To enhance usability and efficiency, straw is often pelletized by grinding and compressing it into dense fuel pellets suitable for automated stoves and boilers. This process significantly reduces the material's volume by approximately 80%, facilitating easier storage, handling, and transportation while maintaining a high energy density. Pelletized straw burns cleanly in standard biomass appliances, with calorific values often reaching 17-18 MJ/kg after processing.^[77] In larger-scale bioenergy applications, straw is co-fired with coal in power plants to generate electricity and heat, as demonstrated in Denmark where up to 10-20% of the fuel mix can consist of straw on an energy basis without major modifications to pulverized coal boilers. Additionally, straw can be converted into biogas through anaerobic digestion, a process that breaks down its lignocellulosic structure—often with pretreatment—to yield methane-rich gas for electricity production or as a renewable fuel. This method is particularly promising for integrating straw into decentralized energy systems, though yields vary based on feedstock preparation.^[78]^[79] Logistical challenges in utilizing straw for energy are addressed through densification techniques, such as baling or pelletizing, which increase bulk density and lower transportation costs by minimizing volume. Straw's emissions profile during combustion features low sulfur content compared to fossil fuels, reducing SOx emissions, but it produces high ash levels—often 5-10%—that necessitate regular boiler maintenance to prevent slagging and fouling.^[80]^[81]

Paper and Packaging

Straw serves as a valuable non-wood fiber source for papermaking, particularly through soda pulping, which employs sodium hydroxide to break down lignin and separate cellulose fibers, or mechanical pulping methods like alkaline peroxide mechanical pulping (APMP) that preserve higher fiber content.^[82]^[83] Soda pulping of wheat straw typically yields around 45-55% pulp, depending on alkali charge and cooking conditions, while mechanical variants can achieve 70-80% yields for applications requiring bulk rather than high purity.^[84]^[85] In China, the world's largest producer of straw pulp, agricultural residues like wheat and rice straw contribute a significant portion—estimated at 10-15%—to overall paper production, leveraging the country's annual output of over 900 million tons of crop straw.^[86]^[87] Historically, straw played a key role in early papermaking; around 105 CE, Chinese inventor Cai Lun refined paper production using mulberry bark blended with materials like wheat and rice straw, enabling thinner, more uniform sheets that spread the technology across Asia.^[88] In modern applications, straw pulp is often blended with recycled paper or wood fibers to create eco-friendly papers, reducing reliance on trees and improving sustainability; for instance, companies like Columbia Pulp produce commercial straw-based paper products that emphasize lower environmental impact compared to virgin wood pulp.^[89]^[90] Processing straw for papermaking begins with retting, a microbial or chemical treatment that softens and separates fibers by degrading pectins in the plant matrix, typically using water immersion or enzymatic agents to avoid excessive fiber damage.^[91]^[92] Additives such as anthraquinone (in soda-AQ pulping) or synthetic polymers are incorporated during refining to enhance pulp strength, tensile properties, and resistance to tearing, allowing straw-based papers to meet demands for printing, writing, and board production.^[85]^[93] Beyond flat sheets, straw is molded into pulp packaging products like trays, fillers, and protective inserts, formed by blending straw pulp with water and pressing into shapes before drying.^[94] These molded items offer a biodegradable alternative to expanded polystyrene foam, decomposing naturally in months while providing comparable cushioning for electronics, produce, and fragile goods.^[95]^[96] Production of straw molded pulp consumes significantly less water than traditional foam alternatives—often around 40 cubic meters per ton—due to efficient pulping and recycling systems, further minimizing environmental footprint.^[82]^[97]

Chemical and Manufacturing Applications

Bioplastics and Polymers

Straw, primarily composed of lignocellulosic materials such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, serves as a renewable feedstock for producing bioplastics through targeted extraction processes. Cellulose is extracted from straw via alkaline pretreatment followed by enzymatic hydrolysis, yielding high-purity fibers suitable for bioplastic films and composites.^[98] Lignin, often retained during extraction, acts as a natural binder in these composites, enhancing mechanical strength and hydrophobicity in applications like degradable straws.^[99] For instance, rice straw-derived cellulose-lignin films demonstrate improved stability and full biodegradability in soil within months.^[100] The production of polylactic acid (PLA) from straw involves enzymatic hydrolysis of pretreated lignocellulosic biomass to release fermentable sugars, followed by microbial fermentation to lactic acid and subsequent polymerization. Pretreatment with ammonia or alkali disrupts the lignin-hemicellulose matrix, enabling cellulase enzymes to convert cellulose to glucose yields of up to 92% from rice or wheat straw.^[101] These sugars are then fermented using lactic acid bacteria like Lactobacillus plantarum, achieving lactic acid concentrations of 36-50 g/L in one-pot processes.^[102] Polymerization via ring-opening or polycondensation yields PLA with molecular weights suitable for industrial use. Overall, straw-based processes leverage the 30-40% cellulose content of straw. Straw-derived bioplastics find applications in packaging films, where PLA films provide barrier properties comparable to petroleum-based alternatives, and in 3D printing filaments for prototyping sustainable prototypes. These materials reduce fossil fuel dependency compared to conventional plastics, primarily through avoided petroleum extraction and lower energy-intensive processing.^[103] For example, agricultural waste-derived cellulose composites enable 3D-printed food packaging with enhanced printability and reduced environmental impact.^[104] Recent advances in the 2020s have focused on blending straw hydrolysates with polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) to improve biodegradability and versatility. PHA production from rice straw involves alkaline pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis to sugars, fermented by Bacillus strains isolated from decomposing straw, yielding up to 59% PHA content in biomass with concentrations of 2.96 g/L.^[101] Straw-PHA blends exhibit rapid degradation in marine and soil environments, outperforming PLA in short-term compostability while maintaining mechanical integrity for films and filaments. These developments emphasize waste valorization, reducing microplastic risks through enzymatic breakdown by soil microbes.^[105]

Chemical Extraction

Chemical extraction from straw involves isolating valuable compounds from its lignocellulosic components—primarily cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin—through processes like hydrolysis and fermentation, enabling the production of platform chemicals for various industries.^[106] Straw, such as wheat or rice varieties, serves as a renewable feedstock due to its abundance and composition, with hemicellulose (20-30% dry weight) and cellulose (35-45%) being key targets for depolymerization into sugars and derivatives.^[107] These extractions typically employ acid or enzymatic hydrolysis to break down polysaccharides, followed by separation techniques, yielding chemicals like alcohols and aldehydes while minimizing waste.^[108] One prominent fermentation product is ethanol, produced by hydrolyzing straw's cellulose into glucose and fermenting it with yeast such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Acid or enzymatic pretreatment disrupts the lignocellulosic matrix, achieving cellulose conversion rates of 80-90%, with subsequent fermentation yielding 200-300 liters of ethanol per metric ton of dry straw under optimized conditions.^[109] For instance, dilute sulfuric acid hydrolysis of wheat straw at 121°C for 30 minutes followed by yeast fermentation has demonstrated ethanol titers of 25-30 g/L, corresponding to the targeted volumetric yields.^[110] This process is particularly effective for rice and wheat straw, where hemicellulose removal enhances cellulose accessibility, boosting overall ethanol productivity to 0.4-0.5 g/L/h.^[111] Furfural, a versatile chemical precursor for resins and solvents, is derived from the dehydration of hemicellulose's pentose sugars, primarily xylose, under acidic conditions. The process involves acid hydrolysis of straw at 140-180°C with catalysts like sulfuric acid, converting 20-25% of hemicellulose content into furfural at yields of 150-200 mg/g substrate from wheat straw.^[112] Hemicellulose hydrolysis proceeds via protonation of glycosidic bonds, followed by dehydration to form the furan ring, with Bronsted acids facilitating the reaction while Lewis acids suppress side products like humins.^[113] Rice straw, rich in xylan, has been processed at 121°C and 15 psi to achieve furfural selectivities exceeding 70%, highlighting its suitability for integrated biorefineries.^[106] Beyond fermentation products, straw yields other extracts like silica and vanillin through targeted processes. Silica, comprising 10-15% of rice straw's dry matter, is extracted via alkaline hydrolysis with sodium hydroxide at 100°C, followed by acid precipitation, producing amorphous nano-silica used as an abrasive in polishes and toothpaste due to its hardness (Mohs scale 6-7).^[114] Vanillin, a high-value flavor compound, is obtained from lignin depolymerization using oxidative or photocatalytic methods; for example, rice straw lignin treated with γ-Fe₂O₃ catalysts under visible light yields up to 97% depolymerization, with vanillin comprising 5-10% of aromatic products.^[115] Acid hydrolysis processes underpin many of these extractions, such as dilute H₂SO₄ treatment of wheat straw (1.5% concentration, 1:15 solid ratio) at 121°C, which solubilizes hemicellulose for furfural while preserving cellulose integrity.^[116] On an industrial scale, bioethanol production from straw operates in Europe at capacities processing 100,000-200,000 tons of biomass annually; the Maabjerg Energy Concept in Denmark, for instance, utilizes wheat straw to produce 80 million liters of ethanol yearly from optimized feedstocks.^[117] Demonstration facilities like Clariant's sunliquid plant in Straubing, Germany, handle 1,000 tons of straw per year but scale to commercial levels supporting regional biorefineries with integrated chemical recovery.^[118] Byproducts from these extractions, notably lignin residues, find applications in adhesives and dyes; alkali-extracted lignin from straw serves as a phenol-formaldehyde substitute in wood adhesives, providing binding strength comparable to synthetic variants at 20-30% replacement levels.^[119] Similarly, modified lignin derivatives act as natural dyes or adsorbents for synthetic dyes in wastewater treatment, enhancing color removal efficiencies up to 90% in acidic media.^[120]

Other Industrial Products

Straw ropes and twine are produced by mechanically twisting dried straw fibers, such as those from rice or wheat, into durable strands suitable for agricultural binding and securing materials like hay bales.^[121] These natural products offer biodegradability, decomposing naturally within months under composting conditions, providing an eco-friendly alternative to synthetic twines made from polypropylene or nylon, which persist in the environment and contribute to microplastic pollution.^[122] While synthetic variants provide superior tensile strength—often 20% higher than natural fibers—straw-based ropes suffice for low- to medium-load applications in farming, with production machines capable of outputting up to 700 meters per hour.^[123]^[124] In archery and shooting sports, straw serves as a core material for targets and backstops, where bales or compressed straw blocks absorb projectile impacts effectively due to their dense, fibrous structure, reducing arrow or bullet penetration and facilitating easy retrieval.^[125] These straw-stuffed targets withstand repeated use, with durability enhanced by their natural compression, though they require periodic replacement to maintain performance after extensive shooting sessions.^[126] Particleboard made from straw involves shredding agricultural residues like wheat or rice straw into small particles, mixing them with resins such as urea-formaldehyde or methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI), and hot-pressing the mixture into flat panels under high temperature and pressure, typically at 180–220°C for 5–10 minutes.^[127] This process yields lightweight, cost-effective boards used primarily in furniture manufacturing, such as shelving and cabinetry, where they offer good machinability and uniform surfaces.^[128] In Asia, where straw residues are abundant, these boards are driven by sustainable sourcing and growing demand for affordable wood alternatives.^[129] Durability metrics include bending strength of 12–18 MPa and internal bond strength of 0.8–1.2 MPa, meeting standards for non-structural applications, though thickness swelling (8–12% after 24 hours) can be mitigated with chemical pretreatments.^[130]^[131]

Traditional and Cultural Uses

Crafts and Weaving

Straw has been employed in various traditional crafts and weaving practices worldwide, particularly for creating functional and ornamental items through plaiting, coiling, and other interlacing methods. These techniques leverage the natural flexibility and abundance of cereal crop residues like wheat and rye straw, fostering cultural expressions in regions with strong agricultural traditions.^[132] In basketry, straw serves as a primary material for both coiled and plaited constructions, enabling the production of durable storage containers and utilitarian vessels. Coiled basketry involves wrapping straw coils around a core and stitching them with additional strands, a method documented in European traditions using wheat straw since at least the 17th century. Plaited techniques, by contrast, braid whole or split straw stems into flat or three-dimensional forms, prominent in British wheat weaving practices that evolved into intricate patterns by the late 19th century. In African contexts, such as ancient Egyptian crafts, sewn plait basketry utilized wheat straw and grasses for items like sandals, employing gradual transitions between coils for structural integrity. These methods highlight straw's versatility, with fine wheat straw preferred in Europe for its uniformity in detailed work.^[132]^[133] Mats and rugs woven from straw have long provided practical flooring solutions, especially in Asian agricultural societies. In Japan, tatami mats feature a core of densely matted rice straw, bound with string and topped with woven rush grass for resilience, a practice integral to traditional home architecture since at least the 8th century. This straw-based construction influenced broader Asian weaving traditions, where paddy straw was interlaced into flat mats for seating or ground cover, emphasizing simplicity and renewability. Historical accounts note these mats' role in daily life, measuring standardized sizes to fit room layouts and symbolizing cultural harmony with nature. In China, straw has been traditionally woven into conical hats (dǒulì) and rain capes for farmers, while in India, straw mats (chattai) are crafted for flooring and seating in rural homes.^[134]^[135] Decorative items crafted from straw include ornaments, sculptures, and festival effigies, often tied to harvest rituals. In the United Kingdom, the Whittlesea Straw Bear Festival revives a 19th-century custom where participants don costumes of woven straw to honor agricultural cycles, featuring bear-like figures constructed from plaited straw over wooden frames. Straw sculptures and ornaments, such as spiral-woven harvest wreaths or diamond-shaped protective charms, appear in Eastern European traditions like those in Belarus, where they serve ritualistic purposes during festivals. These items blend artistry with symbolism, using straw's lightweight properties for elaborate, ephemeral displays.^[136]^[137] Key techniques in straw crafting involve preparing the material for pliability and coloration. Soaking straw in water softens it for easier manipulation, a step essential before coiling or plaiting to prevent cracking during weaving. Dyes, often acid-based for water fastness, are applied to soaked straw to achieve vibrant hues, though split edges may cause color bleeding; natural mordants enhance dye uptake and flexibility in traditional processes. These preparatory methods ensure the longevity and aesthetic appeal of woven products across cultures.^[138]^[139]

Clothing and Accessories

Straw has been utilized in clothing and accessories for its lightweight, breathable qualities, particularly in warm climates where ventilation helps regulate temperature.^[140] Across cultures, it is woven into wearable items that combine functionality with aesthetic appeal, drawing on traditional crafting methods adapted for personal adornment. In hat-making, straw is commonly braided into styles like boater hats. Boater hats, popular in European and American fashion since the 19th century, frequently employ wheat straw braided into strips of varying widths, such as 1.0 to 1.5 cm, for structured brims and crowns.^[141] These hats are shaped using steam to soften the fibers, allowing artisans to mold them over wooden blocks for precise fit and style.^[142] Straw footwear includes plaited sandals and decorative shoes with historical roots in Europe. From the 17th and 18th centuries, Italian and German designs featured plaited or appliquéd straw uppers lined with silk or leather, often embroidered for ornamental effect, serving as lightweight alternatives to heavier materials.^[143] By the mid-19th century, woven straw shoes from Italy were produced in flat sheets for assembly across Europe, emphasizing breathability for daily wear.^[144] Beyond headwear and shoes, straw appears in accessories like bags and belts, valued for their natural ventilation in hot climates. Woven straw bags, such as totes or crossbody styles, offer breathable storage that remains cool against the skin during summer use.^[145] Straw belts and fanny packs, adjustable for waists up to 38 inches, provide a casual, eco-conscious option for securing essentials.^[146] Production involves weaving straw on molds or blocks to form the desired shape, a technique refined over centuries and now integrated into modern eco-fashion. Artisans braid or machine-weave fibers like wheat or rice straw, then steam and press them for finishing, ensuring pliability without synthetic additives.^[147] In contemporary trends, straw accessories align with sustainable fashion by using renewable plant materials, reducing reliance on petroleum-based textiles and appealing to environmentally aware consumers.^[148] This revival draws briefly on traditional weaving for authenticity while prioritizing biodegradable outcomes.^[149]

Musical Instruments

Straw has been utilized in various traditional and folk musical instruments, particularly in regions where agricultural byproducts like oat or wheat stalks provide readily available hollow tubes for sound production. These instruments often rely on the natural structure of straw—its rigid yet lightweight stalks—for resonance and portability, making them suitable for pastoral and communal settings. In European folk traditions, simple reedpipes crafted from oat straw, known as oaten pipes, represent an early form of aerophone, evolving from primitive designs to more structured woodwind instruments. Similarly, in African cultures, straw is woven into percussion devices that produce rhythmic sounds during rituals and ceremonies.^[150]^[151] Straw flutes and panpipes exploit the hollow stems of plants like wheat or oats as resonators, where the length of the stalk determines the pitch through variations in air column vibration. Historical accounts describe wheat stalks as basic musical tools, with idioglot reeds formed by cutting the plant's own material to create a vibrating edge when blown across, producing a soft, melodic tone suitable for simple melodies. Adjustable lengths allow players to alter pitch, as shorter stalks yield higher notes due to faster air vibrations within the confined space. In some folk contexts, multiple stalks of varying lengths are bundled to form rudimentary panpipes, mimicking more elaborate reed-based versions found in pastoral music. These designs highlight straw's acoustic properties, where the fibrous walls provide natural vibration damping, softening overtones and creating a warm, diffused sound compared to metal or wood alternatives.^[151]^[152] For percussion, bundled or woven straw forms shakers and rattles prevalent in African traditions, such as those crafted by artisans in Mali and Cameroon. These instruments consist of straw envelopes filled with seeds or pebbles, shaken to produce a soft, rustling rhythm that accompanies dances and rituals. In West African communities, straw rattles symbolize communal harmony and are used in ceremonies to invoke ancestral spirits or celebrate agricultural cycles. Modern DIY adaptations continue this legacy, but traditional versions emphasize straw's role in evoking natural sounds akin to wind through fields.^[153] Historically, straw-based horns and pipes trace back to medieval European pastoral life, where oat or wheat stalks served as precursors to sophisticated brass instruments, used by shepherds for signaling or entertainment. These early horns, formed by widening the bell end of a straw tube, produced low, buzzing tones for short distances. In contemporary folk revivals, straw instruments persist in educational and artisanal contexts, underscoring their cultural significance in harvest festivals like those in Eastern Europe and Asia, where they accompany thanksgiving rites for bountiful yields. The simplicity of straw fosters improvisation, embedding these tools in oral traditions and seasonal celebrations.^[150]^[154]

Safety and Environmental Aspects

Health Risks

Handling straw can pose several health risks to humans primarily through respiratory and physical exposures, as well as to animals via ingestion of contaminated material.^[155] Respiratory issues arise from inhaling dust and organic particles generated during straw handling, baling, or storage. Mold spores, such as those from Aspergillus species, proliferate in damp straw, triggering hypersensitivity pneumonitis known as farmer's lung, characterized by flu-like symptoms, cough, and shortness of breath that can progress to chronic lung inflammation and scarring if exposure persists.^[155] Additionally, straw dust often contains respirable crystalline silica from soil contamination, which increases the risk of silicosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and lung cancer upon prolonged inhalation.^[156] In general industry, the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) sets a permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 50 μg/m³ for an 8-hour time-weighted average of respirable crystalline silica, though agricultural operations are exempt from this specific standard and are subject to general dust exposure limits.^[157] Physical injuries from straw handling include cuts and punctures from its sharp edges, particularly during manual processing or machinery operation. These wounds can become infected, with an elevated risk of tetanus from Clostridium tetani bacteria present in soil-adhered straw residues, leading to muscle spasms and potentially fatal complications if not promptly treated.^[158] Farmers face heightened tetanus risk due to frequent soil-contaminated injuries in agricultural settings.^[159] In animals, particularly horses, moldy feed or grain contaminated with mycotoxins like fumonisins—produced by Fusarium fungi—can cause equine leukoencephalomalacia (ELEM), a neurological disorder resulting in brain liquefaction, ataxia, and often death.^[160] This condition typically develops after ingestion of affected bedding or feed over several weeks.^[161] Mitigation strategies for human health risks include wearing NIOSH-approved dust masks or respirators during handling, ensuring adequate ventilation in storage areas, and maintaining straw below 20% moisture to prevent mold growth.^[155] OSHA recommends engineering controls like dust suppression and worker rotation to stay below general dust PELs of 5 mg/m³ for respirable nuisance dust in agriculture.^[162] For physical injuries, prompt wound cleaning and tetanus vaccination boosters are essential.^[158] In animal care, regular inspection and dry storage of straw, along with mycotoxin testing, reduce ELEM incidence.^[161]

Environmental Impact and Sustainability

The open burning of crop residues like straw, particularly rice straw in regions such as northern India, significantly contributes to air pollution by releasing particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), black carbon, and greenhouse gases, exacerbating seasonal smog and health burdens in urban areas like Delhi.^[163] Repurposing straw for bioenergy or materials, such as bioethanol production, can avoid up to 82% of these greenhouse gas emissions compared to open burning, promoting waste management practices that mitigate atmospheric pollution and support cleaner agricultural cycles.^[164] As a biomass resource, straw contributes to carbon sequestration when incorporated into soil or converted into biochar, where it can offset emissions by storing carbon long-term; for instance, biochar production from straw has the potential to sequester approximately 2-3 tons of CO2 equivalent per ton of biochar through enhanced soil organic matter and reduced decomposition losses.^[165] This aligns with circular economy principles in agriculture, where straw recycling closes nutrient loops by returning organic matter to fields, reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizers and fostering sustainable soil health.^[166] Straw represents a renewable resource as an annual byproduct of staple crops like wheat and rice, regenerating each harvest without dedicated land conversion, unlike tree-based materials.^[167] Its utilization is more water-efficient than wood alternatives, leveraging existing crop irrigation rather than requiring additional freshwater for growth, thereby lowering the overall hydrological footprint in material production.^[168] Despite these benefits, challenges in straw utilization include high transportation energy costs, which can account for over 40% of total logistics expenses due to low bulk density and seasonal availability, potentially offsetting emission reductions if not optimized through localized processing.^[169] Additionally, pesticide residues persisting in raw straw from field applications pose environmental risks, such as soil and water contamination during repurposing, necessitating preprocessing to minimize ecological impacts.^[170]

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Comparison of physical, chemical, physico-chemical, and enzymatic ...
Results revealed that alkali-assisted sonication yielded the highest reducing sugar concentrations (30 ± 0.8 mg/mL) and ethanol productivity (0.41 g/L/h), with ...
[106]
[PDF] Development of a universal method for high yield of furfural and ...
The highest furfural production of 154 mg g-1 substrate was achieved from wheat straw. ... The production of furfural directly from hemicellulose in ...
[107]
Recent progress in furfural production from hemicellulose and its ...
Based on the furfural production process, we review the conversion mechanism of hemicellulose, xylan and xylose and the role of Bronsted acid and Lewis acid in ...
[108]
(PDF) Extraction of Silica from Rice Straw Using Alkaline Hydrolysis ...
The main objective of this research is to extract silica from rice straw. The amorphous silica was derived by first digesting rice straw with Soda AQ solution.
[109]
Accelerated depolymerization of rice straw-derived lignin to vanillin ...
Rice straw lignin is depolymerized to vanillin and guaiacol using a γ-Fe2O3/N, Fe-TiO2 photocatalyst under visible light, achieving 97.1% depolymerization.
[110]
Effect of Acid Hydrolysis Conditions on the Extraction of Cellulose ...
May 12, 2025 · This study refines the acid hydrolysis process for cellulose derived from rice straw, an abundant agricultural waste, focusing on the relationship between ...
[111]
New Biorefinery Process Saves 100.000 Tonnes of Straw
Danish bioenergy project Maabjerg Energy Concept cuts 25% of raw materials to produce same amount of second generation bioethanol – 80 million litres.
[112]
[PDF] Straw for bioenergy
Since autumn 2012, Clariant and the. TFZ Straubing are operating a demonstration plant with an annual capacity of 1000 tonnes. (bioethanol output) for the ...
[113]
Lignin in straw and its applications as an adhesive - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · This review is focused on the chemical structural and composition of lignin in the straw, and its modification and uses as an adhesive. The ...
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Adsorption of basic dyes from aqueous solutions using nano-lignin ...
In the present study, nano-ligninwas synthesized from rice straw using Lactobacillus rhamnosus for the cost-effective removal of harmful dye from wastewater.Missing: byproducts | Show results with:byproducts
[115]
[PDF] Design and Development of Rice Straw Rope Maker
A straw rope maker was designed and developed to improve the quality and efficiency of rope production. The designed hypothesis was a rope with ...
[116]
Jute Twine & Rope Exporter Guide: Biodegradable Uses
Jul 8, 2025 · Not all twine is biodegradable. While jute twine breaks down naturally, most synthetic alternatives like nylon, polypropylene, or polyester ...
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Straw Rope Making Machine(783) - Alibaba.com
Discover straw rope making machines with high productivity, 1-year warranty, and CE-certified safety. Ideal for rice, wheat, and coconut fiber processing.
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https://task40.ieabioenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/29/2013/09/t40-low-iluc-straw-august-2014.pdf
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Archery Target Shooting Targets Bow Targets - Straw ... - Amazon.com
【Material】：The bow target, made from straw, It withstands multiple uses and still maintains good condition. 【Archery Accessories Set】：17.7×17.7×2.4 in ...
[120]
Straw or hay for a target backstop? | Archery Talk Forum
Mar 7, 2014 · Hay or straw probably not do it for you. I use a 4x8 sheet of plywood. There are 2 holes in it where I zoned out. From the front it looks like the hole was ...hay/straw bale for arrow backstop?? | Archery Talk ForumStraw bales for a compound target??? | Archery Talk ForumMore results from www.archerytalk.com
[121]
Preparation of Hot-Pressed Wheat Straw Board by Self-Adhesive ...
Nov 28, 2024 · In this study, using wheat straw as the primary substrate, we investigated the effects of mechanical smashing combined with pretreatment using inorganic acids ...
[122]
(PDF) Particleboard from Agricultural Biomass and Recycled Wood ...
This study aimed to review and evaluate the current state-of-the-art particleboard production using a wide variety of environmentally-friendly agricultural ...
[123]
Particle Board Market Size, Growth and Analysis Report - 2033
Oct 14, 2024 · The particle board market is valued at approximately USD 23.8 billion in 2024 and is anticipated to reach around USD 31.7 billion by 2033, ...
[124]
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Particleboard Produced with ...
Feb 9, 2022 · The physical properties (thickness swelling after 24 h) and mechanical properties (bending strength, modulus of elasticity and internal bond ...Missing: durability metrics
[125]
The properties of particleboard made from alkaline-treated wheat ...
Compared with the boards made of MDI and wood particles, the properties of straw board are poor, and the straw should be pretreated if a higher quality straw ...Missing: durability metrics
[126]
About Straw Art - National Association of Wheat Weavers
Straw Embroidery dates back to the 1600s and probably before in Europe. The split straw is softened and worked through open weave fabrics using traditional ...
[127]
Plants used in basketry production during the Early Neolithic ... - jstor
Feb 23, 2021 · wheat straw and grasses ... employing many basketry techniques including coiling, such as sandals among others, conserved by dehydration.
[128]
Japanese Homes and Their Surroundings by Edward Sylvester Morse
### Summary on Tatami Mats from "Japanese Homes and Their Surroundings"
[129]
HISTORY - Whittlesea Straw Bear
The custom was revived in 1980 by the Whittlesea Society, and for the first time in seventy years a 'Straw Bear' was seen on the streets accompanied by his ...Missing: crafts | Show results with:crafts
[130]
Straw weaving in Belarus, art, craft and skills
The modern straw weaving art in Belarus is based on folk traditions and is continuously enriched by the creative achievements of individual experts.
[131]
(Free Report) CHHWALI KALA (STRAW ART) - Ambassador report
Mar 4, 2021 · It is very simple to make. The process begins with soaking of wheat straw in water, press them with a wooden slab, cut in workable size and ...Missing: techniques | Show results with:techniques
[132]
[PDF] Dyeing of Leaves and Straws: A Handbook for Craft Instructors (NRI)
Because of the 'bleeding' of dye from the split edges of the straws, most acid dyes give rather poor results for water fastness. A substantial ...
[133]
The Best Straw Handbags for Summer - The Quality Edit
30-day returnsJun 16, 2024 · The loose weave of the straw provides ventilation, thus keeping your head cool in the scorching summer heat. ... Need more warm weather style ...Missing: hot climates
[134]
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/52868
[135]
28 Raw Materials For Making Straw Hats - The Ultimate List
Wheat Straw. Straw braided strips are hand-braided with wheat stalks and then processed into caps with specifications as 1.5cm, 1.2cm, 1.0 cm ...
[136]
https://strawbear.org.uk/history
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Italian straw plaited shoes from 1860s - Facebook
Jun 11, 2020 · Shoes, 1860's, of plaited straw lined with red silk. Trimmed around opening with straw braid and pleated silk ribbon.Eighteenth Century Shoe Fashion - FacebookA pair of sandals made of palm straw (i.e., rushes) and dated to the ...More results from www.facebook.comMissing: sandals 18th
[138]
The History of How Shoes Are Made - ThoughtCo
Aug 18, 2019 · In the mid- to late-1800s unassembled shoes made with flat sheets of woven straw were produced in Italy and sold across Europe and in America to ...<|separator|>
[139]
Straw Decorated Shoes
Straw decorated shoes, made from the 1600s to 1900s, include styles like slap shoes with straw appliqué, and some with plaited straw and embroidery.Missing: espadrilles | Show results with:espadrilles
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https://www.thequalityedit.com/articles/best-straw-handbags-accessories
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https://www.foremosthat.com/straw-hat-material.html
[142]
Different Types of Straw Materials for Hat Making - CNCAPS
Sep 8, 2023 · Wheat straw is easy to shape and difficult to sew. It is often used ... Salt grass is also sometimes used in the production of Panama hats.Missing: boater | Show results with:boater
[143]
Eco-Chic Custom Straw Bags for a Natural Lifestyle - Newstep
Oct 24, 2025 · Discover how NEWSTEP turns traditional straw weaving into modern, eco-friendly fashion accessories loved by global brands.
[144]
Straw Bags for Summer 2025: Must-Have Trends and Best Care Tips
Apr 27, 2025 · Plus, they have an eco-friendly edge—most straw bags are made from renewable, biodegradable materials that align with a conscious lifestyle.
[145]
Pipes and Pipers - The North East Folklore Archive
It is founded on the oaten pipe of primitive times. The chanter made of wood, the most sonorous of all substances, seems to have been the first step towards the ...
[146]
[PDF] A HISTORY OF THE OBOE FROM ANTIQUITY TO 1750 THiES IS
the common wheat stalk was a musical instrument and emitted a soft, sweet note. This double reed is able to play a com- pass of an octave without a ...
[147]
Sound Science: Do-Re-Mi with Straws | Scientific American
Mar 27, 2014 · In this science activity, you'll make your own musical instruments using drinking straws and explore how changing the length of the straws changes the notes ...Missing: damping | Show results with:damping
[148]
Rattles - Hartenberger World Musical Instrument Collection
A rattle is a struck-indirectly idiophone commonly found in Africa. There are a wide variety of types, materials, and methods of playing.<|separator|>
[149]
Wangala, Tusu, Karma: 8 lesser-known harvest festivals - Sahapedia
The word 'pawl' means straw and 'kut' means festival, signifying its association with harvest. It is essentially a thanksgiving festival and is accompanied by ...Mopin Festival; Arunachal... · Wangala; Meghalaya, Nagaland... · Gaan Ngai; Assam, Manipur...
[150]
Farmer's Lung: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment
Dec 10, 2024 · Farmer's lung is a hypersensitivity to moldy hay and grain that causes lung inflammation. Chronic farmer's lung can cause permanent lung ...
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https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc663721/m2/1/high_res_d/1002603879-Stephens.pdf
[152]
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/sound-science-do-re-mi-with-straws/
[153]
About Tetanus - CDC
May 30, 2025 · People with a recent wound are at increased risk for tetanus. This is especially true if the wound is deep or contaminated with dirt.Missing: straw physical
[154]
Exposure risks and tetanus immunization status in farmers ages 50 ...
The very young and the elderly are at highest risk for the disease. Farmers are at high risk for injury, the leading factor associated with tetanus. Methods ...Missing: straw | Show results with:straw
[155]
Fungal mycotoxins of grain and their potential effect on horses
May 19, 2022 · There are three common mycotoxins designated as FB1, FB2 and FB3. FB1 is well documented as the cause of leukoencephalomalacia in horses.
[156]
Common Toxins in Equine Feedstuffs - MSU Extension
Oct 26, 2015 · Endophytes are molds that live inside other plants. Endophytes present in tall fescue and ryegrass produce mycotoxins that are toxic to equines.Missing: straw | Show results with:straw
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https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/regulations/standardnumber/1910/1910.1053
[158]
Air quality impacts of crop residue burning in India and mitigation ...
Nov 14, 2022 · Crop residue burning contributes to poor air quality and imposes a health burden on India. Despite government bans and other interventions, ...
[159]
Environmental comparison of straw applications based on a life ...
Straw is considered to be a renewable resource for bioenergy and biomaterial. However, about 70% of straw is burned in fields, which causes serious air ...
[160]
Carbon offset potential of biochar based straw management under rice
Nov 1, 2023 · A biochar-based approach to managing rice straw had great carbon offset potential through a large drop in greenhouse gas emissions and an improved soil carbon ...
[161]
Microbial contributions to sustainable paddy straw utilization for ...
Chemical composition of paddy straw ash, SiO2, 72.55–83.12 %, (Liu et al ... composition of 38 % cellulose, 25 % hemicellulose, and 12 % lignin. Barmina ...
[162]
Analysis of the Possible Use of Straw from Agriculture as an ... - MDPI
As a renewable material, straw also has the potential to be used in buildings, enhancing thermal insulation and reducing environmental impacts. This study ...
[163]
[PDF] Carbon Footprint Analysis for Wood & Wheat Straw Sources of Pulp
Background. In December 2010, HB Lanarc was engaged to compare the carbon footprints of wood and agricultural residue sources of fibre for pulp production.
[164]
A comprehensive model to analyze straw recycling logistics costs for ...
Jan 7, 2020 · The results show that transportation cost is the most important component of the total straw recycling logistics costs, making up 44.35%. The ...
[165]
Unveiling the Aftermath: Exploring Residue Profiles of Insecticides ...
Raw straw biomass retained residues from all pesticide groups, with chlorpyriphos notably dominating (79.7%). Ash residue analysis unveiled significant ...