Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP), enacted through Republic Act No. 6657 on June 10, 1988, constitutes the Philippine government's systematic initiative to redistribute agricultural lands to landless farmers and regular farmworkers, targeting all public and private agricultural lands irrespective of tenurial arrangements or commodities produced, with the explicit policy aim of advancing social justice, rural development, and equitable access to land as a productive resource.[1] [2] Envisioned under President Corazon Aquino's administration as a cornerstone of post-People Power reforms, CARP incorporated mechanisms such as voluntary land offers to the government, compulsory acquisition at market values, and alternative stock distribution options for corporate landowners, while mandating support services like credit, infrastructure, and training to enable beneficiaries' transition to viable farming.[1] [3] Over its initial 10-year timeline—later extended by Republic Act No. 9700 (CARPER) in 2009 to 2028—the program distributed approximately 4.8 million hectares to around 4.8 million beneficiaries, ostensibly fulfilling over 90% of its land acquisition targets by 2018 and altering tenure patterns in favor of smallholder ownership.[4] [5] However, empirical evaluations grounded in micro-level data underscore profound shortcomings: CARP fragmented average farm sizes by 37% and depressed agricultural output per hectare by 17%, as smaller plots proved inefficient for mechanization and scale economies, exacerbating rural underproductivity and failing to deliver sustained poverty reduction despite initial income gains for some recipients.[6] [7] [8] Controversies persist around CARP's design and execution, including landowner circumventions via legal loopholes, chronic underfunding of post-distribution support (which limited credit access and technical aid to below 20% of needs in many cases), and elite capture that perpetuated inequality, with quantitative analyses deeming it a net economic failure that hindered overall agricultural growth without comparable productivity boosts seen in peer reforms elsewhere.[9] [10] These outcomes reflect causal dynamics where compulsory redistribution overlooked farm-specific efficiencies and market incentives, fueling ongoing land disputes and calls for policy abandonment in favor of targeted productivity enhancements.[9][4]Historical Origins
Pre-1988 Agrarian Policies
Prior to the enactment of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program in 1988, Philippine agrarian policies were characterized by fragmented and limited initiatives aimed at addressing tenancy and land concentration, primarily in response to rural unrest and political pressures. These efforts began in the post-independence era but achieved modest redistribution, often constrained by elite resistance, inadequate funding, and narrow scope targeting only specific crops or regions.[11] The Land Reform Act of 1955 (Republic Act No. 1400), signed during President Ramon Magsaysay's administration on June 4, 1955, marked an early comprehensive attempt to establish a land tenure policy. It declared the state's intent to create conditions enabling tenants to become landowners or leaseholders on reasonable terms, establishing the Land Tenure Administration to purchase and resell estates exceeding 300 hectares for individuals or 600 hectares for corporations to bonafide farmers. Implementation was hampered by insufficient government funds and legal challenges from landowners, resulting in only about 120,000 hectares distributed by the early 1960s.[12][13] Subsequent policies under Presidents Diosdado Macapagal and Ferdinand Marcos expanded on these foundations but retained limitations. The Agricultural Land Reform Code of 1963 (Republic Act No. 3844) abolished share tenancy for all agricultural crops, converting tenants into leaseholders with secure rights and setting maximum lease rents at 25-30% of harvest value; however, it exempted export cash crops like sugar and coconut, covering primarily Central Luzon rice lands and benefiting fewer than 100,000 tenants due to slow adjudication.[14] Under martial law, President Marcos issued Presidential Decree No. 27 on October 21, 1972, decreeing the emancipation of tenants on rice and corn lands by transferring ownership of up to seven hectares per qualified tenant farmer, with landowners retaining no more than seven hectares. This applied exclusively to private tenanted lands devoted to rice and corn under sharecrop or lease systems, requiring tenants to pay amortized costs over 15 years at 6% interest, and led to the distribution of approximately 1.2 million hectares to over 800,000 beneficiaries by 1986. Critics noted its exclusion of other crops and lands, which shielded major landlords in export agriculture, though it represented the most significant pre-1988 redistribution effort amid Marcos's authoritarian control.[15][16][11] From 1972 to 1988, complementary decrees like Presidential Decree No. 85 (1974) incentivized voluntary land transfers with tax exemptions, while operations under the Department of Agrarian Reform—formed in 1978—focused on certificate of land transfer issuance and support services, yet overall progress stalled due to corruption allegations, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and the 1983-1985 economic crisis, leaving tenancy rates high at around 40% of farmland.[17]Enactment under Aquino (1988)
The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law, formally Republic Act No. 6657, was signed into law by President Corazon C. Aquino on June 10, 1988, establishing the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) as the state's mechanism for redistributing public and private agricultural lands to promote social justice, rural industrialization, and improved living standards for landless farmers.[18][19] The legislation mandated coverage of approximately 10.3 million hectares of agricultural land over a 10-year period, including rice and corn lands under prior presidential decrees, regardless of tenurial arrangements or crop types.[20][21] Enactment followed intense political pressure amid agrarian unrest, particularly after the Mendiola Massacre on January 22, 1987, when security forces fired on approximately 15,000 farmers marching to Malacañang Palace to demand land redistribution, resulting in 13 deaths and numerous injuries.[22][23] Aquino's administration, which had pledged comprehensive reform during the 1986 EDSA Revolution campaign against Ferdinand Marcos, initially delayed action due to opposition from agrarian elites, including her family's Hacienda Luisita estate, leading to a legislative compromise that incorporated voluntary offers from landowners (VOS) and retention limits of up to 5 hectares per family.[20][24] The bill originated in the Eighth Congress, with the Senate and House versions reconciled before presidential approval, reflecting a moderated approach compared to more radical proposals from farmer groups and leftist organizations that sought immediate expropriation without full market-value compensation.[18] The law took effect on July 15, 1988, 15 days after its publication in the Official Gazette, and created the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) to oversee implementation, alongside support agencies for credit, infrastructure, and training.[25][26] Critics, including peasant advocates, argued from the outset that provisions allowing stock-sharing alternatives to land transfer diluted the reform's emancipatory potential, prioritizing elite interests over tenant rights—a view substantiated by subsequent low distribution rates in private estates during the Aquino era.[20][23]Program Framework
Core Objectives and Legal Basis
The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) was established through Republic Act No. 6657, enacted on June 10, 1988, which serves as its primary legal foundation.[18] This legislation, signed into law by President Corazon C. Aquino, instituted a systematic redistribution of agricultural lands to qualified beneficiaries, encompassing all public and private agricultural lands regardless of tenurial arrangement or crop type.[18] The law's scope targeted approximately 10.3 million hectares of land, with implementation mechanisms including voluntary offers, compulsory acquisition, and summary administrative proceedings for disputes.[18] The core objectives of CARP, as articulated in Section 2 of RA 6657, center on pursuing agrarian reform to promote social justice, industrialization, and economic development.[18] Specifically, the program aims to liberate tillers from the bondage of the soil by providing them ownership of the land they till or equitable shares in its production, thereby improving their living conditions and enabling participation in national industrialization.[18] It seeks to redistribute excess lands beyond retention limits—set at 5 hectares per landowner—to landless farmers and farmworkers, while ensuring support services such as credit, infrastructure, and training to sustain productivity.[18] These goals are framed within a policy of equitable access to land as a means to reduce rural poverty and foster rural industrialization, with the state committing to just compensation for landowners based on market value considerations.[18] Subsequent amendments, notably Republic Act No. 9700 in 2009, extended CARP's timeline to June 30, 2014, and refined provisions on land acquisition and beneficiary support without altering the foundational objectives of land redistribution and social equity.[27] The program's legal framework emphasizes farmer participation through cooperatives and prioritizes agricultural lands unsuitable for industrial use, balancing reform with national food security and economic growth imperatives.[18]Land Acquisition Mechanisms
The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) employed three principal modes for acquiring agricultural lands: voluntary offer to sell (VOS), voluntary land transfer (VLT), and compulsory acquisition (CA). These mechanisms, established under Executive Order No. 229 (1987) and codified in Republic Act No. 6657 (1988), prioritized voluntary methods to expedite distribution while providing compulsory options for non-compliant landowners, subject to just compensation determined by factors including the land's productivity, market value, and tax declarations.[28][18] Acquisition targeted tenanted lands exceeding retention limits—five hectares per qualified owner—and idle or underdeveloped parcels, with Phase I emphasizing voluntary offers from high-priority estates like sugar and coconut plantations.[18] Under VOS, landowners could proactively offer eligible agricultural lands to the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) for purchase and redistribution, receiving incentives such as exemption from capital gains tax and an additional 5% cash payment beyond standard compensation.[28][18] The process required landowners to register offers within specified periods, followed by DAR valuation using guidelines from the Presidential Agrarian Reform Council (PARC), which considered local sales data and crop yields; accepted offers led to payment via the Land Bank of the Philippines (LBP) trust account, enabling DAR possession and title transfer to the Republic.[28] This mode facilitated faster implementation, as it bypassed disputes, though uptake was limited by landowners' preferences for higher private valuations.[18] VLT, also known as the direct payment scheme, allowed landowners to negotiate and transfer lands directly to qualified farmer-beneficiaries, bypassing full government intermediation, provided the agreement was approved by DAR and terms matched or exceeded government offers.[28][18] Initially restricted to submissions within the first year of CARP's implementation, this mechanism required mutual consent on price and conditions, with DAR ensuring beneficiary eligibility and equitable distribution; payments were financed through beneficiary amortizations to LBP over 30 years at 6% interest, offering a 2% rebate for punctual compliance.[28] VLT aimed to reduce administrative burdens but often encountered challenges from mismatched valuations and beneficiary identification delays.[18] Compulsory acquisition served as the default for lands not acquired voluntarily, enabling DAR to mandatorily expropriate excess holdings after identifying coverage via surveys and notices published in newspapers.[28][18] Landowners received a 15- to 30-day response period to accept or reject the DAR's valuation offer; rejection triggered administrative hearings or judicial appeals, with payment deposited into an LBP trust fund upon which DAR could take possession and secure transfer certificates of title.[28] Compensation across modes followed a formula blending cash (10-30% upfront, scaled by land size), LBP bonds redeemable over 10 years, stock shares in government corporations, or tax credits, ensuring landowners retained rights to improvements and crops at harvest.[18] Exemptions applied to lands over 18% slope, forests, or those vital for national development, preserving ecological and strategic priorities.[18]Beneficiary Selection and Support Services
Beneficiary selection under the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) is governed by Section 22 of Republic Act No. 6657, which prioritizes agricultural lessees and share tenants first, followed by regular farmworkers, seasonal farmworkers, other farmworkers, actual tillers or occupants of public lands, collective organizations of the above, and finally other individuals directly working on the land but not qualifying under prior categories.[29] Basic qualifications require beneficiaries to be Filipino citizens with the willingness, aptitude, and ability to cultivate the land productively; they must not own more than three hectares of agricultural land elsewhere and cannot be children of landowners or absentees.[30] The Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) holds authority for identification, screening, and selection, involving registration, validation of claims, and exclusion of disqualified parties such as those with prior land ownership exceeding limits or lacking tillage involvement.[31] Support services form a core component of CARP to enhance land productivity and beneficiary sustainability, including access to credit, farm inputs, extension services, and infrastructure like farm-to-market roads and irrigation systems.[32] The DAR's Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries Development Services Program (ARBDSP) specifically targets farm productivity improvement, organizational strengthening for agrarian reform beneficiary organizations (ARBOs), credit facilitation, and partnerships for food production.[33] Additional services encompass marketing assistance, technical training, and rural infrastructure development, often coordinated with foreign-assisted projects to address post-distribution challenges like low yields due to inadequate inputs.[34] Empirical assessments indicate these services are critical for viability, as land awards alone often fail without complementary credit and extension, with studies noting persistent poverty among beneficiaries lacking such support.[35]Implementation Timeline
Aquino Administration (1988–1992)
The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP), enacted through Republic Act No. 6657 on June 10, 1988, and effective from June 15, 1988, marked the Aquino administration's primary effort to redistribute approximately 10.3 million hectares of agricultural land to landless farmers and farmworkers over a 10-year period.[18][36] The law established mechanisms for voluntary offers to sell, compulsory acquisition, and stock distribution options, with an initial funding allocation of ₱50 billion to support land acquisition and beneficiary support services.[37] Implementation began under the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR), targeting both private agricultural lands (about 3.8 million hectares) and public domain lands (about 6.5 million hectares managed partly by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources).[36] From 1988 to 1992, CARP distributed approximately 2.2 million hectares nationwide, benefiting around 1.1 million agrarian reform beneficiaries (ARBs), achieving about 21.4% of the overall target.[36] However, the majority of distributed land consisted of government-owned or public domain areas, with private agricultural lands comprising only about one-fourth of the total, as compulsory acquisition of private holdings progressed minimally and no significant expropriations occurred in the first three years.[38][36] Regional variations were notable; for instance, Region I accomplished 49.9% of its targets, while Regions V and VI lagged at 7.5% and 9.5%, respectively, reflecting disparities in land availability and administrative capacity.[36] Support services, including credit and infrastructure, were provided to ARBs via Certificates of Land Ownership Awards (CLOAs), but delivery was uneven due to funding shortfalls, with the Agrarian Reform Fund remitting only 53% of projected amounts.[36] Implementation faced substantial obstacles, including bureaucratic delays from multi-agency coordination involving DAR, the Land Bank of the Philippines, and registries of deeds, which created backlogs in surveys, valuations, and title transfers.[36] Landowner resistance was acute, particularly through exemptions for agribusiness plantations (often via stock distribution) and legal challenges to valuations, which Executive Order 405 in 1990 shifted to the Land Bank, exacerbating delays for over 9,000 claim folders covering 127,000 hectares.[38][36] Leadership instability, with four DAR secretaries amid scandals, further slowed progress, while high transaction costs and incomplete land titling hindered voluntary transfers.[38] Despite these issues, innovations like the LISTASAKA system streamlined some processes, setting the stage for accelerated distribution in subsequent years, though critics noted the program's non-redistributive tilt toward public lands limited its impact on private tenancy inequities.[36][38]Ramos to Arroyo Administrations (1992–2009)
During the Ramos administration (1992–1998), the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) shifted focus toward accelerating land acquisition and distribution by prioritizing voluntary offers from landowners and establishing Agrarian Reform Communities (ARCs), which integrated land titles with credit, infrastructure, and technical support to improve beneficiary viability.[39] This approach aimed to address implementation bottlenecks from the Aquino era, with Secretary Ernesto Garilao emphasizing bundled services to sustain reform gains.[40] Cumulative land distribution under CARP reached approximately 4 million hectares by mid-1998, representing about 57% of the targeted private agricultural lands, though progress relied heavily on government-owned lands rather than contested private estates.[32] The Estrada administration (1998–2001) widened CARP coverage to additional landless peasants and fast-tracked acquisition processes, distributing 182,762 hectares during its tenure amid efforts to balance economic development with social equity in rural areas.[41] However, political instability, including Estrada's impeachment and ouster in January 2001, disrupted sustained momentum, with distribution relying on existing mechanisms like stock distribution options and leaseback arrangements that critics argued diluted direct ownership transfers.[32] Under the Arroyo administration (2001–2009), CARP implementation grappled with the program's original 1998 deadline extensions and mounting backlogs, as landowners increasingly pursued land use conversions to evade redistribution, with over 20,000 hectares of agricultural land converted annually in some periods.[42] The "Strong Republic" initiative distributed 250,000 hectares by emphasizing voluntary land transfers and agribusiness ventures, yet overall progress lagged targets due to legal challenges, underfunding, and preference for market-assisted mechanisms over compulsory acquisition.[43] By end-2002, cumulative distribution exceeded 5.82 million hectares benefiting around 3 million agrarian reform beneficiaries, though independent assessments highlighted discrepancies between notices of coverage and actual titled lands, with private haciendas remaining largely untouched.[37] Executive Order No. 151 in 2002 further promoted farmer cooperatives and credit access, but persistent elite resistance and inadequate support services limited effective tenure security.[44]CARPER Extension (2009–2014)
Republic Act No. 9700, known as the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Extension with Reforms (CARPER), was signed into law on August 7, 2009, by President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, extending the land acquisition and distribution provisions of the original Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) until June 30, 2014.[27] The legislation refined acquisition mechanisms by prioritizing compulsory processes for large estates, enhanced support services such as credit and infrastructure for beneficiaries, and imposed stricter penalties for violations including land conversions and corporate evasions.[45] It allocated funding from sources like the Agrarian Reform Fund, emphasizing completion of remaining targets covering private agricultural lands exceeding five hectares, public lands, and unsettled claims.[4] Under the extension, the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) intensified efforts amid the transition from the Arroyo to the Aquino administration in 2010, with President Benigno Aquino III committing in 2012 to distribute all remaining lands by the deadline, targeting approximately 962,000 hectares still undistributed at that point.[46] Annual accomplishments included 111,889 hectares distributed to 63,755 agrarian reform beneficiaries in 2011, contributing to cumulative CARP distributions approaching 4.8 million hectares by 2014.[47] In the first quarter of 2014 alone, DAR acquired and distributed 26,421 hectares, reducing the backlog but leaving over 513,000 hectares pending as the program expired.[48] Challenges during implementation included landowner resistance through legal injunctions and appeals, insufficient funding amid competing priorities, and delays in surveys and titling, which slowed progress below targets.[49] Bureaucratic hurdles and elite capture further hampered efficiency, as noted in congressional reviews, preventing full completion despite reforms.[50] Section 30 of RA 9700 allowed ongoing resolution of pre-2009 cases, enabling land distribution to continue selectively after June 30, 2014, though new acquisitions ceased.[51] By the period's end, CARPER had advanced coverage for hundreds of thousands of farmers but underscored persistent gaps in achieving equitable redistribution.[52]Intended Mechanisms and Operations
Distribution Targets and Coverage
The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP), established by Republic Act No. 6657 on June 10, 1988, set a national target of redistributing approximately 10.3 million hectares of agricultural land to qualified beneficiaries over an initial 10-year implementation period.[18][53] This scope encompassed both public and private lands, with distribution prioritized in phases to address immediate needs in staple crop areas while progressively covering broader agricultural holdings.[18] Covered lands included all alienable and disposable public domain areas devoted to or suitable for agriculture, irrespective of crops produced or location, as well as private agricultural lands exceeding owner retention limits of five hectares.[18] Private lands were subject to coverage regardless of tenurial status (e.g., tenanted or owner-operated) and commodity type, supplemented by government-foreclosed properties, idle or abandoned agricultural lands, and voluntary offers to sell.[18] Exclusions applied to non-agricultural classifications such as mineral lands, forests, residential, commercial, or industrial zones, ensuring focus on viable farming areas.[18] Phase One targeted rice and corn lands under prior decrees (e.g., Presidential Decree No. 27), idle lands, and voluntary offers within four years, while subsequent phases addressed larger private estates (over 50 hectares initially, then down to 24-hectare retention thresholds).[18] Eligible beneficiaries comprised landless farmers and regular farmworkers directly tilling the soil, with priority given to agricultural lessees and share tenants, followed by regular and seasonal farmworkers, other tillers, and qualified cooperatives or collectives.[18] Qualification required residency in the same barangay or municipality as the land, willingness and capacity to cultivate, and absence of prior land ownership beyond homestead limits.[18] Awards were limited to a maximum of three hectares per individual or family, distributable as contiguous tracts or multiple parcels, with provisions for collective ownership to promote viability on smaller or fragmented holdings.[18] This framework aimed to empower approximately 2.8 million potential recipients by transferring ownership while integrating support for production loans and services.[53]Financing and Compensation
The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) was financed through the Agrarian Reform Fund (ARF), initially established under Executive Order No. 229 and further detailed in Section 63 of Republic Act No. 6657 (1988). Funds were drawn from the national budget via continuing appropriations, proceeds from sales by the Asset Privatization Trust, receipts from the Presidential Commission on Good Government for recovered ill-gotten wealth, disposition of foreign country properties, official foreign grants and concessional financing, and other unappropriated government funds.[18] These sources supported land acquisition, distribution, and support services during the initial 10-year implementation period from 1988 to 1998. In 1998, Republic Act No. 8532 augmented funding by up to ₱50 billion from comparable sources, including asset sales and recovered assets, to extend CARP operations through 2008 and address implementation shortfalls.[54] [55] Compensation for acquired lands was administered by the Land Bank of the Philippines (LBP) in coordination with the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR), adhering to the principle of just compensation under Section 18 of RA 6657. Valuation incorporated multiple factors per Section 17, including the land's acquisition cost, current fair market value as reflected in tax declarations, assessed value, net income from the property, the owner's sworn valuation, and broader social and economic benefits to the nation.[18] Landowners received a cash portion scaled by holding size—25% for estates over 50 hectares, 30% for 24–50 hectares, and 35% for 24 hectares or less—with the remainder paid via negotiable government financial instruments or LBP bonds bearing market-determined interest rates, redeemable in cash or applicable to taxes, loans, or further land acquisitions.[18] Alternative options included shares of stock in government-owned or controlled corporations or tax credits convertible to cash. Voluntary offers to sell earned an additional 5% cash incentive under Section 19.[18] The LBP advanced compensation payments, which the government amortized over time, while agrarian reform beneficiaries repaid the government in 30 equal annual installments at 6% interest, with provisions for government assumption of mortgages up to the compensation value.[56] Despite these mechanisms, payment processes frequently encountered delays due to valuation disputes and funding constraints, resulting in protracted litigation; for instance, in the Hacienda Luisita case, courts in 2025 ordered ₱28.49 billion in compensation plus interest for 6,453 hectares expropriated in 1989, highlighting systemic lags in finalizing claims.[57] Such delays stemmed from discrepancies between initial DAR-LBP valuations and judicial reviews, often requiring supplemental interest computations from the date of taking.[58]Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries Development and Reform (ARBDR) Provisions
The Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries Development and Reform (ARBDR) provisions, primarily outlined in Republic Act No. 9700 (CARPER) enacted on August 7, 2009, emphasize integrated support services to enhance the productivity, organizational capacity, and economic viability of agrarian reform beneficiaries (ARBs). These provisions allocate at least 40% of annual agrarian reform appropriations to support services during the program's five-year extension, prioritizing credit facilities, infrastructure development, and technical assistance to transition ARBs from land recipients to sustainable farmers.[27] The Presidential Agrarian Reform Council (PARC) oversees implementation, ensuring services such as land titling, reduced-interest credit, and extension programs reach ARBs, with a focus on forming cooperatives for collective resource access.[27] Credit support constitutes 30% of support services funding, with one-third directed toward initial capitalization for new ARBs and two-thirds for ongoing needs of existing ones, administered through institutions like the Land Bank of the Philippines at concessional rates not exceeding 6% annually.[27] Training programs receive 5% of funds for seminars on farm management, technology adoption, and organizational skills, aiming to build ARB capacity for independent operations. Infrastructure initiatives include access roads, irrigation systems, post-harvest facilities, and marketing infrastructure, integrated with national development plans to link ARBs to markets.[27] Extension services promote technology transfer, including research on low-cost inputs like organic fertilizers, while the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) facilitates ARB organization and education to foster self-reliance.[27] Reform measures address gender equity, mandating equal access for rural women to credit, training, and participation in ARB organizations, with DAR required to establish a women's desk for grievance resolution and rights protection.[27] Provisions encourage subdivision of collective Certificates of Land Ownership Award (CLOAs) into individual titles to enhance tenure security and incentivize investment, though implementation has varied by region.[59] The Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries Development Sustainability Program (ARBDSP), administered by DAR's Bureau of Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries Development (BARBD), extends these efforts post-distribution, focusing on community viability through policy formulation, technical assistance, and empowerment initiatives for ARBs and their organizations.[60]| Key ARBDR Support Service Allocation (CARPER) | Percentage of Funds | Primary Focus |
|---|---|---|
| Credit Facilities | 30% | Concessional loans for capitalization and operations[27] |
| Training and Seminars | 5% | Capacity building in management and technology[27] |
| Infrastructure and Extension Services | Remaining balance | Roads, irrigation, market access, and tech transfer[27] |