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Covariant derivative

In differential geometry, the covariant derivative is a fundamental operator that extends the directional derivative to vector fields and tensor fields on a smooth manifold, incorporating the manifold's intrinsic geometry through an affine connection to ensure coordinate-independent differentiation.^[1] It measures the rate of change of a tensor field along a direction while accounting for the "twisting" of the manifold, defined abstractly by axioms including linearity in the vector argument, the Leibniz product rule for tensors, and compatibility with the manifold's structure in local coordinates via Christoffel symbols.^[1] For a vector field V along a curve c(t), the covariant derivative \frac{DV}{dt} satisfies \frac{D}{dt}(fV) = f'V + f\frac{DV}{dt} for scalar functions f and reduces to the ordinary directional derivative \nabla_{\dot{c}}X when V is the restriction of an ambient field X.^[1] The concept was pioneered by Tullio Levi-Civita in 1917, who introduced it in the context of parallel transport on Riemannian manifolds to define a notion of "straightness" (geodesics) and specify the Riemann curvature tensor geometrically.^[2] In a pseudo-Riemannian manifold (M, g), the unique torsion-free, metric-compatible connection—the Levi-Civita connection—provides the standard covariant derivative, satisfying \nabla g = 0 (metric compatibility) and T(X, Y) = \nabla_X Y - \nabla_Y X - [X, Y] = 0 (torsion-freeness), with explicit components given by Christoffel symbols \Gamma^k_{ij} = \frac{1}{2} g^{k\ell} (\partial_i g_{j\ell} + \partial_j g_{i\ell} - \partial_\ell g_{ij}).^[3] This structure enables parallel transport, where a vector field V along a curve satisfies \frac{DV}{dt} = 0, preserving lengths and angles isometrically.^[1]^[3] Beyond pure mathematics, the covariant derivative is indispensable in theoretical physics, particularly in general relativity, where it governs the motion of particles and fields on curved spacetime, with the Levi-Civita connection derived from the metric to describe gravitational effects without additional structures.^[4] It extends naturally to higher-rank tensors via the Leibniz rule, \nabla_X (T \otimes S) = (\nabla_X T) \otimes S + T \otimes (\nabla_X S), facilitating computations of curvature and other geometric invariants essential for understanding manifold topology and dynamics.^[5]

Historical Development

Origins in Riemannian Geometry

The foundations of the covariant derivative emerged from efforts to develop an intrinsic geometry for manifolds, independent of any embedding in Euclidean space. In his 1854 habilitation lecture at the University of Göttingen, titled "On the Hypotheses Which Lie at the Foundations of Geometry," Bernhard Riemann introduced the concept of an n-dimensional manifold equipped with a metric tensor, allowing for the study of curvature and distances solely through measurements within the manifold itself.^[6]^[7] This framework generalized Gaussian curvature to higher dimensions, emphasizing that geometric properties could be defined intrinsically without reference to an ambient space, thereby setting the stage for differentiation rules that respect the manifold's structure.^[6] Building on Riemann's ideas, Elwin Bruno Christoffel advanced the differentiation of vector fields on curved manifolds in his 1869 paper published in the Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik. Christoffel introduced symbols, now known as Christoffel symbols \Gamma^k_{ij}, which serve as coefficients to account for the variation of basis vectors along curved paths, enabling a consistent way to differentiate vectors while remaining tangent to the manifold.^[8] These symbols appear in Christoffel's formula for the difference between the directional derivative D_X Y and the covariant derivative \nabla_X Y of a vector field Y along a direction X, expressed in components as

(\nabla_X Y)^k - (D_X Y)^k = \Gamma^k_{ij} X^i Y^j,

where D_X Y = X^i \partial_i Y^k \partial_k represents the ordinary directional derivative projected onto the coordinate basis.^[9] This correction term encapsulates the geometry's curvature, ensuring the result stays within the tangent space.^[8] Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro further formalized these concepts within his development of absolute differential calculus, beginning around 1887 and culminating in key publications through 1900. In works such as his 1886 studies on hypersurfaces in Riemannian manifolds, Ricci introduced the operation of covariant differentiation as a means to generalize tensor manipulations invariant under coordinate changes, integrating Christoffel's symbols into a systematic framework for tensor analysis on curved spaces.^[10] This calculus provided the tools for handling derivatives that transform covariantly, laying the groundwork for broader applications in differential geometry.^[11]

Key Contributions and Evolution

In 1917, Tullio Levi-Civita introduced the concept of a torsion-free affine connection compatible with a given metric tensor, which uniquely determines the Levi-Civita covariant derivative on Riemannian manifolds. This formulation provided a rigorous geometric interpretation of parallel transport and differentiation, resolving ambiguities in earlier uses of Christoffel symbols for general coordinate systems. Building on this foundation in the 1920s, Élie Cartan integrated the covariant derivative into his method of moving frames, where he developed connection forms to describe affine connections in terms of differential forms on frame bundles. Cartan's approach generalized the Levi-Civita connection to spaces with arbitrary torsion and curvature, enabling a coordinate-free treatment that influenced subsequent developments in differential geometry. His key works from this period, such as those on generalized spaces of affine connection, emphasized the role of these forms in defining covariant differentiation for tensorial objects. The covariant derivative also played a pivotal role in physics during this era. In 1918, Hermann Weyl proposed a gauge theory of gravity and electromagnetism, where he extended the metric-compatible connection to include scale invariance, introducing a precursor to modern gauge covariant derivatives that transformed under local symmetries. This idea, though initially unsuccessful for unifying forces, laid groundwork for later gauge theories. Meanwhile, Albert Einstein's 1915 formulation of general relativity relied on the covariant derivative to express the field equations in a generally covariant manner, ensuring physical laws hold under arbitrary coordinate transformations. Post-World War II advancements, beginning in the 1940s, saw the covariant derivative integrated into algebraic geometry and fiber bundle theory. Shiing-Shen Chern and André Weil developed the Chern-Weil theory of characteristic classes, using connections and their curvatures to define topological invariants of vector bundles, bridging differential geometry with algebraic topology.^[12] Concurrently, Jean-Pierre Serre and others incorporated connections into the study of coherent sheaves and algebraic vector bundles, facilitating the computation of cohomology groups and advancing the Grothendieck reformulation of algebraic geometry. These efforts established the covariant derivative as a central tool in modern bundle theory, with applications extending to complex manifolds and holomorphic structures.

Motivation and Intuitive Understanding

Limitations of Partial Derivatives on Manifolds

In the context of manifolds, partial derivatives of tensor fields fail to yield tensorial objects because they implicitly assume that the basis vectors associated with the coordinate system remain constant across the space. On a curved manifold, however, the basis vectors vary with position, leading to changes in the components of tensor fields that are not captured by ordinary differentiation. This results in expressions that transform non-tensorially under coordinate changes, meaning they depend on the specific choice of coordinates rather than intrinsic geometric properties.^[13] A concrete illustration of this limitation occurs on the sphere, where coordinates such as latitude and longitude are used. Differentiating a vector field, such as one representing wind velocity tangent to the surface, using partial derivatives with respect to these angular coordinates produces results that are not invariant under rotations of the sphere. For instance, the apparent rate of change of the vector's components alters if the coordinate grid is rotated, reflecting the varying orientation of the coordinate basis rather than a true geometric derivative.^[14] The issue arises explicitly in the transformation law for the partial derivative of a vector field under a coordinate change x' = x'(x). The components transform as

\partial_i' V'^j = \frac{\partial x^k}{\partial x'^i} \frac{\partial x'^j}{\partial x^l} \partial_k V^l + V^l \frac{\partial^2 x'^j}{\partial x'^i \partial x^l},

where the second term is an extraneous contribution that violates the tensor transformation rule, introducing coordinate-dependent artifacts.^[13] This non-tensorial behavior motivated the development of Ricci's absolute differential calculus in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which introduced covariant differentiation to ensure invariance and facilitate calculations on manifolds independent of coordinate choices.^[15]

Geometric Interpretation via Parallel Transport

In differential geometry, parallel transport provides a geometric means to move tangent vectors along curves on a manifold while preserving their "direction" relative to the manifold's structure. Specifically, a vector field V along a curve c: (a, b) \to M is said to be parallel if its components remain constant in a natural frame adapted to the curve, meaning the transport does not introduce any rotation or shear beyond the manifold's intrinsic geometry.^[1] This process is defined such that the covariant derivative along the curve vanishes, ensuring the vector is transported without deviation from this constant-component condition.^[1] The covariant derivative \nabla_X Y of a vector field Y in the direction of X geometrically measures the extent to which Y fails to be parallel transported along the integral curves of X. In other words, it quantifies the infinitesimal change in Y relative to the parallel transport rule, capturing how the manifold's curvature causes vectors to evolve as they are moved.^[1] Visually, this is analogous to keeping a vector "level" while traversing a hilly surface: unlike simply dragging the vector (which would ignore the terrain's slope), parallel transport adjusts the vector to stay aligned with the local tangent plane, and the covariant derivative tracks any necessary correction due to the hills' twists.^[16] A striking example occurs on the unit sphere S^2, where parallel transporting a tangent vector around a closed loop, such as a latitude circle at colatitude \theta_0 < \pi/2, results in holonomy—a net rotation of the vector upon return to the starting point. This rotation angle is $2\pi (1 - \cos \theta_0), directly quantifying the sphere's Gaussian curvature through the path dependence of the transport.^[17] In the infinitesimal limit along a curve parameterized by arc length s, parallel transport satisfies \frac{dV}{ds} \big|_{\parallel} = 0, so the covariant derivative \nabla_V V = 0 precisely characterizes geodesics as curves where the tangent vector is parallel to itself.^[1]

Informal Approaches

Embedding into Euclidean Space

One informal approach to constructing the covariant derivative on a Riemannian manifold M involves embedding M isometrically as a submanifold into a higher-dimensional Euclidean space \mathbb{R}^n via a smooth map F: M \to \mathbb{R}^n.^[18] This embedding allows the use of standard differentiation in the ambient flat space, followed by projection back to the tangent space of M. To define the covariant derivative \nabla_X Y of a vector field Y on M in the direction of another vector field X at a point p \in M, first extend Y to a smooth vector field Y^\text{ext} on an open neighborhood of F(p) in \mathbb{R}^n. The covariant derivative is then the orthogonal projection onto the tangent space T_{F(p)}M of the ambient directional derivative:

\nabla_X Y = \proj_{T_{F(p)}M} \left( dY^\text{ext}(F(p)) (X) \right),

where dY^\text{ext}(F(p)) denotes the differential of Y^\text{ext} at F(p), and the projection ensures the result remains tangent to M.^[19]^[18] This construction is particularly intuitive for visualizing the covariant derivative on surfaces embedded in \mathbb{R}^3. For a surface M \subset \mathbb{R}^3 with unit normal \nu(p) at p \in M, the projection operator is \Pi(p) = I - \nu(p) \nu(p)^T, so \nabla_X Y(p) = \Pi(p) \, dY^\text{ext}(p) X, which isolates the tangential component of the Euclidean derivative of the extended field.^[19] For instance, on the unit sphere S^2 \subset \mathbb{R}^3, this yields the tangential part of the ordinary derivative, aligning the change in a vector field with the sphere's intrinsic geometry rather than its extrinsic curvature in \mathbb{R}^3.^[19] While effective for submanifolds of Euclidean space, this embedding method does not apply directly to general abstract Riemannian manifolds, as not all such manifolds admit isometric embeddings into \mathbb{R}^n for finite n.^[18] It underscores the distinction between extrinsic geometry (dependent on the ambient embedding) and intrinsic geometry (independent of it), where quantities like the covariant derivative can be defined solely on M without reference to \mathbb{R}^n.^[19] This perspective traces back to Carl Friedrich Gauss's foundational work on surfaces, where in his 1827 paper Disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas, he established the Theorema Egregium, proving that the Gaussian curvature of a surface is an intrinsic invariant that can be computed from the metric without relying on its embedding in Euclidean space.^[20]

Vector Bundle Perspective

The tangent bundle TM of a smooth manifold M is a vector bundle over M, where each fiber T_p M consists of tangent vectors at point p \in M, and smooth sections of TM correspond precisely to vector fields on M.^[21] This perspective frames the covariant derivative as a tool for differentiating these sections in a manner compatible with the bundle's geometry, allowing comparison of vectors across different fibers without a global trivialization.^[22] A connection on the vector bundle E \to M (such as TM) provides a covariant differentiation operator by splitting the tangent space TE at each point into a direct sum of horizontal and vertical subbundles, TE = HE \oplus VE, where the vertical subbundle VE is tangent to the fibers and the horizontal subbundle HE defines directions of "parallel" transport.^[21] For a curve \gamma(t) in M, the horizontal lift to a path \tilde{\gamma}(t) in E ensures that a section along \gamma remains parallel if its derivative lies entirely in the horizontal direction, enabling the covariant derivative \nabla_X s of a section s along a vector X to extract the vertical component of the pushforward Ts(X).^[22] In the case of a trivial bundle, such as the tangent bundle over \mathbb{R}^n, the connection reduces to the ordinary directional derivative, as fibers can be globally identified via a constant frame.^[21] However, for nontrivial bundles like the tangent bundle of the Möbius strip, the topology introduces twisting, where parallel transport around a non-contractible loop fails to return to the starting vector, manifesting as a holonomy that the connection must account for.^[22] This setup aligns with the notion of an Ehresmann connection, which specifies the horizontal subspaces as a smooth distribution complementary to the vertical one, allowing differentiation of sections while respecting the bundle's structure.^[21] The curvature of the connection then arises as the obstruction to flatness, measuring how the horizontal distribution fails to integrate to a global foliation and capturing the intrinsic twisting in the bundle's geometry through the non-commutativity of iterated covariant derivatives.^[22]

Formal Definition

Affine Connections on Manifolds

In differential geometry, the study of affine connections begins with the foundational structures of smooth manifolds. A smooth manifold M is a topological space that locally resembles Euclidean space and is equipped with a smooth structure, allowing for the definition of differentiable functions and maps. The tangent bundle TM \to M is the disjoint union of all tangent spaces T_p M at points p \in M, where each T_p M is a vector space isomorphic to \mathbb{R}^n for \dim M = n. Smooth vector fields on M are sections of the tangent bundle, denoted \Gamma(TM), which can be viewed as derivations on the ring of smooth functions C^\infty(M) satisfying the Leibniz rule for products.^[23] An affine connection on a smooth manifold M is a bilinear map \nabla: \Gamma(TM) \times \Gamma(TM) \to \Gamma(TM) that satisfies linearity in both arguments over \mathbb{R} and the Leibniz rule for scalar multiplication by smooth functions f \in C^\infty(M). Specifically, for vector fields X, Y \in \Gamma(TM),

\nabla_{fX} Y = f \nabla_X Y, \quad \nabla_X (f Y) = (X f) Y + f \nabla_X Y.

This structure provides a way to differentiate vector fields along directions specified by other vector fields, generalizing the notion of directional derivatives in Euclidean space.^[23]^[24] The operation of the connection is commonly denoted by \nabla_X Y or sometimes X \cdot Y, emphasizing its role in directional differentiation. Affine connections axiomatically capture the idea of parallel transport along curves on the manifold, where a vector field is parallel if its covariant derivative vanishes along the curve's tangent direction. In the general setting, an affine connection extends to any smooth vector bundle E \to M as a map \nabla: \Gamma(TM) \times \Gamma(E) \to \Gamma(E) satisfying the same linearity and Leibniz properties for sections \sigma \in \Gamma(E): \nabla_{fX} \sigma = f \nabla_X \sigma and \nabla_X (f \sigma) = (X f) \sigma + f \nabla_X \sigma.^[25]^[26] On a Riemannian manifold (M, g), where g is a smooth metric tensor, there exists a unique affine connection \nabla that is both torsion-free and metric-compatible, meaning \nabla g = 0. This unique connection is known as the Levi-Civita connection, which uniquely determines the geometry compatible with the metric.^[27]^[28]

Covariant Derivative of Vector Fields

The covariant derivative provides a means to differentiate vector fields on a manifold, accounting for the geometry via an affine connection. For vector fields X and Y on a smooth manifold M, the covariant derivative \nabla_X Y represents the directional derivative of Y in the direction of X, producing another vector field tangent to M. This operation satisfies the axioms of an affine connection, such as \mathbb{R}-linearity in both arguments and the Leibniz rule \nabla_X (f Y) = (X f) Y + f \nabla_X Y for smooth functions f: M \to \mathbb{R}. In abstract terms, the local expression of \nabla_X Y involves differentiating the components of Y with respect to a varying local basis of the tangent spaces, adjusted by the connection coefficients to ensure the result lies in the appropriate tangent space. This adjustment is crucial on curved manifolds, where tangent spaces at different points are not canonically identified, unlike in flat space. For instance, on \mathbb{R}^n equipped with the flat connection (where connection coefficients vanish), \nabla_X Y reduces precisely to the ordinary directional derivative D_X Y = \sum_i (X Y^i) \partial_i, matching the standard calculus of vector fields in Euclidean space. A key application arises in the study of curves on the manifold: a curve \gamma: I \to M is a geodesic if its velocity vector field satisfies the geodesic equation \nabla_{\dot{\gamma}} \dot{\gamma} = 0, defining "straight lines" that locally minimize distance and generalize Euclidean lines to curved spaces. This equation encodes the intrinsic geometry, with solutions depending on the connection. The covariant derivative interacts with the Lie bracket of vector fields, which measures their non-commutativity via [X, Y] f = X(Y f) - Y(X f) for functions f. In general, \nabla_X Y - \nabla_Y X \neq [X, Y]; the difference is captured by the torsion tensor of the connection, which vanishes for torsion-free connections like the Levi-Civita connection on Riemannian manifolds.

Extension to Other Fields

Covariant Derivative of Covector Fields

The covariant derivative extends naturally to covector fields, or 1-forms, on a smooth manifold equipped with an affine connection \nabla. For a 1-form \omega and vector fields X, Y on the manifold, the covariant derivative \nabla_X \omega is defined to be the 1-form satisfying

(\nabla_X \omega)(Y) = X(\omega(Y)) - \omega(\nabla_X Y)

for all vector fields Y.^[29] This definition ensures that the covariant derivative respects the duality between vector fields and covector fields, allowing the differentiation of linear functionals on the tangent spaces in a manner consistent with the connection's parallel transport.^[29] This extension preserves the Leibniz rule for tensor products of covector fields. Specifically, for 1-forms \omega and \eta, the covariant derivative satisfies

\nabla_X (\omega \otimes \eta) = (\nabla_X \omega) \otimes \eta + \omega \otimes (\nabla_X \eta).

^[29] This property maintains the bilinear structure of tensor operations under differentiation, enabling the consistent application of the covariant derivative to more general tensor fields derived from covectors. In local coordinates (x^i) on the manifold, where \omega = \omega_j \, dx^j, the components of the covariant derivative \nabla_i \omega are given by

(\nabla_i \omega)_j = \partial_i \omega_j - \Gamma^k_{ij} \omega_k,

with \Gamma^k_{ij} denoting the Christoffel symbols of the connection.^[29] This expression accounts for the transformation of covector components under changes in coordinate basis, subtracting the connection terms to yield a tensorial object. In the context of a Riemannian manifold with metric tensor g, metric compatibility of the connection (\nabla g = 0) implies that the covariant derivative of g vanishes, leading to

(\nabla_X g)(Y, Z) = g(\nabla_X Y, Z) + g(Y, \nabla_X Z)

for all vector fields X, Y, Z.^[30] Since g is a (0,2)-tensor built from covectors, this relation highlights how the covariant derivative of covector fields underlies the preservation of the metric's inner product structure along directional derivatives. For torsion-free connections, such as the Levi-Civita connection, the exterior derivative d\omega of a 1-form \omega relates directly to the covariant derivative via the alternation operator: d\omega = \mathrm{Alt}(\nabla \omega).^[31] This connection demonstrates how the antisymmetric part of \nabla \omega captures the intrinsic differential structure of the 1-form, independent of the connection's symmetric contributions.^[31]

Generalization to Tensor Fields

A tensor field of type (k, l) on a smooth manifold is a smooth section of the (k, l)-tensor bundle, assigning to each point p in the manifold a multilinear map T_p: (T_p^* M)^{\otimes k} \times (T_p M)^{\otimes l} \to \mathbb{R}, where T_p^* M denotes the cotangent space at p.^[32] This generalizes vector fields as (1, 0)-tensors and covector fields as (0, 1)-tensors, allowing the covariant derivative to extend naturally to arbitrary tensor fields while preserving their multilinear structure under parallel transport.^[32] The extension of the covariant derivative to a type (k, l) tensor field T along a vector field X follows the pattern established for vectors and covectors: for each contravariant (upper) index, a positive connection term is added, and for each covariant (lower) index, a negative term is subtracted, ensuring compatibility with the Leibniz rule and tensor transformation laws.^[32] In local coordinates, where \Gamma^i_{jk} are the Christoffel symbols of the connection, the components of the covariant derivative (\nabla_X T)^{i_1 \dots i_k}_{j_1 \dots j_l} are given by

(\nabla_X T)^{i_1 \dots i_k}_{j_1 \dots j_l} = X(T^{i_1 \dots i_k}_{j_1 \dots j_l}) + \sum_{m=1}^k \Gamma^{i_m}_{p \, X} T^{\dots p \dots}_{j_1 \dots j_l} - \sum_{n=1}^l \Gamma^q_{j_n \, X} T^{i_1 \dots i_k}_{\dots q \dots},

with the sums replacing the m-th upper index and n-th lower index, respectively.^[32] This formula guarantees that \nabla_X T is a tensor field of type (k, l+1), transforming correctly under coordinate changes, unlike the partial derivative which fails to do so on curved manifolds.^[32] For scalar fields, which are type (0, 0) tensors, the covariant derivative reduces to the directional derivative: \nabla_X f = X f.^[32] The covector case, as a special instance of (0, 1)-tensors, applies the rule with a single negative Christoffel term. A key application is the Hessian of a scalar function f, defined as the (0, 2)-tensor \nabla^2 f(Y, Z) = (\nabla_Y \nabla f)(Z) = Y(Z f) - (\nabla_Y Z) f, where Y and Z are vector fields.^[33] For the Levi-Civita connection, the Hessian is symmetric, satisfying \nabla^2 f(Y, Z) = \nabla^2 f(Z, Y), reflecting the torsion-free property of the connection.^[33]

Coordinate Description

Expression in Local Coordinates

In a smooth manifold equipped with an affine connection, the expression for the covariant derivative in local coordinates (x^1, \dots, x^n) takes a concrete form using the Christoffel symbols \Gamma^i_{jk}, which are the connection coefficients with respect to the coordinate basis \{\partial_i\}. For a vector field Y = Y^i \partial_i, the covariant derivative along a basis vector field is

\nabla_{\partial_j} Y = \left( \partial_j Y^i + \Gamma^i_{jk} Y^k \right) \partial_i,

where summation over repeated indices is implied, and \partial_j = \partial / \partial x^j. This formula corrects the ordinary partial derivative for the variation in the basis vectors induced by the connection.^[34] The general case for an arbitrary vector field X = X^j \partial_j follows by linearity:

\nabla_X Y = \left( X^j \partial_j Y^i + \Gamma^i_{jk} X^j Y^k \right) \partial_i.

This expression, originally developed in the context of absolute differential calculus, allows computation of how vector fields change along arbitrary directions while respecting the manifold's geometry.^[35] The covariant derivative extends naturally to covector fields and higher-rank tensors via the Leibniz rule and linearity. For a covector field \omega = \omega_i \, dx^i, it is

\nabla_{\partial_j} \omega = \left( \partial_j \omega_i - \Gamma^k_{ji} \omega_k \right) dx^i.

Note the sign change in the connection term compared to the vector case, reflecting the dual nature of covectors. For a general tensor field of type (r,s), the formula involves the partial derivative plus +\Gamma terms for each of the r contravariant indices and -\Gamma terms for each of the s covariant indices. As an illustrative example, for a (1,1)-tensor T = T^i_j \, \partial_i \otimes dx^j,

\nabla_{\partial_k} T = \left( \partial_k T^i_j + \Gamma^i_{kl} T^l_j - \Gamma^l_{kj} T^i_l \right) \partial_i \otimes dx^j.

These expressions ensure the covariant derivative behaves tensorially under contractions and tensor products.^[36] Under a change of local coordinates from x to x', the Christoffel symbols do not transform as a tensor, but their specific transformation law guarantees the tensoriality of the overall covariant derivative. The formula is

\Gamma'^i_{jk} = \frac{\partial x^p}{\partial x'^i} \frac{\partial x'^j}{\partial x^q} \frac{\partial x'^k}{\partial x^r} \Gamma^p_{qr} + \frac{\partial x^p}{\partial x'^i} \frac{\partial^2 x'^j}{\partial x^q \partial x^r} \frac{\partial x^q}{\partial x'^k},

where primes denote quantities in the new coordinates. The first term resembles a tensor transformation, while the second accounts for the second derivatives arising from the coordinate change. This non-tensorial behavior of \Gamma is essential for defining a consistent derivative operator across charts.^[21]

Role of Christoffel Symbols

The Christoffel symbols of the second kind, denoted \Gamma^i_{jk}, represent the connection coefficients of an affine connection \nabla with respect to a local coordinate basis \{\partial/\partial x^j\} on a smooth manifold. Specifically, they are defined by the relation \nabla_{\partial/\partial x^j} \partial/\partial x^k = \Gamma^i_{jk} \partial/\partial x^i, which encodes how the connection differentiates basis vectors. Introduced by Elwin Bruno Christoffel in his 1869 paper on the transformation of quadratic differential forms, these symbols provide a coordinate-based description of the connection but are not tensorial objects; under a coordinate transformation x \to x', they transform as \Gamma'^i_{jk} = \frac{\partial x'^i}{\partial x^l} \frac{\partial x^m}{\partial x'^j} \frac{\partial x^n}{\partial x'^k} \Gamma^l_{mn} + \frac{\partial x'^i}{\partial x^l} \frac{\partial^2 x^l}{\partial x'^j \partial x'^k}, incorporating second derivatives that prevent tensor transformation properties. On a Riemannian manifold (M, g) equipped with a metric tensor g_{ij}, the Levi-Civita connection is the unique affine connection that is both torsion-free and compatible with the metric, meaning \nabla g = 0. The Christoffel symbols for this connection are computed explicitly as

\Gamma^i_{jk} = \frac{1}{2} g^{il} \left( \partial_j g_{kl} + \partial_k g_{jl} - \partial_l g_{jk} \right),

where g^{il} is the inverse metric and \partial_j denotes partial differentiation with respect to x^j. This formula arises from solving the conditions of metric compatibility, which implies \partial_j g_{ik} = \Gamma^l_{ji} g_{lk} + \Gamma^l_{jk} g_{il}, and vanishing torsion, combined via cyclic summation and substitution. The resulting symbols satisfy \Gamma^i_{jk} = \Gamma^i_{kj}, reflecting the torsion-free property.^[37] For the Levi-Civita connection, the Christoffel symbols vanish in Cartesian coordinates on the Euclidean space \mathbb{R}^n with the standard flat metric g_{ij} = \delta_{ij}, since the metric components are constant and all partial derivatives \partial_j g_{kl} = 0. In curved spaces, however, they capture the geometry; for instance, on the unit 2-sphere S^2 with spherical coordinates (\theta, \phi) and metric ds^2 = d\theta^2 + \sin^2 \theta \, d\phi^2, the non-vanishing symbols are \Gamma^\theta_{\phi\phi} = -\sin\theta \cos\theta and \Gamma^\phi_{\theta\phi} = \Gamma^\phi_{\phi\theta} = \cot\theta, computed directly from the formula using g_{\theta\theta} = 1, g_{\phi\phi} = \sin^2\theta.^[37] For general affine connections, the Christoffel symbols \Gamma^i_{jk} need not be symmetric in the lower indices. The torsion tensor T, measuring the failure of the connection to be torsion-free, is defined by T(X,Y) = \nabla_X Y - \nabla_Y X - [X,Y] for vector fields X, Y; in coordinates, where the Lie bracket [\partial_j, \partial_k] = 0, its components are T^i_{jk} = \Gamma^i_{jk} - \Gamma^i_{kj}. Thus, arbitrary choices of \Gamma^i_{jk} allow for non-zero torsion, generalizing beyond the Levi-Civita case while still serving as the local representation of the connection.^[37]

Properties and Algebraic Structure

Basic Properties (Linearity, Leibniz Rule)

The covariant derivative exhibits bilinearity over the real numbers in both of its arguments. For real scalars a, b \in \mathbb{R}, vector fields X, Y, and a tensor field Z, it satisfies

\nabla_{aX + bY} Z = a \nabla_X Z + b \nabla_Y Z

and

\nabla_X (aZ + bW) = a \nabla_X Z + b \nabla_X W

for another tensor field W.^[38]^[39] This linearity ensures that the covariant derivative behaves as a linear map between appropriate tensor bundles, preserving the vector space structure over \mathbb{R}.^[40] A fundamental property is the Leibniz rule, which extends the product rule from ordinary differentiation to tensor fields. For tensor fields S and T of arbitrary type, and a vector field X,

\nabla_X (S \otimes T) = (\nabla_X S) \otimes T + S \otimes (\nabla_X T).

^[38]^[40]^[39] In the special case of a smooth function f (a scalar field) and a vector field Y,

\nabla_X (f Y) = (X f) Y + f \nabla_X Y,

where X f is the directional derivative of f along X.^[38] This rule underscores the covariant derivative's role as a derivation on the algebra of tensor fields.^[39] The covariant derivative is compatible with tensor contractions, meaning it commutes with the operation of contracting indices. For a tensor field T with components T^\alpha{}_\alpha (sum over repeated index),

\nabla_\beta (T^\alpha{}_\alpha) = (\nabla_\beta T)^\alpha{}_\alpha,

ensuring that contractions of the differentiated tensor yield the same result as differentiating after contraction.^[38]^[39] This property preserves the trace and other invariant operations under differentiation.^[40] In flat Euclidean space \mathbb{R}^n equipped with the standard flat connection (where Christoffel symbols vanish in Cartesian coordinates), the covariant derivative reduces to the ordinary partial derivative operator on tensor components.^[41]^[38] For covector fields (differential forms), this specializes further, aligning with the exterior derivative d in the sense that the antisymmetrized covariant derivative recovers d on forms.^[38]^[39] On a Riemannian manifold (M, g), there exists a unique affine connection \nabla that is both torsion-free and compatible with the metric g (i.e., \nabla g = 0).^[38]^[40]^[39] This unique connection is the Levi-Civita connection, which satisfies the metric compatibility condition \nabla_\alpha g_{\beta\gamma} = 0 and ensures parallel transport preserves lengths and angles.^[38] The uniqueness follows from solving the system of partial differential equations imposed by these conditions on the connection coefficients.^[40]

Torsion and Curvature Tensors

The torsion tensor associated to an affine connection \nabla on a manifold is defined by

T(X, Y) = \nabla_X Y - \nabla_Y X - [X, Y]

for vector fields X and Y, yielding a tensor field of type (1,2).^[41] This tensor quantifies the antisymmetric part of the connection and vanishes identically for the Levi-Civita connection induced by a pseudo-Riemannian metric, ensuring compatibility with the metric and absence of "twist" in parallel transport.^[42] The curvature tensor of the connection is defined by

R(X, Y) Z = \nabla_X \nabla_Y Z - \nabla_Y \nabla_X Z - \nabla_{[X, Y]} Z

for vector fields X, Y, and Z, resulting in a tensor field of type (1,3).^[41] In local coordinates \{x^i\}, the components of the curvature tensor, expressed in terms of the Christoffel symbols \Gamma^i_{jk}, take the form

R^i_{jkl} = \partial_k \Gamma^i_{lj} - \partial_l \Gamma^i_{kj} + \Gamma^i_{km} \Gamma^m_{lj} - \Gamma^i_{lm} \Gamma^m_{kj}.

^[43] These components capture the nonlinear obstruction to the connection being flat, extending the linear structure of the connection itself. The curvature tensor satisfies two fundamental Bianchi identities. The first Bianchi identity is the algebraic relation obtained by cyclic summation over its lower indices:

R(X, Y) Z + R(Y, Z) X + R(Z, X) Y = 0,

which holds when the connection is torsion-free and reflects the cyclic symmetry inherent in the geometry.^[44] The second Bianchi identity is a differential constraint:

\nabla_X R(Y, Z) W + \nabla_Y R(Z, X) W + \nabla_Z R(X, Y) W = 0,

whose appropriate contraction yields \nabla^k \mathrm{Ric}_{k j} = \frac{1}{2} \nabla_j [R](/page/R), where [R](/page/R) is the Ricci scalar; this implies the vanishing divergence of the Einstein tensor \nabla^\mu [G_{\mu\nu}](/page/Einstein_tensor) = 0, crucial for conservation laws in gravitational theories.^[44]^[41] Geometrically, the torsion tensor measures the path-dependence in the construction of infinitesimal parallelograms via parallel transport: for vectors X and Y, T(X, Y) gives the closure failure when transporting Y along X and vice versa, indicating a "screw-like" deviation from metric compatibility./05%3A_Curvature/5.09%3A_Torsion) The curvature tensor, in the context of an Ehresmann connection on a principal bundle, assesses the integrability of the horizontal distribution: vanishing curvature implies the horizontal subbundle is integrable (by Frobenius theorem), allowing local trivializations without holonomy obstructions.^[45]

Specialized Applications

Derivative Along a Curve

In differential geometry, the covariant derivative can be specialized to differentiation along a smooth curve \gamma: I \to M on a manifold M equipped with a connection \nabla. For a vector field V defined along \gamma, the covariant derivative along the curve is given by \frac{\nabla V}{dt} = \nabla_{\dot{\gamma}(t)} V, where \dot{\gamma}(t) = \frac{d\gamma}{dt} is the tangent vector to the curve; this is often termed the total covariant derivative and measures the rate of change of V relative to the connection as one moves along \gamma.^[46] A vector field V along \gamma is said to be parallel if \frac{\nabla V}{dt} = 0 at every point, which corresponds to parallel transport of vectors along the curve. In local coordinates, this condition yields a system of linear ordinary differential equations (ODEs): \frac{dV^i}{dt} + \Gamma^i_{jk}(\gamma(t)) V^j \dot{\gamma}^k = 0, where \Gamma^i_{jk} are the Christoffel symbols of the connection; the unique solution starting from an initial vector V(0) at t=0 is given by the parallel transport map, which in general can be expressed via the path-ordered exponential of the pulled-back connection form along the curve.^[46] This transport preserves the inner product induced by the metric when \nabla is metric-compatible, enabling consistent comparison of vectors at different points along \gamma.^[1] In the context of general relativity, for non-geodesic timelike curves (such as worldlines of accelerated observers), the standard parallel transport is modified to Fermi-Walker transport to account for physical non-rotation and preserve orthogonality of spatial frames relative to the velocity vector. The Fermi-Walker derivative along a curve with four-velocity u^\mu and acceleration a^\mu is \frac{D_F V^\mu}{d\tau} = \frac{\nabla V^\mu}{d\tau} + (V \cdot a) u^\mu - (V \cdot u) a^\mu, where \tau is proper time; vectors satisfying \frac{D_F V^\mu}{d\tau} = 0 define non-rotating frames, as realized by idealized gyroscopes.^[47] This variant ensures that scalar products between transported vectors remain constant, crucial for maintaining physical orientations in curved spacetime.^[48] A key example arises in the study of geodesics, the "straightest" curves where the tangent vector \dot{\gamma} is parallel along itself, satisfying \frac{\nabla \dot{\gamma}}{dt} = 0. In coordinates, this geodesic equation takes the form \ddot{\gamma}^i + \Gamma^i_{jk}(\gamma) \dot{\gamma}^j \dot{\gamma}^k = 0, describing the acceleration-free motion under the connection.^[49] Applications of covariant derivatives along curves include solving for Jacobi fields, which are vector fields J along a geodesic \gamma satisfying the Jacobi equation \frac{\nabla^2 J}{dt^2} = R(\dot{\gamma}, J) \dot{\gamma}, where R is the Riemann curvature tensor; this reduces to \frac{\nabla^2 J}{dt^2} = 0 in flat space and generalizes the notion via the connection and curvature; these fields quantify the infinitesimal separation between nearby geodesics in a variation, providing a measure of how curves diverge or converge along \gamma.^[50]

Relation to Lie Derivative

The Lie derivative and the covariant derivative are both differential operators on tensor fields over a manifold, but they differ fundamentally in their construction and interpretation. The Lie derivative \mathcal{L}_X T of a tensor field T along a vector field X measures the rate of change of T under the infinitesimal flow generated by X, without requiring any additional geometric structure like a connection. In contrast, the covariant derivative \nabla_X T relies on a linear connection to define parallel transport, ensuring that the result remains a tensor of the same type, independent of coordinate choices. This distinction is particularly evident for vector fields, where the Lie derivative \mathcal{L}_X Y = [X, Y] for vector fields X and Y captures the commutator, while the covariant derivative \nabla_X Y incorporates the connection's Christoffel symbols to account for the manifold's geometry.^[51]^[4] A key relation between the two operators arises when expressing the Lie derivative of a vector field in terms of the covariant derivative. In general, for any linear connection with torsion tensor T, the formula is

\mathcal{L}_X Y = \nabla_X Y - \nabla_Y X - T(X, Y),

where the torsion term T(X, Y) accounts for the antisymmetric part of the connection. This identity links the intrinsic commutator [X, Y] to the symmetric aspects of the connection, highlighting how torsion measures the failure of the covariant derivative to commute in a way that matches the Lie bracket exactly.^[51] In the common case of a torsion-free connection, such as the Levi-Civita connection on a Riemannian manifold, the torsion vanishes (T = 0), simplifying the relation to

\mathcal{L}_X Y = \nabla_X Y - \nabla_Y X.

Here, the Lie derivative emerges as an antisymmetrized combination of covariant derivatives, emphasizing its role in capturing directional changes without net torsion effects.^[52]^[4] For general tensor fields, the Lie derivative acts as a derivation, satisfying the Leibniz rule \mathcal{L}_X (T \otimes S) = (\mathcal{L}_X T) \otimes S + T \otimes (\mathcal{L}_X S), but it does not inherently preserve tensor type without a connection; its coordinate expression involves partial derivatives and adjustments for the flow. The covariant derivative, however, is defined to map tensors to tensors of one higher rank, preserving the multilinear structure intrinsically through the connection's action on each index. This difference is illustrated in flat Euclidean space, where the connection vanishes, and both operators reduce to ordinary partial derivatives: (\nabla_X Y)^j = X^i \partial_i Y^j and \mathcal{L}_X Y = X^i \partial_i Y - Y^i \partial_i X, coinciding with the Lie bracket in Cartesian coordinates. On a curved manifold, the Lie derivative measures the deformation of tensor fields under the flow of X, reflecting how the field is "dragged" along integral curves, whereas the covariant derivative quantifies intrinsic changes relative to parallel transport, independent of the specific flow.^[4]^[52] When a metric tensor g is present, the Koszul formula provides a specific link via the connection's compatibility. For a torsion-free connection that is not necessarily metric-compatible, the Lie derivative of the metric along X satisfies

(\mathcal{L}_X g)(Y, Z) = (\nabla_X g)(Y, Z) + g(\nabla_Y X, Z) + g(Y, \nabla_Z X),

where the first term captures deviations from metric compatibility. In the standard case of a metric-compatible connection (e.g., Levi-Civita, where \nabla g = 0), this reduces to

\mathcal{L}_X g = 2\, g(\nabla_{(X} \cdot, \cdot)),

or in components, \mathcal{L}_X g_{\mu\nu} = \nabla_\mu X_\nu + \nabla_\nu X_\mu, symmetrizing the lowered covariant derivative of X. This relation underscores how the Lie derivative detects symmetries preserving the metric (Killing vector fields satisfy \mathcal{L}_X g = 0), while the covariant derivative enforces compatibility in geometric equations.^[52]^[53] In physical applications, such as general relativity, the Lie derivative is employed to identify spacetime symmetries via Killing vectors, where \mathcal{L}_X g = 0 implies isometries, whereas the covariant derivative formulates coordinate-independent field equations, like the geodesic equation \nabla_{\dot{\gamma}} \dot{\gamma} = 0. This complementary use highlights the Lie derivative's role in global flow analysis and the covariant derivative's focus on local, connection-based differentiation.^[4]^[52]

References

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[PDF] Covariant and Lie Derivatives - GR at NC State
Lie derivatives do not rely on the presence of a metric for their definitions. When a metric is present, they can be written in terms of covariant derivatives ...