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Cyclone

In meteorology, a cyclone is a large-scale air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure, distinct from a high-pressure anticyclone. Cyclones are characterized by inward-spiraling winds that rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect. They can form over land or ocean and vary in scale from synoptic systems affecting entire continents to mesoscale vortices like tornadoes. Major types include extratropical cyclones (common in mid-latitudes and associated with fronts and weather fronts), tropical cyclones (intense storms over warm oceans), subtropical cyclones, polar lows, upper-level cyclones, and smaller-scale phenomena such as mesocyclones and dust devils, as detailed in subsequent sections. Extraterrestrial cyclones also occur on other planets.^[1] Tropical cyclones, a prominent subtype, are rotating, organized systems of clouds and thunderstorms that originate over tropical or subtropical waters and have a closed low-level circulation around a center of low pressure. Known regionally as a hurricane in the North Atlantic, Northeast Pacific, and central North Pacific, a typhoon in the Northwest Pacific, or simply a severe tropical cyclone in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean, these storms are fueled by the release of heat from warm ocean surfaces and can produce destructive winds exceeding 74 miles per hour (119 km/h), heavy rainfall, and storm surges.^[2]^[3] Tropical cyclones typically form from a pre-existing near-surface weather disturbance, such as an easterly wave or low-pressure trough, when conditions include sea surface temperatures of at least 80°F (27°C) to a depth of about 150 feet (46 m), a moist mid-level atmosphere, an environment that cools rapidly with height to promote instability, low vertical wind shear of less than 23 mph (37 km/h), and a location at least 300 miles (480 km) from the equator.^[3] These systems develop through stages of intensification: starting as a tropical depression with winds under 39 mph (63 km/h), progressing to a tropical storm at 39–73 mph (63–118 km/h), and reaching hurricane or typhoon strength at 74 mph (119 km/h) or higher, with further categorization into categories 1 through 5 based on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale for escalating wind speeds and potential damage.^[2]^[4] Structurally, a mature tropical cyclone features a calm, sinking eye at its center—typically 20–40 miles (32–64 km) wide with light winds—surrounded by the eyewall, a ring of intense thunderstorms where the strongest winds occur, and extending outward are spiral rainbands that deliver additional heavy precipitation, gusts, and occasional tornadoes.^[5] Air spirals inward toward the low-pressure center in a counterclockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere or clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere, rising through convection before exiting at upper levels.^[5] These storms occur globally across seven major basins, with distinct seasonal patterns—such as June to November in the North Atlantic (peaking in September) and year-round but peaking July to November in the Northwest Pacific—and rarely form near the equator due to the Coriolis effect's weakness there.^[3]

Terminology and Classification

Nomenclature

A cyclone is defined as a large-scale atmospheric circulation characterized by a low-pressure center around which air masses rotate, typically counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere, due to the deflection imposed by the Coriolis effect on moving air masses.^[6] This rotation arises because Earth's rotation causes winds to veer rightward in the Northern Hemisphere and leftward in the Southern Hemisphere, fostering the cyclonic flow around the pressure minimum.^[6] The term "cyclone" derives from the Greek word kyklos, meaning "circle" or "wheel," reflecting the spiraling wind patterns observed in these systems.^[7] It was coined in 1848 by British meteorologist Henry Piddington, who introduced it in his work The Sailor's Horn-Book for the Law of Storms to describe rotating storms in the Indian Ocean, drawing on ancient Greek roots to emphasize their coiled, circular motion akin to a snake's form.^[8] This nomenclature gained prominence in the 19th century amid growing meteorological studies of tropical and extratropical storms, particularly in colonial observatories in India and Australia, where Piddington and contemporaries like those in the Asiatic Society of Bengal documented storm dynamics.^[7] Regionally, the term "cyclone" specifically denotes tropical cyclones in the Indian Ocean, South Pacific, and southwestern Pacific basins, while equivalent storms are called "hurricanes" in the North Atlantic and northeastern Pacific, and "typhoons" in the northwestern Pacific.^[9] These distinctions stem from historical linguistic influences: "hurricane" traces to the Taino word huracán for a storm god in the Caribbean, and "typhoon" likely originates from ancient Greek typhon (whirlwind) via Chinese or Arabic roots.^[9] In contrast, anticyclones are high-pressure systems with opposite rotation—clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern—where air diverges outward, often leading to clear, stable weather conditions.^[1]

Scale-Based Classification

Cyclones in the atmosphere are classified based on their spatial and temporal scales, which provide a hierarchical framework for distinguishing their dynamics and impacts. The primary criterion for this classification is the Rossby number (Ro), defined as the ratio of inertial forces to Coriolis forces, given by Ro = \frac{U}{fL}, where U is the characteristic wind speed, f is the Coriolis parameter, and L is the horizontal length scale.^[10] Small values of Ro (typically << 1) indicate that Earth's rotation dominates, leading to geostrophic balance in large-scale systems, while larger Ro values (approaching or exceeding 1) signify increasing influence of local inertial effects in smaller-scale vortices. This dimensionless parameter helps differentiate rotationally constrained flows from those driven more by local convection or friction. Synoptic-scale cyclones encompass the largest atmospheric vortices, with horizontal length scales of 1000 km or more and temporal scales spanning several days.^[11] These systems, including extratropical and tropical cyclones, evolve slowly and are influenced by planetary-scale circulation patterns, often driven by baroclinic instability where horizontal temperature gradients release potential energy into kinetic form.^[12] Upper-level cyclones, a subset occurring in the mid-to-upper troposphere, form in association with jet stream dynamics, where divergences ahead of jet streaks promote cyclonic development aloft.^[13] Mesoscale cyclones operate on intermediate scales, with length scales ranging from 1 to 1000 km and time scales of hours to about one day.^[14] These are frequently convective in origin, arising within organized clusters of thunderstorms known as mesoscale convective systems (MCSs), where mesoscale vorticity develops from interactions between updrafts, downdrafts, and ambient shear.^[15] Boundary layer cyclones, confined to the lowest 1-2 km of the atmosphere, include smaller vortices such as gust front circulations or sea breeze fronts, influenced heavily by surface friction and heating. Sub-mesoscale features, with scales below 10 km and time scales of minutes to hours, bridge mesoscale and microscale processes but are less commonly classified as full cyclones due to their transient nature. Beyond the atmosphere, the term "cyclone" broadly applies to rotating vortices in other fluid media for completeness, such as oceanic cyclones (anticyclonic or cyclonic eddies in ocean currents) that mirror atmospheric dynamics but are modulated by density stratification and bathymetry.^[16]

General Characteristics

Physical Structure

A cyclone is defined by its central low-pressure area, where atmospheric pressure is minimized, creating a pressure gradient that drives the cyclonic rotation of winds around the system. This low-pressure center serves as the dynamical core, with air spiraling inward and upward due to the convergence of moist air masses. In extratropical cyclones, the low-pressure center is frequently demarcated by warm and cold fronts, where the warm front features advancing warm air overriding cooler air, and the cold front involves denser cold air displacing warmer air, both leading to enhanced uplift and weather activity along these boundaries. Spiral rainbands, consisting of organized convective clouds and precipitation, commonly encircle the low-pressure center in a cyclonic spiral pattern (counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere), transporting moisture and latent heat inward while contributing to the cyclone's overall asymmetry and intensity. In intense tropical cyclones, the low-pressure center develops into a distinct eye—a region of subsidence and relative calm—surrounded by the eyewall, a narrow ring of severe thunderstorms featuring the peak winds and heaviest rainfall. The vertical structure of cyclones exhibits significant variation depending on type, with tropical cyclones characterized by a warm core structure, wherein temperatures are anomalously high relative to the surroundings throughout much of the troposphere, particularly aloft, supporting sustained convection without reliance on baroclinicity. In contrast, extratropical cyclones possess a cold core, with the lowest temperatures concentrated near the center aloft, producing thermal wind shear that allows the system to draw energy from horizontal temperature gradients. Baroclinic cyclones, such as those in mid-latitudes, display a tilt with height, where the upper-level low-pressure center is displaced poleward or eastward from the surface low, facilitating the development of frontal zones and wave propagation. Cyclone wind profiles typically feature maximum tangential winds located near the surface in warm-core systems or at mid-tropospheric levels in baroclinic ones, with speeds decreasing outward in a radial gradient that maintains the system's coherence. These winds approximate a state of gradient wind balance, described by the equation

\frac{V^2}{r} = \frac{1}{\rho} \frac{\partial p}{\partial r} - f V,

where V denotes the tangential wind speed, r the radial distance from the center, \rho the air density, p the pressure, and f the Coriolis parameter; this balance equates the centrifugal force to the radial pressure gradient force minus the Coriolis force for cyclonic flow. Asymmetries in cyclone structure and motion arise from the beta effect, the latitudinal variation in planetary vorticity (β = ∂f/∂y), which induces a net transverse flow across the vortex, often resulting in enhanced convection and winds on the forward side relative to the storm's track and a poleward deflection in propagation. Synoptic-scale cyclones tend to exhibit broader radial extents in their pressure and wind fields compared to smaller mesoscale systems.

Formation Processes

Cyclones form through dynamic processes driven primarily by instabilities in the atmosphere that convert potential energy into kinetic energy, leading to organized rotational motion. A key mechanism is baroclinic instability, which arises from horizontal temperature gradients that create vertical wind shear, providing available potential energy for disturbance growth. This instability is quantified by the Eady growth rate, given by the formula

\sigma = 0.31 f \frac{\partial V}{\partial z} / N

where f is the Coriolis parameter, \partial V / \partial z is the vertical shear of the geostrophic wind, and N is the Brunt-Väisälä frequency representing static stability.^[17] In regions with strong baroclinicity, such as mid-latitudes, these gradients destabilize the flow, allowing wave-like perturbations to amplify into cyclonic systems. Additionally, latent heat release from convective processes plays a crucial role by warming the air aloft, further reducing static stability and enhancing upward motion, which sustains the instability.^[18] Earth's rotation is essential for cyclone development through the Coriolis force, which deflects moving air parcels and imparts angular momentum to initial disturbances. Without sufficient Coriolis effect, as near the equator, cyclonic spin-up cannot occur effectively, requiring an initial vorticity source—such as from convergence or pre-existing eddies—to initiate rotation. This deflection leads to the characteristic counterclockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.^[19] Energy for cyclone formation and maintenance varies by type but shares principles of thermodynamic forcing. Synoptic-scale cyclones draw primarily from baroclinic energy released through slantwise convection along frontal boundaries, converting potential energy from meridional temperature contrasts into eddy kinetic energy. In contrast, tropical cyclones rely on ocean heat fluxes, where sea surface temperatures exceeding 26.5°C enable evaporation and subsequent latent heat release, fueling deep convection and self-sustaining intensification.^[20] The lifecycle of a cyclone typically progresses through distinct stages: genesis, where initial disturbances organize under favorable conditions; intensification, driven by convergence that increases vorticity and pressure gradients; maturity, when peak intensity is reached and the system becomes most organized; and decay, resulting from surface friction, reduced energy supply, or landfall that disrupts the moisture and heat sources.^[21]^[22]

Synoptic-Scale Cyclones

Extratropical Cyclones

Extratropical cyclones, also known as mid-latitude cyclones, are large-scale low-pressure systems driven by baroclinic instability, where horizontal temperature contrasts between polar and subtropical air masses generate potential energy for storm development. These systems typically form in the westerlies between 30° and 70° latitude and are closely associated with the polar jet stream, which enhances their growth through upper-level divergence. They feature distinct frontal boundaries—warm fronts advancing into cooler air, cold fronts displacing warmer air, and occluded fronts where the two converge—creating sharp contrasts in temperature, moisture, and wind. On satellite imagery, mature extratropical cyclones often display characteristic comma-shaped cloud patterns, with the "head" representing the warm sector and the "tail" the cold front, spanning diameters of approximately 1,500 to 5,000 km. These storms are most prevalent during the winter season in each hemisphere, when stronger baroclinicity and reduced solar heating amplify temperature gradients, leading to more frequent and intense cyclogenesis. The formation of extratropical cyclones follows conceptual models that describe their lifecycle, including the classic Norwegian cyclone model and the Shapiro-Keyser model. The Norwegian model, developed in the early 20th century, outlines progression from an initial frontal wave along a baroclinic zone to a mature stage with deepening low pressure, followed by occlusion as the cold front overtakes the warm front, eventually leading to dissipation. In contrast, the Shapiro-Keyser model, identified through numerical simulations of explosive cyclones, emphasizes a "warm seclusion" process where the warm conveyor belt—a broad ascending airstream of moist air rising from the surface to the mid-troposphere ahead of the cold front—wraps around the cyclone center, isolating a pocket of warm air at low levels while the system deepens rapidly. Accompanying this is the dry intrusion, a descending airstream of dry air from the upper troposphere behind the cold front, which enhances subsidence and clear skies in the rear sector, further fueling baroclinic development through latent heat release in the warm conveyor belt. Notable examples include bomb cyclones in the North Atlantic, defined as extratropical systems undergoing explosive cyclogenesis with central pressure drops of at least 24 hPa over 24 hours (or 1 hPa per hour at mid-latitudes), which can produce severe winds and coastal flooding; these events are particularly common along the U.S. East Coast and western Europe during winter. The 1987 Great Storm, an intense extratropical cyclone that struck the British Isles and northwestern France on October 15–16, exemplifies such windstorms, with gusts exceeding 100 mph (160 km/h), causing 18 fatalities and widespread damage from fallen trees and power outages. More recently, the November 2024 Northeast Pacific bomb cyclone struck the U.S. West Coast and Canada on November 19, producing hurricane-force winds, at least two deaths, and power outages affecting over 600,000 customers due to downed lines spanning more than 500 miles.^[23] Climatologically, extratropical cyclones dominate winter weather in the mid-latitudes, accounting for 60–70% of annual precipitation in regions like Europe and eastern North America through associated frontal rainfall and embedded convection. Recent studies from the 2020s link their intensification to Arctic amplification—the faster warming of the Arctic compared to lower latitudes—which reduces meridional temperature gradients but increases atmospheric moisture and instability, leading to 10–20% stronger cyclone intensities in some Northern Hemisphere sectors, as evidenced by analyses of reanalysis data and climate models showing enhanced precipitation extremes and wind speeds.

Tropical Cyclones

Tropical cyclones, also known as hurricanes or typhoons depending on the region, are intense, warm-core low-pressure systems that develop over tropical or subtropical ocean waters, characterized by organized convection and a closed surface wind circulation without associated fronts.^[3] These storms derive their energy primarily from the latent heat released by condensation of moist air, leading to sustained winds exceeding 119 km/h (74 mph) and often causing significant coastal flooding, high winds, and heavy rainfall upon landfall.^[24] Unlike extratropical cyclones, tropical cyclones exhibit a symmetric structure driven by ocean-atmosphere interactions rather than baroclinic instability.^[3] Formation of tropical cyclones requires specific environmental conditions, including sea surface temperatures (SSTs) warmer than 26.5°C to a depth of at least 50 meters, which provide the necessary heat and moisture.^[25] High atmospheric moisture in the lower troposphere is essential to sustain deep convection, while low vertical wind shear—typically below 10 m/s—prevents the disruption of the storm's vertical structure.^[26] Additionally, the system must form at least 5° latitude from the equator to experience sufficient Coriolis force, with the parameter exceeding approximately 10^{-5} s^{-1}, enabling cyclonic rotation.^[19] Once initiated, intensification often occurs through mechanisms such as conditional instability of the second kind (CISK), where cumulus convection cooperatively enhances large-scale organization, or wind-induced surface heat exchange (WISHE), in which increasing surface winds boost evaporation and sea spray, amplifying heat and moisture fluxes into the boundary layer.^[27] These feedbacks can lead to rapid strengthening, particularly under favorable conditions like high SSTs and minimal shear. The physical structure of a mature tropical cyclone features a central calm region known as the eye, typically 10-50 km in diameter, surrounded by the eyewall—a ring of intense thunderstorms where maximum winds occur.^[24] Spiral rainbands extend outward, feeding moisture into the system, while the overall warm-core nature results in a pressure minimum at the center, often dropping below 950 hPa in intense storms.^[3] Eyewall replacement cycles (ERCs) are a common dynamic process in major tropical cyclones, where a secondary eyewall forms outside the primary one, leading to temporary weakening as the inner eyewall dissipates before the outer structure contracts and intensifies the storm.^[28] Intensity is classified using the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale, which categorizes storms from 1 to 5 based on maximum sustained one-minute winds, ranging from 119-153 km/h for Category 1 to over 252 km/h for Category 5.^[24] Notable examples illustrate the destructive potential and variability of tropical cyclones. Hurricane Katrina in 2005 underwent two periods of rapid intensification in the Gulf of Mexico, reaching Category 5 status with sustained winds of 175 mph before weakening to Category 3 at U.S. landfall, causing over 1,800 deaths and $125 billion in damages primarily from storm surge and flooding.^[29] Similarly, Tropical Cyclone Idai in 2019 made landfall in Mozambique as a Category 3 equivalent, with winds exceeding 220 km/h, leading to over 600 deaths across southern Africa, widespread flooding, and agricultural losses of nearly 780,000 hectares in Malawi, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe.^[30] In the 2020s, Hurricane Helene in September 2024 rapidly intensified to Category 4 status before landfall in Florida, causing catastrophic inland flooding across the southeastern U.S., over 230 deaths, and damages exceeding $50 billion.^[31] Observed trends indicate a poleward migration of tropical cyclone tracks and an increase in rainfall intensity, with the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) attributing high confidence to anthropogenic warming causing a global rise in extreme tropical cyclone precipitation rates, projected to intensify by 10-20% per degree Celsius of warming due to enhanced atmospheric moisture capacity.^[32] Tropical cyclones dissipate rapidly when they move over land or cooler ocean waters, as the supply of warm, moist air is cut off, reducing latent heat release and increasing surface friction that disrupts the low-level inflow.^[33] Over land, drier air and higher roughness further weaken the system, often reducing winds below hurricane force within 12 hours, while over cold water below 26.5°C, upwelling of cooler layers starves the storm of energy.^[34] This transition typically results in the cyclone filling its low-pressure center and losing its organized structure.^[35]

Subtropical Cyclones

Subtropical cyclones are hybrid low-pressure systems that exhibit a blend of tropical and extratropical characteristics, typically forming in transitional latitudes between 20° and 40° where baroclinic and convective processes interact.^[36] These storms feature an asymmetric structure, with distinct warm and cold sectors, a large cloud-free or lightly clouded center, and heavy thunderstorm activity often displaced more than 100 miles (160 km) from the circulation core.^[37] Unlike fully symmetric tropical cyclones, subtropical systems derive significant energy from both latent heat release and baroclinic instability, resulting in a partial warm core at low levels but often a cold core aloft.^[38] They generally tolerate moderate vertical wind shear better than tropical cyclones but remain sensitive to environmental conditions that favor extratropical development.^[39] Formation of subtropical cyclones often occurs through interactions between extratropical systems and tropical moisture, such as the merger of a mid-latitude trough with a monsoon trough or the evolution of an extratropical cyclone over subtropical waters warmer than 21°C (70°F).^[36] This process warms the storm's core via latent heat from organized convection, shifting energy sources toward those resembling tropical systems while retaining frontal or baroclinic features.^[40] Some subtropical cyclones can further intensify over warm ocean surfaces, transitioning into full tropical hurricanes if convection reorganizes near the center and symmetry increases; for instance, the 1968 Subtropical Storm One in the Atlantic briefly achieved tropical status before recurvature.^[38] Dynamically, these cyclones are distinguished by their thermal structure, with a low-level warm core supporting convective activity and an upper-level cold core enhancing divergence, allowing for moderate intensification despite asymmetry.^[41] Classification often relies on the Cyclone Phase Space (CPS) technique, which uses metrics like the thermal symmetry index (B parameter)—the difference in 900–600 hPa geopotential thickness across the storm track—and thermal wind components to identify hybrid phases.^[41] In the CPS, subtropical cyclones occupy a transitional quadrant where low-level thermal winds indicate a warm core (|−V_T-L| > 0) and upper-level winds a cold core (−V_T-U| < 0), with |B| values between 0 and 10 m signaling partial symmetry.^[41] Notable examples include Subtropical Storm Andrea in 2007, which formed off the southeastern U.S. coast from an extratropical precursor and brought heavy rains to Florida before transitioning extratropically.^[36] In the Mediterranean, subtropical cyclones like the 2011 "medicane" off Sicily developed from baroclinic lows interacting with warm sea surface temperatures, producing intense convection and gale-force winds.^[42] Rare subtropical bomb cyclones, characterized by rapid deepening at subtropical latitudes, have occurred in the Atlantic, such as the 1998 system that explosively intensified near Bermuda due to warm seclusion dynamics.^[40] More recently, Subtropical Storm Biguá formed in December 2024 off southern Brazil, the first such named storm in the South Atlantic basin, bringing heavy rainfall and flooding to Rio Grande do Sul. Recent analyses suggest that climate change may contribute to an increasing frequency of such hybrid systems through enhanced subtropical moisture availability and altered baroclinicity, though attribution remains uncertain.^[43]

Polar Lows

Polar lows are intense, small-scale (mesoscale to synoptic) cyclones that develop over polar ocean regions during winter, primarily in association with marine cold air outbreaks from sea ice or snow-covered landmasses. These systems typically exhibit diameters ranging from 200 to 1000 km and persist for 1 to 3 days, generating gale-force surface winds exceeding 15 m/s and resembling weakened tropical hurricanes in structure, though they form over relatively colder seas adjacent to ice edges. Unlike larger synoptic-scale cyclones, polar lows are driven by localized convective processes rather than broad baroclinic instability, leading to rapid intensification and heavy precipitation, which can pose hazards to maritime activities in high-latitude regions.^[44]^[45]^[46] The formation of polar lows relies on convective instability arising from a significant air-sea temperature contrast, typically exceeding 7°C, where cold polar air advected over warmer open water releases latent heat through deep convection. This process often initiates near the ice edge, with symmetric polar lows developing via cooperative interaction between convection and rotation (conditional instability of the second kind, or CISK), while asymmetric types form under stronger baroclinic influences from upstream fronts. The weaker effective Coriolis force on their small scales, combined with the absence of pre-existing large-scale vorticity typical in tropical environments, distinguishes their dynamics from those of tropical cyclones, resulting in shorter lifespans and less organized eye structures. Recent studies emphasize that these systems require sufficient sea ice extent to generate the necessary cold outbreaks, with reduced contrasts limiting development.^[47]^[48]^[49]^[50] In the Arctic, polar lows frequently occur in the Norwegian and Barents Seas, where climatological analyses indicate approximately 20 events per winter season in the Norwegian Sea alone, based on satellite and reanalysis data from extended winter periods. Notable examples include the intense polar low observed over the Barents Sea in January 2019, which produced winds up to 25 m/s and disrupted shipping routes. Antarctic analogs, though less frequent and often more baroclinic in nature, have been documented over the Weddell and Bellingshausen Seas, sharing similar convective triggers but influenced by the Southern Ocean's stronger zonal flow. Post-2020 research links a projected decline in polar low frequency to Arctic sea ice loss, which diminishes cold air outbreak intensity and air-sea temperature gradients under future warming scenarios.^[51]^[52]^[53]^[54]

Upper-Level Cyclones

Polar Cyclones

Polar cyclones, also known as upper-level polar vortices or cut-off lows in the polar jet stream, are synoptic-scale disturbances primarily occurring in the mid-to-upper troposphere, often centered around the 500 hPa level. These systems are characterized by closed cyclonic circulations detached from the main westerly flow, featuring a cold core with temperatures as low as -30°C at 500 hPa, forming cold pools aloft that enhance potential vorticity (PV) anomalies and promote closed geopotential height contours. Typical diameters range from 500 to 2000 km, allowing them to influence large regions equatorward of the polar front.^[55]^[56]^[57] The formation of polar cyclones arises from geostrophic adjustment processes triggered by Rossby wave breaking along the polar jet, where amplified planetary waves lead to the pinching off of troughs and the creation of isolated positive PV anomalies in the upper troposphere. This breaking isolates a portion of the cold polar air mass from the broader circulation, resulting in a self-sustaining vortex through the balance of Coriolis forces and pressure gradients. These anomalies propagate slowly and can persist for several days, distinct from the faster-moving troughs in the synoptic-scale flow.^[58]^[59]^[60] In terms of impacts, polar cyclones induce surface pressure falls through upper-level divergence, which can destabilize the lower troposphere and facilitate the development of secondary surface systems, including the triggering of polar lows during cold air outbreaks over polar seas. A notable example is the role of upper-level polar cyclones in the 2021 European cold outbreaks, where disrupted jet stream patterns led to prolonged cold anomalies and stormy conditions across the continent, exacerbating weather extremes. Their dynamics are governed by barotropic instability, arising from horizontal shear in the jet stream that amplifies small perturbations into coherent vortices, with energy transfer occurring primarily within the same tropospheric level.^[61]^[62]^[63] Recent research from 2023 emphasizes the stratospheric influence on polar cyclones via sudden stratospheric warmings (SSWs), which weaken the polar vortex and propagate downward, enhancing Rossby wave activity and increasing the frequency of wave breaking events that spawn these upper-level systems. These interactions highlight a coupled stratosphere-troposphere pathway, where SSW-induced circulation changes can precondition the jet for instability, leading to more persistent polar cyclones in the troposphere. As of 2025, studies indicate that Arctic polar cyclones are forming more frequently and intensifying, potentially acting as a missing link in sea ice depletion models under climate change.^[64]^[65]^[66]^[67] Such findings underscore the need for integrated modeling of stratospheric-tropospheric coupling to improve forecasts of polar weather extremes.

Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough (TUTT) Cells

Tropical upper tropospheric trough (TUTT) cells are discrete, closed cyclonic circulations embedded within the broader semipermanent TUTT, a feature of the summer upper-tropospheric circulation in the tropics. These cells typically occur between 100 and 400 hPa, with maximum relative vorticity centered between 150 and 200 hPa, and exhibit pronounced negative geopotential height anomalies peaking at 200 hPa alongside cold temperature anomalies in the 650–200 hPa layer.^[68] Approximately 75% of identified TUTT cells have radii less than 500 km, with central heights at 200 hPa below 1239.4 dam, and they form part of the quasi-stationary planetary wave pattern that persists over tropical ocean basins during the warm season.^[69] Cyclonic vorticity is prominent in the 550–125 hPa layer, distinguishing these features as upper-level cold-core lows that contribute to the overall trough structure.^[69] TUTT cells primarily form through the southward intrusion of midlatitude troughs into the climatological position of the TUTT, often initiating east of 150°E in the western North Pacific where they develop from initial height perturbations.^[69] Divergence arising from organized monsoon convection supports their intensification by promoting upward motion and easterly momentum transport in the upper troposphere, which helps maintain the trough's elongated structure.^[70] In some cases, tropical cyclones contribute to cell formation via the downstream dispersion of short Rossby wave energy, leading to two distinct types depending on the ambient vertical wind shear: broader troughs in weak anticyclonic shear or more isolated cells in stronger shear environments.^[71] These cells play a key role in tropical cyclone genesis by seeding upper-level vorticity and providing divergent outflow that enhances low-level convergence and convection in underlying disturbances, particularly when positioned to minimize vertical wind shear.^[72] For instance, the North Pacific TUTT, extending east-northeastward from about 35°N into the eastern Pacific, influences cyclone development in that basin by steering flows and altering shear profiles.^[73] Similarly, in the Atlantic, the TUTT supports early-season activity through reduced shear and enhanced ascent over potential genesis regions.^[24] In their evolution, TUTT cells typically propagate westward at an average speed of 6.6 m s⁻¹ with a mean lifespan of about 4.4 days, maturing in the central basin before weakening and contracting farther west.^[69] They can spawn mid-level cyclonic vortices through the descent of potential vorticity anomalies to lower levels, inducing surface disturbances via upper-level divergence on their eastern flanks.^[74] Observations reveal interannual variability linked to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), with reduced frequency and eastward shifts during El Niño phases due to anomalous warming in the central-eastern tropical Pacific that weakens the trough's amplitude.^[69]^[68]

Mesoscale Vortices

Mesocyclones

A mesocyclone is a deep, persistently rotating updraft within a severe thunderstorm, typically associated with supercell storms and serving as a precursor to tornado formation.^[75] These vortices form on the mesoscale, distinguishing them from larger synoptic cyclones by their convective origins and short lifespans of 30-60 minutes.^[76] Mesocyclones are most common in environments with strong vertical wind shear, enabling the organization of thunderstorm updrafts into rotating structures.^[77] Mesocyclones exhibit characteristic dimensions of 2-10 km in horizontal diameter and 3-5 km in vertical extent, with rotational tangential wind speeds ranging from 20-50 m/s.^[75]^[78] This scale allows them to encompass much of the storm's mid-level updraft, producing significant vorticity through dynamic processes. The rotation is cyclonic in the Northern Hemisphere, often intensifying in the storm's rear flank.^[79] Formation of mesocyclones occurs primarily through the tilting and stretching of horizontal vorticity generated by environmental wind shear in supercell thunderstorms.^[80] Horizontal vorticity, arising from veering winds with height, is tilted into the vertical by the updraft and amplified by stretching as air parcels accelerate upward, leading to rotation when storm-relative helicity exceeds 150 m²/s² in the 0-3 km layer.^[81] This threshold indicates sufficient streamwise vorticity for sustained mesocyclone development, particularly in right-moving supercells.^[82] Detection of mesocyclones relies on Doppler radar, which identifies them through couplets in storm-relative velocity data and associated hook echoes in reflectivity patterns.^[75] The hook echo forms as precipitation wraps around the rotating updraft in the storm's rear flank, a signature often preceding tornadoes. In the U.S. Plains, notable examples include the May 3, 1999, outbreak in Oklahoma and Kansas, where multiple supercells produced mesocyclones detected by WSR-88D radars, contributing to 63 tornadoes including an F5.^[83] Similar radar signatures were observed during the April 10, 1979, Red River Valley outbreak, highlighting mesocyclones' role in prolific tornadic events across Texas and Oklahoma.^[84] Recent advances in machine learning have enhanced mesocyclone nowcasting by improving radar-based detection and prediction in severe thunderstorms. In 2024, the TorNet dataset, comprising over 200,000 radar images, enabled deep learning models to predict tornado formation from mesocyclone signatures with up to 85% accuracy for stronger events, reducing false alarms in operational forecasting.^[85] Additionally, neural network approaches incorporating polarimetric radar variables have improved short-term nowcasting of thunderstorm hazards, including mesocyclone evolution, by fusing multi-source data for lead times of 0-30 minutes.^[86] These methods leverage convolutional LSTM architectures to track rotational features, outperforming traditional algorithms in real-time applications.^[86]

Tornadoes

Tornadoes are violently rotating columns of air that extend from a thunderstorm to the ground, typically forming as narrow surface vortices spawned by the mesocyclone within supercell thunderstorms.^[76] These destructive phenomena can produce wind speeds exceeding 100 m/s (over 224 mph) in their most intense manifestations, posing severe threats to life and property through structural devastation, airborne debris, and rapid onset.^[87] Unlike broader mesocyclones, tornadoes manifest as concentrated funnels of condensation, distinguishing them by their surface-level intensity and narrower scale.^[88] Tornadoes typically exhibit diameters ranging from 50 to 500 meters, though averages hover around 50 meters, with path lengths varying from 1 to 100 kilometers depending on duration and terrain.^[89]^[90] Wind speeds are estimated using the Enhanced Fujita (EF) scale, implemented by the National Weather Service in 2007, which categorizes intensity from EF0 (65-85 mph) to EF5 (over 200 mph) based on damage to 28 specific indicators like buildings and trees.^[76] This scale provides a damage-based proxy for winds, as direct measurements are rare due to the hazards involved.^[87] Formation often occurs via the dynamic pipe effect, where intense descent within the mesocyclone stretches and narrows the rotating air column into a tornado, frequently facilitated by the rear-flank downdraft (RFD)—a downdraft of cooler air wrapping around the storm's rear that enhances low-level convergence and vorticity.^[88] The RFD creates a gust front that undercuts the updraft, promoting the "pipe-like" intensification of rotation from mid-levels downward.^[76] Tornadoes are classified into supercell and non-supercell types; supercell variants, comprising the majority of strong events, include wide wedge tornadoes (appearing broader than tall) and multivortex structures featuring multiple sub-vortices rotating within the main funnel, amplifying damage potential.^[91] Non-supercell tornadoes, such as gustnados, arise from outflow boundaries without organized mesocyclone rotation and are generally weaker and shorter-lived.^[92] Globally, approximately 75% of documented tornadoes occur in the United States, attributed to favorable geography combining moist Gulf air, dry western winds, and upper-level jet streams.^[93] Notable examples include the May 22, 2011, Joplin, Missouri, EF5 tornado, which carved a 22-mile path with winds up to 200 mph, killing 161 people and injuring over 1,000 in one of the deadliest U.S. events since 1947.^[94] More recently, the March 24, 2023, Rolling Fork–Silver City EF4 tornado in Mississippi, part of a multi-day outbreak, traveled 59 miles with peak winds near 190 mph, resulting in 17 fatalities and near-total destruction of the town.^[95] U.S. tornado reports have shown a slight increase over recent decades, largely due to enhanced radar technology, population growth, and improved reporting rather than unequivocal climate-driven intensification.^[96]

Waterspouts

Waterspouts are intense, rotating columns of air that form over bodies of water, resembling tornadoes but distinguished by their maritime environment and often featuring a visible spray vortex at the base composed of sea spray and mist pulled upward by the vortex. These vortices connect a cumuliform cloud base to the water surface, creating a funnel-like appearance, and can pose hazards to maritime activities due to sudden high winds and turbulence. Unlike land-based tornadoes, waterspouts typically exhibit a cooler air mass near the surface because the underlying water moderates temperatures, and the water's frictional drag often limits their intensity compared to terrestrial counterparts.^[97]^[98] Waterspouts are classified into two primary types: tornadic and fair-weather. Tornadic waterspouts develop in association with mesocyclones within severe thunderstorms, exhibiting wind speeds often exceeding 50 m/s (approximately 113 mph), which can rival those of land tornadoes and cause significant structural damage if they make landfall. In contrast, fair-weather waterspouts arise from surface-level convergence without thunderstorm involvement, typically producing winds below 40 m/s (about 89 mph) and remaining weaker due to the absence of intense updrafts. Tornadic types are rarer but more destructive, while fair-weather varieties are more common and visually striking but generally less hazardous.^[99]^[99] Formation of waterspouts mirrors aspects of tornado genesis but is adapted to aquatic conditions. Tornadic waterspouts originate analogously to land tornadoes, with rotation intensifying downward from a thunderstorm's mesocyclone toward the water surface, often fueled by warm, moist air over coastal regions. Fair-weather waterspouts, however, emerge from cumulus cloud convection interacting with convergent sea breezes or boundary layer instabilities, where warm water heats the overlying air, promoting upward motion and vortex development from the surface. These phenomena are prevalent in areas with frequent cumulus activity and warm seas, such as the Florida Keys—where 20 to 70 events occur annually from May to September—and the central-eastern Mediterranean, where summer and autumn outbreaks are documented due to similar convective setups.^[100]^[101] The lifecycle of a waterspout is characteristically brief, lasting 5 to 20 minutes for most fair-weather events, though tornadic ones may persist longer if supported by ongoing thunderstorm dynamics. Fair-weather waterspouts progress through five overlapping stages: an initial dark spot on the water indicating convergence; a spiral pattern of surface currents; formation of a spray ring as the vortex strengthens; maturation into a fully developed funnel with maximum intensity; and rapid decay, often triggered by downdrafts or interaction with land, where they quickly lose energy. Upon landfall, waterspouts generally weaken and dissipate due to increased surface friction and the loss of the warm, moist water source, though tornadic variants can transition into damaging tornadoes. For instance, a notable outbreak of over 25 fair-weather waterspouts occurred off the Mediterranean coast on September 21, 2006, highlighting their potential for multiple simultaneous formations in conducive environments.^[100]^[102]

Boundary Layer Vortices

Dust Devils

Dust devils are small-scale, short-lived vortices that form in the atmospheric boundary layer over arid or semi-arid surfaces, driven primarily by thermal convection rather than organized deep moist convection. These phenomena are characterized by rotating columns of air that entrain loose dust and debris from the ground, rendering them visible as narrow, towering funnels of particulate matter. Unlike larger convective storms, dust devils typically dissipate within minutes and pose minimal structural threat, though they can occasionally cause minor hazards such as reduced visibility or light debris damage.^[103]^[104] Typical dust devils exhibit diameters ranging from 10 to 100 meters, with heights extending from 100 to 1,000 meters above the surface. Wind speeds within these vortices generally reach 10 to 30 meters per second, though larger examples can exceed 25 meters per second. The visibility of dust devils stems from the lofting of fine soil particles, which are suspended in the core and along the vortex walls, often creating a dusty, translucent column that contrasts against the clear sky.^[105]^[103]^[104] Formation occurs through diurnal surface heating, where intense solar radiation warms the ground, generating buoyant thermals or plumes of hot air that rise rapidly into cooler overlying air. Ambient wind shear then imparts rotation to these updrafts, tilting and organizing them into coherent vortices; this process is most efficient in calm to light wind conditions over dry, flat terrain. Dust devils are prevalent in desert environments, such as the Sahara in North Africa and the southwestern United States, where loose, fine-grained soils and extreme daytime temperatures facilitate their development, often peaking in late morning to early afternoon.^[106]^[107]^[104]^[108] In terms of intensity, dust devils are generally classified using an analog to the Fujita (F) scale for tornadoes, most commonly falling into F0 or F1 categories, corresponding to wind speeds of 18 to 50 meters per second and capable of causing light damage like uprooting small plants or scattering lightweight objects. Stronger dust devils, though rare, can approach F1 limits but lack the sustained power of true tornadoes due to their thermal rather than dynamic origins.^[109]^[110] Climatologically, dust devils number in the dozens to hundreds per day during peak seasons in hot, arid regions; for instance, mean occurrences of 50 to 80 have been observed near Tucson, Arizona. They occur most frequently from April to August in areas like the central Sahara, contributing modestly to regional dust transport by injecting fine aerosols into the lower atmosphere, though their overall impact on global dust budgets remains secondary to larger storm systems. In the southwestern U.S., such as Arizona, they are a common feature of the monsoon season.^[111]^[112]^[108]^[104]

Steam Devils

Steam devils are rare, small-scale atmospheric vortices that form over warm bodies of water during cold air outbreaks, characterized by their visibility due to entrained condensing water vapor or steam fog. These phenomena typically exhibit diameters ranging from 5 to 50 meters, heights up to several hundred meters, and lifespans of just a few minutes, with rotational wind speeds generally below 20 m/s.^[113] They appear as narrow, rotating columns rising from the water surface, often tilted by ambient winds, and are distinguished by their gentle, non-destructive nature, posing minimal impact to surroundings.^[114] Unlike larger convective systems, steam devils lack deep vertical development and association with thunderstorms, remaining confined to the near-surface boundary layer.^[115] The formation of steam devils is analogous to that of dust devils but occurs over water surfaces, driven by intense surface heating from relatively warm lakes or seas under overlying cold, dry air, typically in fall or winter conditions. This temperature contrast generates shallow convective plumes within superadiabatic boundary layers, where instability and wind shear induce rotation, drawing up steam fog—also known as Arctic sea smoke—into visible whirls.^[113] For instance, air temperatures as low as -21°C over water near 0°C can produce the necessary buoyancy, with light winds enhancing vorticity without overwhelming the structures.^[114] These vortices are most common in regions like the Great Lakes during early winter Arctic outbreaks, where unfrozen water persists amid freezing air.^[113] Notable examples include multiple steam devils observed over Lake Michigan on January 31, 1971, during an Arctic outbreak, where columns up to 450 meters tall rotated slowly amid 18 m/s gusts, captured from the Milwaukee shoreline.^[113] Similarly, on January 15, 2009, abundant steam devils formed over Lake Champlain in Vermont, rising tens of meters from sea smoke in unstable air, documented via video showing their shallow, short-lived nature.^[114] In Arctic seas, steam devils accompany widespread sea smoke during polar outbreaks, though specific cases are less documented due to remote locations.^[115] Overall, steam devils receive far less research attention than dust devils, with studies primarily limited to observational reports from cold-season lake events.^[113] A key distinction from dust devils lies in their reliance on moisture condensation for visibility and structure, rather than lofted particulate matter, resulting in cleaner, vapor-filled cores with negligible environmental disruption.^[115] Steam devils represent a subtype of boundary layer vortices, emphasizing the role of surface contrasts in generating small-scale rotations.^[114]

Fire Whirls

Fire whirls are intense, rotating columns of flame and hot gases that form within large-scale fire environments, such as wildfires or firestorms, driven primarily by buoyancy from heated air and wind shear that imparts rotation. These vortices differ from typical atmospheric cyclones by their direct dependence on the fire's thermal energy, creating a self-sustaining chimney-like updraft that draws in surrounding air and amplifies the swirl. They typically manifest in two forms: smaller, dust devil-like whirls that are transient and localized, or larger, tornado-like structures that can persist and cause widespread disruption.^[116]^[117] Characteristics of fire whirls include diameters ranging from 1 to 10 meters, heights generally up to 40 meters but occasionally exceeding 1 kilometer in extreme cases, and wind speeds of 20 to 70 meters per second (45-160 mph) within the core. The smaller variants resemble dust devils in scale and brevity, lasting seconds to minutes, while tornado-like fire whirls can endure for over 20 minutes with rotational velocities approaching those of an EF3 tornado. These dimensions and intensities arise from the balance between buoyant forces and viscous dissipation, often modeled using a Rankine vortex framework for scaling, where the tangential velocity profile features solid-body rotation in the inner core (proportional to radius) and an inverse-radius decay in the outer free-vortex region, allowing prediction of whirl height and strength based on heat release and ambient vorticity.^[118]^[119]^[120] Formation begins with the thermal chimney effect, where intense heating from a wildfire creates rising columns of buoyant air, establishing a low-pressure core that entrains cooler ambient air and generates upward velocities. This process is often enhanced by terrain channeling, such as in valleys or canyons, where converging winds introduce vorticity and focus the flow, tilting horizontal vortices into vertical alignments that intensify into full whirls. In laboratory and field studies, the transition to a sustained fire whirl requires a critical swirl number, typically around 0.5 to 1.0, beyond which the vortex stabilizes and grows.^[121]^[122]^[123] Notable examples include the fire tornado during the 2018 Carr Fire in California, which reached an estimated EF3-equivalent intensity with winds of 143 mph (64 m/s) and caused extensive structural damage by lofting burning debris across the landscape. Similarly, the 1945 Hiroshima firestorm, triggered by the atomic bombing, generated massive updrafts that formed whirlwinds amid the conflagration, contributing to winds exceeding 50 m/s and accelerating the spread of flames over a wide urban area. These events highlight how fire whirls can scale from localized phenomena to catastrophic vortices under extreme fuel loads and meteorological conditions.^[119]^[124] Fire whirls pose significant hazards by accelerating fire spread through the transport of embers and burning debris, which can ignite spot fires kilometers away from the main front, complicating suppression efforts and endangering firefighters. The intense suction and lifting forces within the vortex can also uproot trees, hurl vehicles, and generate pressures sufficient to damage buildings, as observed in multiple wildfire incidents. Analyses of the 2024-2025 wildfire season across the Americas indicate that climate change made burned areas up to 30 times larger in regions like Southern California and South America as of October 2025.^[125]^[126]^[127]

Extraterrestrial Cyclones

Cyclones on Gas Giant Planets

Gas giant planets, such as Jupiter and Saturn, host enormous, long-lived cyclones in their thick hydrogen-helium atmospheres, driven by internal heat sources and rapid planetary rotation rather than surface interactions seen on Earth. These vortices can span thousands of kilometers and persist for decades or longer, contrasting with Earth's more transient weather systems due to the absence of a solid surface and the deep, convective nature of gas giant atmospheres.^[128]^[129] Ice giants Uranus and Neptune, with similar hydrogen-helium envelopes, also exhibit cyclonic activity. In 2023, NASA scientists reported the first observation of a polar cyclone at Uranus' north pole using radio emissions from the Very Large Array, revealing a vortex of warm air beneath the clouds at depths of tens of bars. Neptune experiences intense superstorms driven by methane abundance, confined to the upper atmosphere, with winds reaching hundreds of kilometers per hour, influenced by the planets' extreme axial tilts and seasonal forcing.^[130]^[131] On Jupiter, NASA's Juno spacecraft discovered stable polygonal arrangements of polar cyclones in 2016-2017, with eight surrounding a central cyclone at the north pole and five at the south pole, each with diameters of approximately 4,000-5,000 kilometers.^[132] These cyclones, observed persistently for over eight years through at least 2025, rotate at speeds up to 360 kilometers per hour and exhibit oscillatory motions influenced by interactions with surrounding zonal jets.^[133]^[134] The iconic Great Red Spot, an anticyclone roughly 16,000 kilometers wide historically but shrinking in recent decades, exemplifies related vortex dynamics, feeding on smaller storms amid Jupiter's banded jet streams.^[135] Juno's microwave and visible-light observations in the 2020s revealed deep-rooted structures extending hundreds of kilometers below the cloud tops, sustained by shallow-water instabilities akin to ocean eddies on Earth.^[136] Saturn's polar regions feature similarly massive cyclones, imaged by NASA's Cassini spacecraft, including a north polar vortex with an eye about 2,000 kilometers across and wind speeds reaching 330 kilometers per hour, encircled by the persistent hexagon—a 14,500-kilometer-wide standing wave pattern linked to Rossby wave resonances.^[137] Cassini data from 2004-2017 showed these vortices extending deep into the atmosphere, with the south polar cyclone comparable in scale.^[138] Dynamics on both planets involve deep convection from internal heat fluxes, interacting with fast zonal jets (up to 500 kilometers per hour on Jupiter) and planetary-scale Rossby waves, which propagate with periods of hours due to rotation periods of about 10 hours—far shorter than Earth's daily cycle.^[139] Unlike terrestrial cyclones, these lack frictional dissipation from a surface, allowing multi-decadal stability observed since Voyager flybys in the 1970s and confirmed by later missions.^[140]

Cyclones on Terrestrial-Like Planets

Terrestrial-like planets and moons, such as Mars, Venus, and Saturn's moon Titan, host cyclones driven by their thin atmospheres and unique surface-atmosphere interactions, contrasting with the deep convective systems of gas giants. These cyclones often span scales from hundreds to thousands of kilometers and are influenced by exotic factors like low gravity, reduced Coriolis effects, and alternative volatile cycles, such as methane on Titan instead of water. Observations from spacecraft have revealed their seasonal variability and stability, providing insights into planetary climate dynamics.^[141] On Mars, cyclones manifest primarily as dust storms, ranging from local events hundreds of kilometers across to global storms enveloping the planet, which occur seasonally during southern hemisphere spring and summer due to perihelion heating and dust lifting. These storms are initiated by baroclinic instability in the thin CO₂ atmosphere, where low Coriolis forces—resulting from Mars' relatively slow rotation and small size—allow for weaker deflection of air masses compared to Earth, enabling broader, less organized circulations. Topographic features, such as craters and highlands, contribute to spin-up of winds through channelled flows and orographic lifting, amplifying storm intensity. Early observations from the Viking orbiters in the 1970s documented global dust storms that obscured the surface for months, while the Curiosity rover's meteorological instruments since 2012 have measured local pressure drops and wind gusts associated with passing cyclones, linking them to larger-scale atmospheric waves.^[142]^[143]^[144] Venus exhibits persistent polar vortices at both poles, with the southern one often displaying a distinctive double-eyed structure—two counter-rotating centers within a larger cyclone about 2,000 kilometers wide—sustained by the planet's slow rotation and superrotating atmosphere. These vortices rotate with periods of 2–3 days, far faster than Venus' 243-day sidereal day, and remain stable due to the weak Coriolis effect from retrograde rotation and minimal seasonal forcing, allowing angular momentum conservation in the thick but slow-spinning environment. The Japanese Akatsuki orbiter, operational from 2015 until 2024, imaged these features in infrared, revealing thermal contrasts and cloud patterns that indicate subsidence in the vortex cores, contrasting with equatorial superrotation. Earlier Venus Express data from 2006 confirmed the double-eyed morphology through multi-wavelength imaging.^[145]^[146]^[147]^[148] On Titan, cyclones appear as polar vortices driven by methane convection in its nitrogen-methane atmosphere, analogous to Earth's water cycle but at cryogenic temperatures, with storms forming over hydrocarbon lakes and contributing to seasonal haze redistribution. These vortices, observed at scales of 1,000–3,000 kilometers, weaken during winter due to radiative cooling and stratospheric subsidence, as captured by Cassini spacecraft imaging from 2004–2017, which showed a colorful south polar vortex with embedded methane clouds. Convection is enhanced by Titan's 15-year seasonal cycle, leading to intense storms that can span mid-latitudes. Overall, cyclones on these bodies typically range from 100 to 5,000 kilometers in diameter, highlighting the role of thin atmospheres in permitting surface-driven dynamics.^[149]^[150]^[151] Similar to small-scale boundary layer vortices like dust devils on Earth and Mars, these planetary cyclones underscore surface-atmosphere coupling in low-pressure environments. Extending to exoplanets, 2024 observations by the Hubble Space Telescope detected massive cyclones on the hot Jupiter WASP-121b, where extreme temperature contrasts drive repeated storm formation, offering a glimpse into dynamics on terrestrial-like worlds beyond our solar system.^[152]

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Apr 11, 2022 · Polar lows are intense mesoscale cyclones in marine polar air masses, mainly in winter, with the highest density in the Nordic Seas. Forward- ...
[52]
Development of Polar Lows in Future Climate Scenarios over the ...
... sea surface temperature anomaly on polar lows" Environmental Research Letters Vol. 20, No. 1, pp 014051, 1748-9326. Crossref. [2] Gudmestad, Ove Tobias, 2024 ...
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Mar 15, 2020 · Cut-off low systems are upper-level low pressure centers formed on the equatorward side of the polar or subtropical jet stream. These ...
[54]
Long-lasting intense cut-off lows to become more frequent in the ...
Feb 16, 2025 · They are generally characterized by a cold core, high potential vorticity (PV) anomalies, and closed geopotential height contours. The ...
[55]
A climatology of cutoff lows in the Southern Hemisphere - Fuenzalida
Sep 21, 2005 · The occurrence of cutoff lows (COLs) in the Southern Hemisphere at 500 hPa is studied for a 31-year period using atmospheric NCEP-NCAR ...
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Diagnosing Flavors of Tropospheric Rossby Wave Breaking and ...
... PV (+PV) air from the anticyclonic (cyclonic) circulation reinforces the −PV (+PV) anomaly at the tropopause through negative (positive) PV advection. This ...
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[PDF] REVIEW Rossby Wave Packets on the Midlatitude Waveguide—A ...
Jul 1, 2018 · and (iii) advection of the upper-level PV anomaly ... Rotunno, 1990: On the formation of potential- vorticity anomalies in upper-level jet-front ...
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The relation between Rossby wave-breaking events and low ... - WCD
Feb 1, 2024 · The anomalous southwestward upper-level wind contributes to the breaking of the wave ... cyclone and the anomalous upper-level velocity is ...
[59]
Deepening mechanisms of cut-off lows in the Southern Hemisphere ...
Jul 2, 2024 · Cut-off lows (COLs) exhibit diverse structures and lifecycles, ranging from confined upper-tropospheric systems to deep, multi-level vortex ...
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Limited surface impacts of the January 2021 sudden stratospheric ...
Mar 3, 2022 · They often precede warm temperatures in Northern Canada and cold, stormy weather throughout Europe and the United States - including the most ...
[61]
Cold Outbreak in Europe in spring 2021 - Xaida
The spring of 2021 showed anomalously low temperatures across large areas of Europe (see Figure 1). These extreme temperatures likely contributed to impacts ...
[62]
Monitoring sudden stratospheric warmings under climate change ...
Jan 24, 2023 · We developed a new approach to monitor sudden stratospheric warming (SSW) events under climate change since 1980 based on reanalysis data verified by radio ...
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Two major sudden stratospheric warmings during winter 2023/2024
Dec 16, 2024 · During winter 2023/2024, two major SSWs occurred – a relatively rare event, having occurred on average only once per decade.
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Impact of sudden stratospheric warming on tropospheric circulation ...
Jun 1, 2025 · The present study is concerned with the aspects of stratosphere-troposphere dynamic interaction during major sudden stratospheric warming (SSW).
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Interannual Shift of the Tropical Upper-Tropospheric Trough and Its ...
Climatologically, the TUTT can be identified from 100 to 400 hPa with a relative vorticity maximum between 150 and 200 hPa. In addition to the strong westerly ...
[66]
A Statistical Analysis of Tropical Upper-Tropospheric Trough Cells ...
About 75% of the TUTT cells have radii of <500 km with 200-hPa central heights of <1239.4 dam. In general, TUTT cells exhibit negative height anomalies above ...Introduction · Data source and method · Vertical properties · Composite TUTT cells
[67]
Zonal mean wind, the Indian monsoon, and July drying in the ...
Aug 17, 2011 · [1] A fully closed zonal momentum budget is decomposed to explain the occurrence of zonal mean easterlies at subtropical latitudes in July.
[68]
The Role of Tropical Cyclones in the Formation of Tropical Upper ...
Tropical cyclones may form TUTT cells via dispersion of short Rossby wave energy, with the formation of two types of TUTT cells depending on shear.Abstract · Introduction · TUTT cells in the wake of... · Interactions of model tropical...
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A Role of the Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough in Early Season ...
A synoptic model is developed to describe a role of the tropical upper tropospheric trough (TUTT) in early season typhoon development.
[70]
A Conceptual Model for the Influence of TUTT Cells on Tropical ...
The North Pacific TUTT, or midoceanic trough, is a semipermanent feature that extends east-northeast to west-southwest from ∼35°N in the eastern Pacific to ∼15° ...
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[PDF] Tropical Cyclone Initiation by the Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough
in the area of organized convection under the upper divergent region east of the upper cell. The increased convection considerably alters the upper ...
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Severe Weather 101: Tornado Detection
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Severe Weather 101: Tornado Basics
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[PDF] Supercell Thunderstorm Structure and Evolution
This in turn causes even more rotation (due to vertical stretching) as updraft speed ... • Smaller in horizontal and vertical extent than classic storms.
[75]
Radar Signatures: Severe Convective Weather Mesocyclone
... rotation meets the remainder of the mesocyclone criteria: Diameter < 10 km; Vertical extent > 3 km; Persistence > 10 minutes. The mesocyclone strength nomogram ...
[76]
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Assessing the Comparative Effects of Storm-Relative Helicity ...
One of the most physically meaningful and operationally relevant parameters is the 0–500 m storm-relative helicity (SRH), which includes storm-relative flow ...
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Storm-relative (S-R) helicity (Hs-r) is an estimate of a thunderstorm's potential to acquire a rotating updraft given an environmental vertical wind shear ...
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[PDF] NO. 93-12A - the NOAA Institutional Repository
Storm-relative helicity (s-rH) is the summation of streamwise vorticity through the inflow layer and gives a measure of the rotational potential of a ...
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Exploiting radar polarimetry for nowcasting thunderstorm hazards ...
Jan 19, 2024 · This work presents the importance of polarimetric variables as an additional data source for nowcasting thunderstorm hazards using an existing neural network ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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The Enhanced Fujita Scale or EF Scale, which became operational on February 1, 2007, is used to assign a tornado a 'rating' based on estimated wind speeds ...Missing: diameter 50-500 >100 s 1-100 km
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Severe Weather 101: Tornado Types
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Severe Weather 101: Tornado FAQ
The rating scale for tornadoes is based entirely on the damage they cause. From the damage, we can estimate the wind speeds. An “Enhanced Fujita Scale” was ...Missing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
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At 5:41 p.m. on May 22, 2011, a massive EF-5 tornado ripped through Joplin, destroying or damaging 8,000 homes and buildings and claiming 161 lives.
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Tragically, 17 lives were lost in the Rolling Fork/Silver City EF-4 tornado on March 24, 2023. This made it the deadliest tornado in over 52 years for the ...
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Explaining the trends and variability in the United States tornado ...
Jan 18, 2021 · Anthropogenic factors include increases in population density and better detection systems since the mid-1990s. Large-scale climate ...
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Waterspout formation typically occurs when cold air moves across the Great Lakes and results in large temperature differences between the warm water and the ...
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Waterspouts - National Weather Service
Tornadic waterspouts develop downward in a thunderstorm while a fair weather waterspout begins to develop on the surface of the water and works its way upward.
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Waterspouts & the Florida Keys - National Weather Service
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Wind speeds in larger dust devils can reach 60 mph or greater. Even though they are generally smaller than tornadoes, dust devils can still be destructive ...Missing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
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[PDF] Laser doppler dust devil measurements
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[3] The existence and intensity of a dust devil depends on the depth of the convective plume and the presence of wind shears. Intense free convection occurs ...
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[PDF] Chapter 6 GENERAL WINDS
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Nov 25, 2020 · ... Dust devils occur most frequently from April to August and are mainly concentrated in the central part of North Africa, especially in the ...<|separator|>
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Sep 1, 1978 · Most dust devils are F 0 (72 mph) or weaker. ... by F-scale isovels for the 147 tornadoes grouped together by their intensity scale,.
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They occur at locations where the soil has been strongly w a r d by the sun, and here the surface is smooth and fine grained.
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Martian Dust Could Help Explain Water Loss, Plus Other Learnings ...
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In Situ Sampling of Relative Dust Devil Particle Loads and Their ...
These results show that dust devils play a significant role as a source for dust in the martian atmosphere and its climatic influences (Renno et al., 2004; ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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PICTURE OF THE MONTH “Steam Devils” Over Lake Michigan ...
-View looking east from Milwaukee shoreline at 1505 CST, Jan. 31, 1971, showing steam devils rising out of general steam fog near the lake surface into the low ...
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[PDF] Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspouts
Jan 15, 2009 · Smaller low-level whirls (sometimes referred to as steam devils) were also abundant, originating from the arctic sea smoke or steam fog near the ...Missing: meteorology examples
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Steam Devil | International Cloud Atlas
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[PDF] Fire Whirls, Fire Tornadoes and Firestorms - Colorado State University
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[PDF] Review of vortices in wildland fire - Forest Service
They conclude that fire whirl characteristics are determined by the heat-flux density, lift force, and angular momentum of the external vortex flow. Grishin et ...
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Fire whirl | SKYbrary Aviation Safety
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Nov 21, 2018 · The National Weather Service estimated that surface wind speeds in the vortex were in excess of 64 m/s, equivalent to an EF-3 tornado. Radar ...
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[PDF] Fire Whirl due to Interaction between Line Fire and Cross Wind
As shown, the Rankine vortex could be used to well formulate the radial profile of tangential velocity, which indicates an almost constant angular velocity.
[118]
[PDF] Synthesis of Knowledge of Extreme Fire Behavior:
Terrain channeling effects—. Forced channeling or pressure-driven channeling of up- per level, larger scale winds can cause drastic changes in windspeed and ...
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[PDF] Research Article Fire Whirl Evolution Observed during a Valley Wind ...
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It is well known that, as swirl numbers increase, at some point vortex breakdown often occurs—an abrupt bifurcation in which separation of the axial flow ...Missing: Rankine | Show results with:Rankine
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The Hiroshima Firestorm: Ignored Consequence of August 6th 1945 ...
Jun 24, 2024 · The rapid widespread fires caused a convection current to form that ushered in winds which fueled the Flames transforming the smaller fire into a towering Firestorm.
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Jan 19, 2023 · Fire whirls can also carry large embers that help accelerate the fire front. In addition to whirls containing the fire, other swirling flows.
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The formation of fire whirls requires a source of ambient vorticity, a concentrating mechanism, and a favorable environment for fire whirl stability and growth ...Missing: chimney | Show results with:chimney
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Oct 16, 2025 · Human-driven climate change made wildfires in parts of South America and Southern California many times larger and more destructive, ...
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Jupiter Facts - NASA Science
Polar Cyclones Juno previously discovered polygonal arrangements of giant cyclonic storms at both of Jupiter's poles – eight arranged in an octagonal ...
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Giant Cyclones at Saturn's Poles Create a Swirl of Mystery
Oct 13, 2008 · New images from NASA's Cassini spacecraft reveal a giant cyclone at Saturn's north pole, and show that a similarly monstrous cyclone churning at Saturn's south ...
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Five Years of Observations of the Circumpolar Cyclones of Jupiter
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Jul 19, 2021 · Moreover, data gathered from Juno's many orbits around Jupiter indicate that the number of cyclones remains fixed – eight are active around the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Aug 4, 2015 · The Great Red Spot is an anticyclone swirling around a center of high atmospheric pressure that makes it rotate in the opposite sense of hurricanes on Earth.
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NASA's Juno Mission Gets Under Jupiter's and Io's Surface
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Saturn's Hexagon in Motion - NASA Science
Nov 5, 2024 · Gravity measurements made in Cassini's final orbits showed that the high winds at Saturn's cloud tops – up to 895 mph (1,440 kph) – persist far ...
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Saturn's north polar cyclone and hexagon at depth revealed by ...
Saturn's north polar cyclone and hexagon at depth revealed by Cassini/VIMS ... Winds are ~25 m/s stronger than observed by Voyager, suggesting temporal ...
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Weak Jets and Strong Cyclones: Shallow-Water Modeling of Giant ...
Apr 1, 2016 · A few idealized modeling studies and laboratory experiments have specifically studied the dynamics of giant planets' thin weather layers.
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Energy Exchanges in Saturn's Polar Regions From Cassini ...
Apr 14, 2022 · Saturn's polar regions (polewards of ∼63° latitude) are strongly meteorologically active with high speed eastward zonal jets (at 76°N and 70°S), ...
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This review describes the dynamic phenomena in the atmosphere of Mars that are visible in images taken in the visual range through cloud formation and dust.
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Jun 27, 2006 · ESA's Venus Express data undoubtedly confirm for the first time the presence of a huge 'double-eye' atmospheric vortex at the planet's south pole.
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Mar 14, 2016 · The total time covered is ~ 6 h (about one ninth of the rotation period of the vortex). Each image pair has been used to obtain accurate ...
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[PDF] Image analysis of the polar vortices of Venus observed by Akatsuki/LIR
that there are high-temperature regions near the poles and cooler regions around them. The high-temperature regions rotate.
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Apr 4, 2022 · The simulation reveals a winter weakening of the vortices, with a clear minimum in polar potential vorticity and midlatitude zonal winds.
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Jan 19, 2023 · Polar vortices that share many similarities are found in Earth's stratosphere and the atmospheres of Mars and Saturn's moon Titan.
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NASA's Hubble Observes Exoplanet Atmosphere Changing Over 3 ...
Jan 4, 2024 · Astronomers have found evidence for massive cyclones and other dynamic weather activity swirling on a hot, Jupiter-sized planet 880 light-years away.