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Dichromacy

Dichromacy is a form of color vision deficiency characterized by the complete absence or non-functionality of one of the three types of cone photoreceptors in the human retina—responsible for detecting long-wavelength (L or red), medium-wavelength (M or green), or short-wavelength (S or blue) light—resulting in color perception based on only two primary channels rather than the typical three.^[1] Dichromacy represents the more severe end of color vision deficiencies, distinct from the milder anomalous trichromacy, which affects a larger portion of the population. This condition impairs the ability to differentiate hues within the missing cone's spectrum, such as confusing reds and greens in protanopia or deuteranopia, or blues and yellows in tritanopia.^[2] Dichromacy is primarily genetic in origin, with red-green forms (protanopia and deuteranopia) inherited in an X-linked recessive manner, affecting approximately 2% of males and less than 0.1% of females globally, while the rarer blue-yellow form (tritanopia) follows autosomal dominant inheritance and impacts less than 0.01% of the population.^[1]^[3] The three main subtypes of dichromacy correspond to the absent cone type: protanopia, where L-cones are missing, leading to insensitivity to red light and a tendency to perceive reds as darker greens or blacks; deuteranopia, involving the loss of M-cones, which causes confusion between greens and reds but without the brightness shift seen in protanopia; and tritanopia, the absence of S-cones, resulting in difficulty distinguishing blues from yellows, often with a preference for purples appearing as pinks.^[2]^[3] These deficiencies arise from mutations in opsin genes—OPN1LW and OPN1MW on the X chromosome for red-green types, and OPN1SW on chromosome 7 for tritanopia—leading to either no pigment production or a non-functional protein.^[3] Prevalence varies by ethnicity, with higher rates of red-green color vision deficiency in populations of Northern European descent (up to 8% in males) compared to lower incidences in Asian and African groups (around 4-5% in males).^[1] Dichromacy typically manifests from birth and is often undiagnosed until childhood or later, as affected individuals may adapt using brightness and context cues, though it can impact daily tasks like identifying traffic signals, selecting ripe fruits, or performing color-dependent professions such as piloting or electrical work.^[1] Diagnosis involves standardized tests like the Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates for red-green defects or the Farnsworth-Munsell 100 Hue test for broader assessment, with genetic testing available for confirmation.^[2] While there is no cure, accommodations such as color-correcting lenses or software filters can aid perception, and ongoing research explores gene therapy potential based on opsin gene targeting.^[1]

Fundamentals

Definition

Dichromacy is a form of color vision in which an individual relies on only two functional types of cone photoreceptors in the retina, resulting in a two-dimensional color space where any perceived color can be matched by adjusting the relative intensities of two primary hues. This condition arises from the absence or dysfunction of one of the three typical cone pigments, limiting the ability to discriminate hues that require the missing receptor. Examples of dichromacy include protanopia (lacking long-wavelength-sensitive cones), deuteranopia (lacking medium-wavelength-sensitive cones), and tritanopia (lacking short-wavelength-sensitive cones).^[3] In contrast to normal trichromacy, which employs three cone types with peak sensitivities in the long (red), medium (green), and short (blue) wavelengths to create a three-dimensional color space, dichromacy reduces color perception to mixtures of two primaries, leading to a narrower gamut of distinguishable colors. Monochromacy, the most severe deficiency, involves only one functional cone type or rod-based vision, eliminating color perception entirely and rendering the world in grayscale.^[3]^[4] The key perceptual outcome of dichromacy is the existence of confusion lines in chromaticity space, along which certain color pairs appear identical due to the overlapping spectral sensitivities of the two remaining cones, which respond proportionally to those stimuli. These lines define the boundaries of color confusions, such as reds and greens for some dichromats, fundamentally altering hue discrimination.^[5] The concept of dichromacy emerged in the 19th century through the work of physiologists studying color blindness, building on the trichromatic theory proposed by Thomas Young and elaborated by Hermann von Helmholtz, who linked it to the absence of one retinal pigment.^[6]

Types

Dichromacy is categorized into three primary types—protanopia, deuteranopia, and tritanopia—each characterized by the absence of one specific cone photoreceptor class, leading to distinct spectral confusions in color perception.^[7] These types are classified according to the peak sensitivity of the missing cone: short-wavelength-sensitive (S) cones at approximately 420 nm, medium-wavelength-sensitive (M) cones at approximately 530 nm, and long-wavelength-sensitive (L) cones at approximately 560 nm.^[8] Protanopia results from the complete absence of L-cones, which are sensitive to long wavelengths around 560 nm and primarily detect red light, causing individuals to confuse reds with greens or blacks while perceiving other colors relatively normally.^[9] In this condition, the remaining S- and M-cones provide dichromatic vision with a reduced brightness for longer wavelengths, as L-cones contribute significantly to luminance perception.^[7] Deuteranopia involves the absence of M-cones, sensitive to medium wavelengths around 530 nm and primarily responsible for green light detection, leading to confusions between reds and greens that are spectrally shifted compared to protanopia, with yellows appearing more desaturated.^[9] Affected individuals rely on S- and L-cones, maintaining similar overall luminance sensitivity to normal vision but with impaired discrimination in the red-green axis.^[7] Tritanopia arises from the lack of S-cones, which peak at approximately 420 nm and are tuned to short (blue) wavelengths, resulting in confusions between blues and yellows or greens, while red-green distinctions remain intact.^[7] This type preserves the contributions of M- and L-cones to both color and brightness, but short-wavelength signals are absent, leading to a blue-yellow perceptual deficiency.^[9] Protanopia and deuteranopia follow X-linked recessive inheritance patterns, whereas tritanopia is typically autosomal dominant.^[10] Rare variants of dichromacy exist, though such forms are not well-documented in human vision.

Physiology and Genetics

Cone Cells and Mechanisms

Cone cells are specialized photoreceptors in the retina responsible for color vision under photopic conditions, containing photopigments known as opsins that bind to the chromophore 11-cis-retinal. These opsins are heptahelical transmembrane proteins embedded in the outer segment discs of the cones, where light absorption triggers a conformational change, initiating the phototransduction cascade through G-protein activation. In typical trichromatic vision, three types of cones exist: short-wavelength-sensitive (S) cones with peak sensitivity around 420-440 nm, medium-wavelength-sensitive (M) cones peaking at 530-545 nm, and long-wavelength-sensitive (L) cones peaking at 558-565 nm, enabling discrimination across the visible spectrum. In dichromacy, only two of these cone types remain functional due to the absence or non-functionality of one photopigment class, reducing color vision to a two-dimensional perceptual space. For instance, in protanopia (L-cone absence) or deuteranopia (M-cone absence), the S and remaining M or L cones provide input, while in tritanopia (S-cone absence), the M and L cones dominate. This limitation stems from the genetic or developmental failure of one opsin gene expression, resulting in cones that either lack pigment or express a non-functional variant, thereby restricting the spectral sampling to two overlapping sensitivity bands. Neural processing of color in dichromats adapts the opponent-process theory, where signals from the two functional cones are compared via antagonistic pathways in retinal ganglion cells and beyond, projecting to the lateral geniculate nucleus and visual cortex. Originally proposed for trichromacy with three opponent channels—red-green (L-M), blue-yellow (S-(L+M)), and achromatic (L+M)—dichromacy eliminates one channel; for example, tritanopia lacks the blue-yellow opponent axis, confining color comparisons to a 2D space of red-green opponency and luminance. This adaptation occurs through single-opponent cells that respond preferentially to broad color increments or decrements and double-opponent cells in V1 that sharpen color boundaries, but with reduced chromatic dimensionality due to the missing cone input.^[11] The spectral sensitivity curves of the two active cones in dichromats exhibit significant overlap, particularly between M and L types in tritanopia, leading to metamerism where distinct spectral stimuli elicit identical responses and appear indistinguishable. This overlap causes confusion loci—straight lines in the CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram radiating from the white point—along which dichromats perceive no hue difference; for protanopia, the primary locus spans from a neutral point at approximately 493 nm to a confusion point at 639 nm, while for tritanopia, it extends from 568 nm to 447 nm. These loci represent iso-perceived colors in the reduced cone space, visualized as heavy lines in CIE diagrams overlaying the spectral locus, highlighting the linear confusion boundaries absent in trichromats.^[12] Reliance on fewer cone inputs in dichromacy alters luminance perception and flicker sensitivity, as the achromatic channel (sum of the two cones) carries more weight but with potential imbalances. At low temporal frequencies (e.g., 1 Hz), dichromats show elevated detection thresholds—about twofold higher than trichromats—for chromatic stimuli due to the loss of opponent mechanisms, impairing fine luminance modulation via the missing channel. Conversely, at high frequencies (e.g., 16 Hz), dichromats exhibit comparable or superior luminance flicker sensitivity, attributed to compensatory increases in the density of surviving cone types, enhancing temporal resolution in the luminance pathway.^[13]

Genetic Basis

Dichromacy in humans is primarily a congenital condition resulting from genetic mutations that impair the function of one of the three cone opsin genes, leading to the loss of one cone photopigment type. Protanopia (absence of red-sensitive cones) and deuteranopia (absence of green-sensitive cones) follow an X-linked recessive inheritance pattern due to mutations in the OPN1LW and OPN1MW genes, respectively, both located on the X chromosome at Xq28.^[14]^[15] Red-green dichromacy affects approximately 2% of males due to hemizygosity on their single X chromosome, whereas females require mutations on both X chromosomes to express the condition, affecting about 0.03% of them.^[16] In contrast, tritanopia (absence of blue-sensitive cones) is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner through mutations in the OPN1SW gene on chromosome 7q32, resulting in equal prevalence among sexes but overall rarity compared to red-green forms.^[17]^[10] At the molecular level, dichromacy arises from various genetic alterations in the opsin genes that produce non-functional photopigments. For red-green dichromacy, the OPN1LW and OPN1MW genes are arranged in a tandem array on the X chromosome, with the L-cone (OPN1LW) gene typically upstream of multiple M-cone (OPN1MW) copies; disruptions such as gene deletions, chimeric or hybrid genes formed by unequal recombination, and point mutations (e.g., missense variants altering amino acids critical for spectral tuning) prevent proper expression or function of the respective opsins.^[18]^[19] These mechanisms often lead to complete loss of one cone type, with hybrid genes particularly common in anomalous trichromacy but extending to dichromatic phenotypes when combined with deletions.^[20] For tritanopia, mutations in OPN1SW are predominantly point mutations or small insertions/deletions that disrupt the opsin's binding to 11-cis-retinal or its membrane integration, rendering blue-sensitive cones non-functional.^[21] While most cases of dichromacy are congenital and genetic in origin, acquired forms can develop later in life due to diseases or environmental factors that damage cone cells or their pathways, distinct from inherited mutations. Conditions such as diabetes mellitus can induce tritan-like dichromacy through retinal vascular changes and opsin dysfunction without altering the underlying DNA sequence, contrasting with the permanent genetic defects in congenital cases.^[22]^[23] Other causes include macular degeneration or toxic exposures, but these typically result in partial or progressive color loss rather than complete dichromacy unless severe.^[24]

In Humans

Prevalence

Dichromacy, the severe form of color vision deficiency characterized by the absence of one cone pigment type, exhibits distinct prevalence patterns globally, with red-green variants being far more common than blue-yellow types. Protanopia, the lack of long-wavelength (red) sensitivity, affects approximately 1% of males and 0.01% of females, while deuteranopia, lacking medium-wavelength (green) sensitivity, impacts about 1.5% of males and 0.01% of females.^[25] Tritanopia, involving the absence of short-wavelength (blue) sensitivity, is much rarer, occurring in roughly 0.008% of both males and females.^[25] Prevalence of red-green dichromacy shows ethnic variations, with higher rates observed in Caucasian populations—where total red-green color vision deficiency can reach 8% in males of Northern European descent—compared to lower incidences in some Asian and African groups, ranging from 4% to 6.5% in males.^[26]^[27] These differences are largely attributed to the X-linked genetic inheritance of red-green types, which primarily affects males due to their single X chromosome.^[14] Risk factors for congenital dichromacy center on family history, given its X-linked recessive pattern for protanopia and deuteranopia, whereas tritanopia follows autosomal dominant inheritance. Acquired forms of dichromacy or severe color deficiency, often resulting from aging, disease, or medication, affect approximately 3.7% of the elderly population aged 60 years and older, with prevalence of red-green deficiencies rising to around 5.8% in those aged 80 and older.^[28]

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of dichromacy in humans primarily relies on psychophysical tests that assess color discrimination and matching abilities, supplemented by electrophysiological and genetic methods for confirmation and classification.^[29] The Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates serve as a standard screening tool for detecting red-green color deficiencies, such as protanopia and deuteranopia, by presenting plates where numbers or paths are discernible only to those with normal or specific defective vision; it identifies approximately 96% of confirmed cases but may miss mild anomalous trichromacy.^[29] For evaluating the severity of the deficiency, the Farnsworth-Munsell 100 Hue test requires arranging colored caps in spectral order, revealing error scores that quantify discrimination deficits, with higher scores indicating greater impairment in dichromats.^[30] Anomaloscopy provides a more precise diagnostic method through direct comparison of spectral lights, particularly via the Rayleigh match, where subjects adjust mixtures of red and green primaries to match a yellow reference; dichromats exhibit a match anomaly with zero tolerance for variation (matching only at a single point due to absent cone function), enabling distinction from anomalous trichromacy, which shows a broader matching range.^[29] This test targets protan and deutan types effectively, while tritanopia requires adapted blue-yellow matching protocols.^[29] Advanced techniques include electroretinography (ERG), which measures retinal cone responses to specific wavelengths; in dichromats, ERG reveals absent signals from the deficient cone class, such as lacking L-cone responses in protanopes, confirming the physiological basis of the defect.^[31] Genetic testing analyzes opsin gene mutations on the X chromosome for red-green dichromacy or autosomal genes for tritanopia, identifying specific variants like deletions or hybrids in OPN1LW/OPN1MW that cause cone absence, serving as a definitive diagnostic standard when psychophysical results are ambiguous.^[32]

Perceptual Abilities

Dichromatic humans possess a reduced color space compared to trichromats, enabling them to distinguish roughly 10,000 hues rather than the approximately 1–2 million perceivable by those with normal trichromatic vision. This limitation arises from the absence of one cone photopigment, resulting in a two-dimensional color perception where certain hues are confusable along the missing chromatic axis. For instance, protanopes, lacking functional long-wavelength-sensitive (L-) cones, perceive reds as dark grays or blacks and confuse them with darker greens or browns, while deuteranopes, lacking medium-wavelength-sensitive (M-) cones, blend reds and greens into similar yellowish tones. Tritanopes, though rarer, confuse blues and yellows, seeing them as neutral grays. These confusions follow the dichromatic confusion lines in color spaces like CIE 1931, where colors of equal appearance to dichromats lie along straight lines passing through the missing cone's neutral point.^[33]^[34] Despite color discrimination deficits, dichromats exhibit strengths in other visual domains, particularly those involving luminance and temporal processing. They often demonstrate enhanced flicker detection at high frequencies (e.g., 16 Hz), attributed to an increased density of the remaining cone types replacing the absent ones and stronger rod-cone interactions that amplify sensitivity to rapid changes. This can provide an advantage in detecting motion or temporally modulated stimuli under certain conditions. Additionally, dichromats show superior low-light (scotopic) adaptation compared to trichromats, allowing better performance in dim environments due to less interference from the missing cone pathway during rod-dominated vision.^[35]^[36] In everyday scenarios, these perceptual traits manifest as reliance on luminance cues for tasks typically requiring hue distinction; for example, protanopes may identify traffic light colors primarily by vertical position and brightness differences rather than hue, as the red signal appears dimmer and could be mistaken for an unlit bulb in low-illumination conditions. Similarly, sorting colored objects like fruits or clothing often depends on brightness gradients instead of chromatic differences, enabling functional performance despite reduced hue variety. To visualize these abilities, simulations of dichromatic vision employ algorithms that project trichromatic images onto the dichromat's reduced color space, such as by applying color filters that enforce confusion lines; tools based on these methods, like those derived from linear transformation models, accurately depict how a vibrant trichromatic scene compresses into a more monochromatic palette for protanopes or deuteranopes.^[37]^[38]

In Non-Human Animals

Mammals

Most placental mammals exhibit dichromacy, possessing only two types of cone photoreceptors: short-wavelength-sensitive (SWS1) cones tuned to blue-violet light and middle-to-long-wavelength-sensitive (M/LWS) cones sensitive to green-yellow light.^[39] This configuration allows them to distinguish colors along a blue-green axis but limits discrimination in the red-green spectrum, a trait shared across diverse orders like Carnivora and Rodentia.^[40] In carnivores such as cats and dogs, dichromacy is well-characterized, with S-cones peaking around 450 nm and M/LWS cones around 550 nm, enabling detection of blues and yellows while rendering reds indistinguishable from greens.^[41] Domestic cats (Felis catus) and dogs (Canis familiaris) rely on this system for environmental cues, though their vision is augmented by high rod density for low-light conditions. An exception among placental mammals occurs in Old World primates (catarrhines), where trichromacy evolved through X-chromosome duplication of the opsin gene, producing separate middle-wavelength (MWS) and long-wavelength (LWS) pigments alongside SWS cones, allowing full red-green-blue color perception in all individuals.^[42] Marsupials display greater variability in color vision, with some species dichromatic and others achieving trichromacy through allelic polymorphism in their single LWS opsin gene, similar to New World primates.^[43] For instance, the quokka (Setonix brachyurus) possesses three cone types with peaks at approximately 430 nm (SWS), 540 nm, and 560 nm, enabling trichromatic discrimination, while many wallabies, such as the tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii), are dichromatic with SWS and a single LWS cone.^[44] This polymorphism often results in males being dichromatic and females potentially trichromatic if heterozygous.^[45] Dichromatic mammals often compensate through functional adaptations, including UV sensitivity in S-cones for foraging tasks like detecting UV-reflective food sources or trails, and enhanced rod-mediated scotopic vision for crepuscular activity.^[46] Ground squirrels (Xerus spp.), for example, leverage their dichromatic system—peaking at 450 nm and 530 nm—to differentiate green foliage from brown earth, aiding in vegetation assessment and predator avoidance during diurnal foraging.^[47] Marine mammals represent a notable exception, frequently exhibiting monochromacy with only LWS cones (peaking around 560 nm), as seen in seals and cetaceans, which prioritizes achromatic contrast in the blue-dominated underwater environment over color discrimination.^[48]

Other Vertebrates

Dichromacy in non-mammalian vertebrates varies widely across taxa, often reflecting adaptations to specific ecological niches such as nocturnal activity or aquatic environments, in contrast to the more uniform dichromacy prevalent in mammals. While many such species possess trichromatic or tetrachromatic vision, dichromacy occurs in select groups, particularly those with simplified cone systems. In birds, vision is predominantly tetrachromatic, incorporating ultraviolet-sensitive cones alongside short-, medium-, and long-wavelength cones, enabling detection of UV reflectance crucial for foraging and mating. However, some raptors, such as certain eagles and hawks, exhibit reduced ultraviolet sensitivity due to violet-tuned rather than true UV-sensitive cones and ocular media limitations, compared to UV-sensitive songbirds, though they remain tetrachromatic overall.^[49]^[50] Among fish, dichromacy is common in many species, especially in marine and freshwater environments where light spectra are constrained. For instance, the largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) possesses only two cone types sensitive to green and red wavelengths, allowing color discrimination based on these channels for prey detection and habitat navigation. Deep-sea fish often adapt to dim blue light with dichromatic systems or even monochromacy, prioritizing rod-dominated vision over expanded cone diversity.^[51]^[52] Reptiles and amphibians display variable dichromacy, particularly in nocturnal or crepuscular species with dual cone configurations. Snakes, for example, typically feature two cone types—a UV-sensitive cone (peaking around 360 nm) and a long-wavelength-sensitive (LWS) cone (around 550 nm)—enabling dichromatic color vision suited to low-light hunting and thermal detection integration. In amphibians, nocturnal frogs and salamanders utilize a dual rod system (blue- and green-sensitive rods) for scotopic color discrimination, effectively providing dichromatic perception at threshold light levels without relying on cones.^[53]^[54]

Evolutionary Aspects

Origins in Mammals

Early mammals inherited a visual system from their amniote ancestors that featured tetrachromacy, with four distinct cone opsin classes: short-wavelength sensitive 1 (SWS1, ultraviolet-sensitive), short-wavelength sensitive 2 (SWS2, blue-sensitive), rhodopsin-like 2 (Rh2, green-sensitive), and long-wavelength sensitive (LWS, red-sensitive). This ancestral configuration, dating back to approximately 300 million years ago in early tetrapods, enabled broad-spectrum color discrimination under diurnal conditions. However, during the Mesozoic era around 200 to 100 million years ago, early mammals underwent a "nocturnal bottleneck," a period of evolutionary constraint where they adopted a primarily nocturnal lifestyle to evade competition from diurnal reptiles, including dinosaurs.^[55] This shift imposed strong selective pressures favoring enhanced low-light sensitivity over color vision, leading to the loss of the SWS2 and Rh2 opsin genes, reducing the cone complement to two functional types: SWS1 and LWS. The retention of dichromacy in most mammals stems from this bottleneck, with genetic phylogenies of opsin sequences revealing that the SWS1 gene (short-wavelength sensitive, peaking around 360-420 nm) was conserved across all major mammalian lineages, including monotremes, marsupials, and placentals.^[56] These phylogenies, reconstructed from comparative DNA analyses of diverse species, indicate that the ancestral mammalian LWS opsin was tuned to mid-wavelength green light (around 550 nm), providing complementary sensitivity to the blue-violet SWS1 for basic dichromatic discrimination in dim environments. Fossil and molecular clock evidence supports this loss occurring before the divergence of marsupials and placentals around 148 million years ago, with no recovery of the lost opsins in non-primate mammals.^[55] In primates, a key evolutionary modification occurred through the duplication of the ancestral LWS opsin gene on the X chromosome, approximately 40 million years ago in the lineage leading to Old World primates. This event produced separate long-wavelength sensitive (LWS, peaking at ~560 nm) and middle-wavelength sensitive (MWS, ~530 nm) opsins, diverging from the single green-sensitive ancestral form via sequence divergence and gene conversion.^[57] While this laid the foundation for trichromacy in catarrhine primates, the broader mammalian retention of a single LWS/MWS class underscores the enduring impact of nocturnal adaptation, where selective pressures prioritized rod cell proliferation and enlarged retinal areas for scotopic vision over expanded cone diversity.^[55]

Comparative Evolution

The ancestral vertebrates possessed a diverse array of cone opsins, enabling tetrachromatic color vision with sensitivity spanning ultraviolet (UV) to longer wavelengths, including UV-violet sensitive SWS1 opsins peaking around 358–370 nm.^[58] This multiplicity arose from early duplications of an ancestral opsin gene approximately 500–530 million years ago, predating the divergence of major vertebrate lineages, and provided broad spectral coverage through four cone classes (SWS1, SWS2, Rh2, LWS) alongside rod opsins.^[59] Dichromacy emerged as a reduction in this ancestral repertoire, particularly in lineages adapting to nocturnal or low-light environments, where selective pressures favored fewer cone types for enhanced sensitivity over chromatic discrimination; diurnal lineages, by contrast, often retained more opsins. Convergent evolution of dichromacy has occurred independently across vertebrate groups, reflecting parallel adaptations to similar ecological niches such as nocturnality or aquatic habitats. In teleost fish, deep-sea species have lost multiple cone opsins (e.g., SWS1 and Rh2), resulting in dichromatic or monochromatic vision akin to that in nocturnal reptiles like snakes, which independently shed SWS1 and other cones while retaining LWS and Rh1 for dim-light detection.^[58] Reptilian dichromacy mirrors mammalian patterns, with losses in nocturnal squamates paralleling the early mammalian reduction during a nocturnal bottleneck that eliminated SWS2 and Rh2 opsins.^[60] These independent gene losses highlight shared selective pressures for simplified color vision in light-limited settings, distinct from the tetrachromacy preserved in diurnal fish and birds. In primates, dichromacy was partially reversed through the evolution of trichromacy in females, achieved via X-chromosome opsin polymorphism around 30–40 million years ago in New World lineages and gene duplication in Old World ancestors.^[42] This polymorphism allows heterozygous females to express both medium-wavelength-sensitive (MWS) and long-wavelength-sensitive (LWS) opsins in separate cones due to random X-inactivation, restoring red-green discrimination lost in the mammalian lineage. Genomic studies since 2010 have illuminated the mechanisms of these evolutionary shifts, identifying key opsin duplications and tuning sites that drove spectral adaptations across vertebrates. For instance, analyses of over 100 fish genomes revealed repeated LWS duplications enabling trichromacy in diurnal species, while comparative sequencing in reptiles and mammals pinpointed convergent amino acid substitutions (e.g., at sites 83 and 292 in Rh1) underlying dichromatic sensitivities.^[58] These insights, drawn from high-throughput sequencing, underscore how gene family expansions and losses shaped vertebrate color vision diversity.

Implications

Daily Life Impacts

Dichromacy, particularly the common red-green forms such as protanopia and deuteranopia, presents significant challenges in human society by impairing the ability to distinguish certain colors, leading to practical difficulties in color-reliant tasks.^[61] These perceptual confusions, where reds and greens appear similar, extend beyond abstract vision science into tangible barriers in professional and personal spheres.^[62] Occupational restrictions are among the most pronounced impacts, as many visually demanding fields enforce color vision standards to ensure safety and accuracy. In aviation, regulatory bodies like the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and various military services require normal color vision for pilots and air traffic controllers due to reliance on color-coded instruments and signals, resulting in disqualification for dichromats.^[61] Similarly, electrical work often bars individuals with dichromacy because of the need to identify color-coded wires and components, with at least 25% of individuals with CVD having been denied jobs in sectors such as the military and police due to their condition.^[61] Design fields, including graphic and interior design, impose limitations through color-matching requirements, contributing to altered career trajectories for affected individuals.^[62] Overall, approximately 43% of dichromats report that their condition has influenced their career choices, with restrictions in roles like firefighting and rail operations exacerbating employment barriers.^[62] In everyday activities, dichromacy complicates routine decisions dependent on color cues, increasing the cognitive load for those affected. Traffic signals pose a frequent challenge, with 50% of dichromats struggling to differentiate red and green lights, though many adapt by relying on positional cues without evidence of elevated accident rates.^[61] Clothing selection often leads to mismatches, as individuals may confuse similar hues, while judging food ripeness—such as distinguishing ripe bananas from unripe ones—relies on unreliable color perception.^[63] These issues extend to medication identification and household tasks, where 90% of dichromats encounter difficulties in color-based sorting.^[62] Social and psychological effects further compound the challenges, fostering isolation or frustration in color-centric interactions. In art appreciation, dichromats may misinterpret palettes, leading to diminished enjoyment or misunderstandings in discussions.^[63] Sports activities, such as following team colors in soccer or navigating color-coded maps in orienteering, can result in disadvantages or exclusion, with children often facing ridicule in school settings that prompts social withdrawal.^[63] Psychologically, this manifests as emotional distress from repeated curiosities or embarrassments, though only a minority of studies quantify such impacts.^[63] Gender disparities amplify these effects, as dichromacy predominantly affects males due to its X-linked inheritance, with prevalence rates of about 8% in males compared to 0.4% in females.^[64] This skew influences career choices more severely for men, who comprise nearly all (99%) of job applicants screened for CVD in high-stakes fields, potentially limiting opportunities in male-dominated sectors like engineering and transportation.^[61]

Compensation Strategies

Assistive tools have been developed to help individuals with dichromacy distinguish colors more effectively by altering light wavelengths or providing digital enhancements. Color-correcting glasses, such as EnChroma lenses, employ notch filters to reduce spectral overlap between medium- and long-wavelength cones, thereby enhancing contrast for red-green dichromats.^[65] These glasses are designed primarily for anomalous trichromats (protanomaly and deuteranomaly), with limited or no benefit for dichromats like protanopes and deuteranopes; clinical studies indicate limited improvements in some tasks, though overall effectiveness varies and may not enable perception of entirely new colors.^[66] Mobile applications also serve as practical aids; for instance, Color Blind Pal uses camera-based color detection to identify and label hues in real-time, allowing users to point at objects and receive verbal or visual feedback on colors they cannot differentiate.^[67] Design accommodations in everyday environments and digital interfaces prioritize accessibility beyond color reliance to mitigate dichromacy's limitations. Universal design principles, such as Color Universal Design (CUD), recommend using patterns, textures, or labels alongside colors in visual aids like maps and charts to ensure interpretability for all users, including those with dichromatic vision.^[68] Operating systems incorporate built-in software filters; Windows Color Filters, for example, apply grayscale, inverted, or deuteranopia/protanopia-specific adjustments to screen content, enabling real-time color adaptation that aids tasks like reading graphs or identifying icons.^[69] Training methods focus on behavioral adaptations to compensate for perceptual gaps without altering vision itself. Occupational therapy programs teach strategies like sorting items by brightness or saturation levels rather than hue, or using verbal descriptions and tactile cues to navigate color-dependent activities such as clothing selection or food preparation.^[70] Vocational rehabilitation services tailor these skills to professional contexts, providing task-specific training and assistive devices to support employment in fields like design or safety inspection where color cues are prevalent.^[71] As of 2025, emerging advances offer potential for more direct interventions. Gene therapy trials targeting cone opsin genes have shown promise in restoring partial color vision in achromatopsia patients, with phase 1/2 studies demonstrating safety and subtle improvements in color perception when administered early; similar approaches are advancing for related monochromatic conditions, such as blue cone monochromacy. As of July 2025, the Vision Center at Children's Hospital Los Angeles initiated a phase 1 clinical trial for the first gene therapy targeting blue cone monochromacy in boys.^[72]^[73] AI-enhanced vision aids, including augmented reality smart glasses, use computational algorithms to reconstruct trichromatic views in real-time by remapping colors based on the user's deficiency profile, as explored in recent prototypes that integrate camera feeds with neural networks for on-the-fly correction.^[74]

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It has been suggested that the neural substrate for color constancy is the population of orientation-selective double-opponent neurons (see the review by ...
[12]
Orthogonal Relations and Color Constancy in Dichromatic Colorblindness
### Summary of Spectral Sensitivity Curves, Overlap, Metamerism, and Confusion Loci in Dichromacy
[13]
https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2122133
[14]
The genetics of normal and defective color vision - PubMed Central
dichromacy (Rowe & Jacobs, 2007). It appears that the addition of an extra subpopulation of cones to a dichromat has a more dramatic effect on color vision than ...
[15]
OPN1LW - Hereditary Ocular Diseases - The University of Arizona
Red-green color vision defects are therefore inherited in an X-linked recessive pattern. There is a single gene for the red cone opsin but there are multiple ...
[16]
Entry - #190900 - TRITANOPIA - OMIM - (OMIM.ORG)
A number sign (#) is used with this entry because tritanopia is caused by heterozygous mutation in the OPN1SW gene (613522) on chromosome 7q32.Missing: basis | Show results with:basis
[17]
Three Different Cone Opsin Gene Array Mutational Mechanisms with ...
Mutations in the OPN1LW (L-) and OPN1MW (M-)cone opsin genes underlie a spectrum of cone photoreceptor defects from stationary loss of color vision to ...
[18]
Diagnostic analysis of the highly complex OPN1LW/OPN1MW gene ...
Nov 9, 2022 · Pathogenic variants in the OPN1LW/OPN1MW gene cluster are causal for a range of mild to severe visual impairments with color deficiencies.
[19]
The landscape of submicroscopic structural variants at the OPN1LW ...
Jun 27, 2022 · Three main mutation mechanisms have been described to underlie BCM: 1) deletions or other structural variants (SVs) at the OPN1LW/OPN1MW gene ...
[20]
Tritan color vision deficiency may be associated with an OPN1SW ...
Inherited tritan color vision deficiencies exhibit an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern and are caused by mutations in the short-wavelength sensitive (S) ...Missing: OPIN1SW | Show results with:OPIN1SW
[21]
A review of congenital and acquired colour vision deficiencies
Nov 22, 2016 · Colour vision deficiencies (CVDs) can be categorised as being congenital or acquired. Some CVDs are already present at birth, as inherited conditions.Missing: diabetes | Show results with:diabetes
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Physiology, Color Perception - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
This topic reviews the cellular and genetic mechanisms that underlie color perception and applies these mechanisms to characterizing defects in color vision and ...
[23]
Acquired Colour Vision Defects - Colour Blind Awareness
Some of the ways you can acquire colour vision loss are due to Chronic illnesses which can lead to colour blindness include Alzheimer's disease, diabetes ...Missing: dichromacy congenital
[24]
Table 1, Prevalence of congenital color deficiencies - Webvision
Table 1Prevalence of congenital color deficiencies ; Dichromasy ; Protanopia, 1%, 0.01% ; Deuteranopia, 1.5%, 0.01% ; Tritanopia*, 0.008%, 0.008%.Missing: dichromacy populations
[25]
A Global Perspective of Color Vision Deficiency: Awareness ... - MDPI
The prevalence of CVD varies by population, with red–green CVD affecting up to 8% of males and 0.5% of females of Northern European descent and lower rates ...
[26]
Worldwide prevalence of red-green color deficiency
Large random population surveys show that the prevalence of deficiency in European Caucasians is about 8% in men and about 0.4% in women and between 4% and 6.5% ...
[27]
The prevalence of red-green color vision deficiency and its related ...
The prevalence of RG CVD increased with advancing age from 2.91% in the age group 60–64y to 5.8% in the age group ≥80y.
[28]
Types of Colour Blindness
The 8% of colour blind men with inherited colour blindness can be divided approximately into 1% deuteranopes, 1% protanopes, 1% protanomalous and 5% ...
[29]
USING COLOR VISION TESTS - NCBI
The anomaloscope is the only clinical instrument for diagnosis and classification of the presumed genetic entities of dichromacy and to both simple and extreme ...Missing: humans | Show results with:humans
[30]
Use of the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-Hue test in the examination of ...
Results for the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-Hue test are reported for 238 male subjects with congenital colour vision defects.
[31]
Electrodiagnosis of dichromacy - PubMed
Dichromatic subjects were genetically characterized by molecular analysis of their opsin genes. ERG responses to L-cone stimuli were absent in protanopes ...
[32]
Genetic Testing as a New Standard for Clinical Diagnosis of Color ...
Sep 6, 2016 · The MassArray assay provides genetic information that can be useful in the diagnosis of inherited color vision deficiency including presence versus absence, ...
[33]
https://opg.optica.org/josaa/abstract.cfm?uri=josaa-27-10-2106
[34]
Computerized simulation of color appearance for dichromats
We propose an algorithm that transforms a digitized color image so as to simulate for normal observers the appearance of the image for people who have ...
[35]
Advantages and disadvantages of human dichromacy | JOV
As expected, then, natural selection should select against X-linked dichromacy (red–green color blindness) as an undesirable trait. Indeed, dichromacy is ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[36]
[PDF] University of Groningen Scotopic vision in colour-blinds Verhulst, S.
In our study colour-blinds had enhanced scotopic vision as compared with colour-normals, which sug- gests colour-blinds can see better at under scotopic.<|control11|><|separator|>
[37]
Types of Color Vision Deficiency - National Eye Institute - NIH
Aug 7, 2023 · Protanomaly makes certain shades of red look more green and less bright. This type is mild and usually doesn't get in the way of normal ...
[38]
https://opg.optica.org/josaa/abstract.cfm?uri=josaa-14-10-2647
[39]
Color vision diversity and significance in primates inferred from ...
Placental mammals maintain only two types of cone visual opsins, SWS1 and M/LWS, in addition to the RH1 rod opsin, and are hence dichromatic in color vision ...
[40]
Evolution of colour vision in mammals - PMC - PubMed Central
Both rat and ground squirrel have two types of cone and both can be formally shown to have dichromatic colour vision, but that capacity is much easier to ...
[41]
Are dogs red–green colour blind? - PMC - PubMed Central
Nov 8, 2017 · Neurobiological and molecular studies suggest a dichromatic colour vision in canine species, which appears to be similar to that of human red–green colour ...
[42]
The Genetic and Evolutionary Drives behind Primate Color Vision
Trichromacy is therefore achieved by individual cones expressing just one copy of either the L or M pigments together with S cones expressing the autosomal SWS1 ...
[43]
Diversity of Color Vision: Not All Australian Marsupials Are ...
Dec 6, 2010 · Placental mammals with UV-sensitive S-cones, such as rodents [57], [58], have been shown to perform poorly in color discriminations. While ...
[44]
Cone topography and spectral sensitivity in two potentially ...
Apr 22, 2005 · The present study investigates spectral sensitivity in a small wallaby, the quokka (Setonix brachyurus) and a bandicoot, the quenda (Isoodon ...
[45]
Behavioural evidence for marsupial trichromacy
The ability to discriminate red–green colours was thought to be unique among mammals to trichromatic primates [1,2], until recent microspectrophotometric.<|control11|><|separator|>
[46]
The evolution of color vision in nocturnal mammals - PNAS
Jun 2, 2009 · Our results suggest that UV color vision plays a considerably more important role in nocturnal mammalian sensory ecology than previously appreciated.Missing: dichromacy | Show results with:dichromacy
[47]
GROUND SQUIRREL – A COOL MODEL FOR A BRIGHT VISION
Ground squirrels are omnivorous, they seek nuts and seeds but also hunt insets such as grasshoppers and even smaller mammals. They therefore evolved an ...
[48]
For whales and seals the ocean is not blue: a visual pigment loss in ...
These marine mammals have only L-cones (cone monochromacy) and hence are essentially colour-blind.
[49]
ultra violet | - Corvid Research
Dec 2, 2020 · The low UV-detection abilities of corvids and many raptors, appears to offer a lifeline to smaller passerines, which exploit these visual ...
[50]
Ultraviolet sensitivity and colour vision in raptor foraging
Aug 6, 2025 · Raptors have excellent vision, yet it is unclear how they use colour information. It has been suggested that raptors use ultraviolet (UV) reflections from vole ...
[51]
Seeing red: color vision in the largemouth bass | Current Zoology
Mar 7, 2018 · This study shows that bass possess dichromatic vision and do use chromatic (i.e., color) cues in making visual-based decisions.
[52]
Colour vision in marine organisms - PubMed
Colour vision in the marine environment is on average simpler than in terrestrial environments with simple or no colour vision through monochromacy or ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[53]
The Diversity and Adaptive Evolution of Visual Photopigments in ...
Most snakes possess UV-sensitive (360 nm) and LWS (around 550 nm) cones, suggesting they are dichromatic (Sillman et al., 1999, 2001; Davies et al., 2009; ...Missing: dichromacy | Show results with:dichromacy
[54]
The dual rod system of amphibians supports colour discrimination at ...
Apr 5, 2017 · The presence of two spectrally different kinds of rod photoreceptors in amphibians has been hypothesized to enable purely rod-based colour vision at very low ...Missing: dichromacy | Show results with:dichromacy
[55]
Photoreceptors and visual pigments in the red-eared turtle ...
Turtles might also be sexually dichromatic in ways not apparent to turtle biologists. The advent of reflective spectroscopy offers promise for addressing ...
[56]
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1350-9462(00)00002-1
[57]
https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2017.00034
[58]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012160622002111
[59]
The evolutionary history and spectral tuning of vertebrate visual opsins
We explain the mechanisms determining color vision of extant vertebrates, focusing on opsin gene losses, duplications, and the expression regulation of ...
[60]
Evolution of vertebrate visual pigments
From this, it is clear that the cone opsin genes evolved before the evolution of jaws, implying that primitive jawless fish of the shallow Ordovician seas.
[61]
Visual Pigments, Ocular Filters and the Evolution of Snake Vision
Aug 16, 2016 · Here, we analyze opsin gene sequences and ocular media transmission for up to 69 species to investigate snake visual evolution.
[62]
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12930-014-0010-3
[63]
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-018-2030-1
[64]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lansea.2023.100171
[65]
https://enchroma.com/pages/how-enchroma-glasses-work
[66]
Facts About EnChroma Color Blind Glasses: How Do They Work?
EnChroma glasses are designed to address most forms of red-green color blindness and are not intended to assist the vision of people with Tritan-type deficiency ...
[67]
Characterizing the Effects of Enchroma Glasses on Color ... - PubMed
Enchroma glasses are selective filters designed to enhance color discrimination among red-green color-blind individuals.
[68]
Color Blind Pal
Colors for all - free on iOS, Android and Mac! Color Blind Pal helps people who are color blind see the colors around them.
[69]
Color Universal Design (CUD) / Colorblind Barrier Free
1, Choose color schemes that can be easily identified by people with all types of color vision, in consideration with the actual lighting conditions and ...
[70]
Use color filters in Windows - Microsoft Support
To use a color filter: To go to the Accessibility settings on your computer, press the Windows logo key+U or select Start > Settings > Accessibility .
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How OTs Can Treat Patients with Color Vision Deficits
Apr 15, 2024 · OTs can use touch-based alternatives like velcro, hot glue, and textured tape, and task-specific training to compensate for color vision ...
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What is Vocational Rehabilitation for Adults with Vision Loss
Mar 8, 2024 · Vocational rehabilitation helps people with vision loss overcome barriers to employment through training, support, and a personalized plan.
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Restoring color vision with gene therapy | Drug Discovery News
Jul 22, 2024 · People with achromatopsia have never seen color. Restorative gene therapies have had mixed success, leaving researchers wondering why.
[74]
Computational Trichromacy Reconstruction: Empowering the Color ...
Oct 11, 2024 · We propose an assistive technology that helps individuals with Color Vision Deficiencies (CVD) to recognize/name colors.