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Diode matrix

A diode matrix is a passive electronic circuit comprising a two-dimensional grid of conductive wires with diodes placed at specific intersections to enable signal routing or data storage, functioning as an early form of read-only memory (ROM) in digital systems.^[1]^[2] In operation, address lines correspond to rows and data lines to columns; the presence of a diode at an intersection allows current to flow, representing a binary '1', while its absence denotes a '0', thereby encoding fixed instructions or data that cannot be altered post-fabrication.^[3]^[4] This configuration provided a low-density, non-volatile storage solution using discrete diode components, often mounted on printed circuit boards, before the advent of integrated circuit ROMs in the mid-1960s.^[3] Diode matrices emerged in the 1950s as one of the initial methods for implementing ROM in electronic computers, offering a simple, cost-effective way to store microcode, boot routines, or lookup tables without mechanical parts.^[4] They were notably employed in control stores of early machines, such as the PDP-11's floppy drive boot ROM, and in relay switching circuits for logic operations using selenium or silicon diodes to handle currents up to several amperes.^[5]^[6] Beyond computing, diode matrices found applications in peripheral devices like desktop calculators, where they encoded arithmetic functions, and in keyboard encoders of the 1960s and 1970s to map key presses to output codes while preventing signal ghosting through unidirectional diode paths.^[7]^[8] By the early 1970s, they were largely supplanted by higher-density semiconductor ROMs from manufacturers like Fairchild and Intel, though diode-based designs persisted in niche areas such as video game cartridges for write-once memory needs.^[3]^[4]

Fundamentals

Definition

A diode matrix is a passive electronic circuit consisting of a two-dimensional grid of rows and columns formed by conductive traces on a printed circuit board, with semiconductor diodes strategically placed at selected intersections to create programmable signal pathways.^[1] This arrangement allows for the selective routing of electrical signals based on the fixed configuration of diodes, functioning primarily as a form of read-only memory (ROM) or a simple logic decoder in digital systems.^[2] The presence of a diode at a given row-column intersection encodes a binary "1," enabling conduction, while its absence encodes a binary "0," resulting in an open circuit.^[1] Unlike active components such as transistors, which can amplify signals or require external power for operation, a diode matrix operates entirely passively, relying on the inherent rectification properties of diodes to control current flow without any signal gain or power amplification.^[9] Diodes in the matrix are oriented to permit unidirectional conduction, drawing from their p-n junction structure that supports electron and hole movement under specific voltage conditions.^[10] In basic operation, when a voltage is applied to a row, forward-biased diodes at the intersections conduct current to the corresponding columns, while reverse-biased diodes block flow in the opposite direction, thereby isolating paths and preventing unintended signal interference or crosstalk across the grid.^[1] This rectification ensures reliable, one-way signal propagation essential for the matrix's role in fixed-data storage or decoding tasks.^[2]

Components

The primary components of a diode matrix include diodes positioned at selected intersections of a two-dimensional grid of row and column conductors, along with an insulating substrate to support the assembly.^[11] Diodes serve as the key switching elements, typically silicon, germanium, or selenium rectifiers, while the row and column wires are formed by copper traces etched onto a printed circuit board (PCB).^[12] The insulating substrate is commonly a phenolic board in early designs, providing mechanical stability and electrical isolation for the traces and components.^[13] Silicon diodes, such as the 1N4148, exhibit a forward voltage drop of approximately 0.7 V at typical operating currents and a maximum continuous forward current rating of 200 mA, making them suitable for small-signal applications in diode matrices with currents ranging from 10 to 100 mA.^[14] Germanium diodes, like the 1N34 point-contact type, were prevalent in early implementations and feature a lower forward voltage drop of about 0.3 V but higher leakage currents compared to silicon.^[15] Selenium rectifiers, used in some historical matrices, offer robustness against high voltages but have higher forward drops around 1 V and are less common in modern designs due to their bulkier packaging.^[16] Packaging for these diodes varies from discrete axial-lead types, such as the DO-35 glass package for 1N4148, to surface-mount devices for higher density in contemporary applications.^[14] Supporting components include pull-up or pull-down resistors connected to the columns to establish stable logic levels, often in the range of 1 kΩ to 10 kΩ for compatibility with TTL logic families.^[17] These resistors ensure proper voltage referencing without excessive power dissipation in low-current matrix operations.^[18] Variations in diode types reflect technological evolution, with early diode matrices employing germanium point-contact diodes for their simplicity and low cost, while modern versions favor compact silicon surface-mount diodes to achieve greater integration density on PCBs.^[19]^[20]

Operation

Principle of Operation

A diode matrix operates as a passive network of diodes arranged at the intersections of a grid of rows and columns, functioning as a combinatorial logic decoder for signal routing and selection. When a voltage is applied to a selected row, such as +5 V representing a logic high, the forward bias is applied to the anodes of the diodes connected at that row's intersections. This allows current to flow through any present diodes to the corresponding column lines, which are typically connected to load resistors grounded at one end. The resulting current develops a voltage across these resistors, producing a logic high output on the affected columns. In contrast, unconnected intersections at the selected row have no diode path, resulting in no current flow and thus a logic low output on those columns.^[21] The diodes provide essential isolation between rows, preventing backflow or unintended signal propagation from other rows. Oriented with anodes toward the rows and cathodes toward the columns, the diodes ensure unidirectional current flow, blocking reverse currents that could otherwise couple signals between multiple rows if accidentally activated simultaneously. This isolation maintains the integrity of the selection, ensuring that only the intended row influences the column outputs at any time, while inactive rows remain decoupled due to the reverse-biased state of their diodes.^[21]^[22] In terms of logic implementation, the diode matrix encodes combinatorial functions by the strategic placement of diodes, effectively realizing truth tables where each row input corresponds to a unique address or select line, and column outputs reflect the decoded or stored data bits. For instance, in address decoding applications, activating a specific row via binary address inputs selects and asserts high on the columns connected by diodes, mimicking an AND-OR logic structure inherent to the diode-resistor configuration. This setup allows the matrix to perform fixed decoding without active elements, relying on the passive diode junctions for the logic operation.^[21]^[22] Electrically, the output voltage on an activated column is approximately the row input voltage minus the diode's forward voltage drop, expressed as V_{out} \approx V_{row} - V_f, where V_f is typically 0.7 V for silicon diodes, yielding about 4.3 V for a 5 V input. The current through the path is given by I = \frac{V_{row} - V_f}{R_{load}}, limited by the column's load resistor to prevent excessive draw while ensuring reliable logic levels.^[21]^[10] Crosstalk is mitigated by the diodes' unidirectional conduction, which confines signal flow to the forward direction from the active row and prevents short circuits or feedback loops even if multiple rows are inadvertently driven. Without diodes, bidirectional paths could allow current from one row to erroneously activate columns via another row's connections; the diode orientation ensures such paths are blocked in reverse, preserving signal isolation in the matrix.^[21]

Programming Methods

Programming a diode matrix involves configuring diodes at specific row-column intersections to establish desired logical connections, typically representing binary data or routing patterns. Manual programming is commonly employed for prototypes and small-scale production, where discrete diodes are soldered or clipped into place at selected intersections on a printed circuit board. This method allows customization by physically inserting diodes—such as germanium 1N270 or silicon Schottky types—with the cathode oriented toward the board's bottom conductors to ensure proper forward bias during operation. For instance, in hobbyist projects from the 1960s, this approach facilitated the creation of simple read-only memories or control logic by marking diode locations based on a coding table and using tools like a low-voltage soldering iron and ohmmeter for verification before final assembly.^[23] For mass production in integrated circuits, mask programming customizes the diode connections during fabrication. Diodes are formed as p-n junctions on a silicon wafer using diffusion or ion implantation, and a final metallization layer, defined by a photomask, selectively connects these diodes to row and column lines, creating the desired pattern without discrete components. This process enables high-density arrays on silicon wafers. The pattern is defined by a photomask that exposes photoresist, followed by etching and deposition to create the precise intersections, resulting in a permanent structure optimized for scalability and reliability in commercial devices.^[3] In both methods, the diode matrix employs binary encoding, treating each row-column intersection as a bit position: the presence of a diode (or conductive path) signifies a logical 1 (connection), while absence indicates a 0 (open circuit). This setup allows the matrix to store or route data, with total capacity determined by the product of rows and columns—for example, an 8×16 matrix can hold 128 bits, enabling efficient lookup tables or decoding functions. Signal flow occurs when voltage is applied to a selected row, pulling connected column outputs high through the diodes.^[23]^[24] A key limitation of diode matrix programming is its non-reprogrammable nature; once configured, changes require physical removal or replacement of diodes (via desoldering and cleaning) or complete refabrication of the board, contrasting with programmable read-only memories (PROMs) that allow one-time electrical alteration through fuse blowing. This permanence suits fixed applications but increases iteration costs in development.^[25] To verify programming, a testing procedure applies sequential voltages to each row input while monitoring column outputs against an expected truth table, confirming that only programmed paths conduct (output high) and unprogrammed ones remain open (output low). An ohmmeter checks individual diode polarity and continuity pre-installation, followed by functional tests with logic levels to ensure the binary pattern matches the design, such as validating channel selection codes in decoder applications.^[23]^[24]

Applications

In Computing

Diode matrices served as an early form of read-only memory (ROM) in computing systems, particularly for storing fixed firmware, character generators, and microcode in the 1960s and 1970s.^[3] These arrays consisted of discrete diodes on printed circuit boards, where the presence or absence of a diode at row-column intersections encoded binary data, allowing reliable, non-volatile storage for unchanging programs.^[26] In electronic desk calculators of the era, diode matrices implemented fixed program steps, enabling compact arithmetic and function operations without reprogrammable elements.^[27] For instance, they were employed in character generators to map address inputs to display patterns, providing essential output control in terminals and early displays.^[25] In microprogrammed central processing units (CPUs), diode matrices formed the control store, decoding addresses to sequence microinstructions and support complex instruction set computing (CISC) architectures.^[28] This approach used the matrix to generate control signals from micro-order addresses, facilitating efficient instruction execution in early machines such as the Whirlwind I computer. The Whirlwind I's sequencing circuits relied on diode matrices for distributing timing pulses and implementing logic functions, demonstrating reliability in real-time computing.^[29] Diode matrices also performed address decoding tasks, routing chip-select signals to select specific memory or input/output devices based on binary inputs.^[4] A typical 4×16 diode matrix, for example, decodes a 4-bit address into one of 16 unique outputs, activating the corresponding line while suppressing others through diode steering.^[30] This method was common in early systems for efficient resource selection without complex combinational logic. These matrices integrated seamlessly with diode-transistor logic (DTL) and transistor-transistor logic (TTL) families, operating at compatible voltage levels of 0-5V and interfacing directly with gate outputs.^[31] Power dissipation per diode typically ranged from 10-50 mW, depending on forward current and bias conditions, contributing to overall circuit efficiency in low-density applications.^[32] In the Whirlwind I computer (developed 1940s-1950s), diode matrices implemented logic functions by enabling gates and distributing timing pulses, predating widespread transistor use and demonstrating early reliability in real-time computing.^[29]

In Peripherals

Diode matrices play a crucial role in peripheral devices by enabling efficient signal multiplexing and decoding, allowing multiple inputs or outputs to be managed with fewer control lines in systems like keyboards and displays. In these applications, the matrix configuration uses diodes to direct signals unidirectionally, preventing unwanted feedback or false activations during scanning operations. This approach was particularly valuable in early electronic peripherals where pin-limited microcontrollers or logic circuits needed to handle complex user interfaces. In keyboard matrices, diodes are placed at each key position to facilitate row-column scanning, ensuring that pressing a key activates only the intended intersection without ghosting—where multiple unpressed keys might register due to current leakage. For instance, during the 1960s and early 1970s, various manufacturers employed diode matrices for computer terminal keyboards to encode key presses reliably. Similarly, 1980s consumer electronics, such as Casio calculators and synthesizers, integrated diode matrix keyboards to support multiplexing with discrete logic components like counters and flip-flops. This design allows a microcontroller to sequentially energize rows and detect column signals, accurately identifying pressed keys even in polyphonic setups. For display drivers, diode matrices function as read-only memory (ROM) to decode binary inputs into patterns for 7-segment LED control, where row selections from a counter or address lines activate specific column outputs to illuminate segments for digits. In simple counter circuits, a 4-bit binary code input to the matrix rows selects the appropriate diode connections to drive the LED segments, enabling sequential numeral display with minimal additional decoding logic. Such implementations appear in educational projects and basic digital clocks, demonstrating how the matrix reduces component count by embedding the truth table directly in the diode array. Joystick and switch arrays in game controllers or control panels utilize diode matrices to route multiple discrete inputs—such as directional switches or buttons—to a reduced set of I/O lines, minimizing wiring complexity in compact designs. By arranging switches in a grid with diodes preventing reverse current flow, a single microcontroller can poll the matrix to detect states, supporting up to dozens of controls without dedicated pins per input. This is evident in custom flight simulators or arcade interfaces, where the matrix interfaces encoders and toggles efficiently to USB or legacy controllers. The scanning efficiency of diode matrices significantly reduces pin requirements; for example, an 8×8 configuration can manage 64 keys or switches using just 16 I/O lines, compared to 64 individual connections in a direct-wired setup, thereby conserving microcontroller resources in peripherals. Programming key patterns in these matrices involves soldering diodes at intersections corresponding to active positions, as detailed in standard matrix programming methods. In relay-logic hybrid systems, diode matrices enhanced early peripherals like vending machines and telecom selector panels by providing non-volatile decoding for coin validation or call routing, integrating with electromechanical relays for reliable low-power signal steering in the 1960s and 1970s.

In Switching Circuits

In switching circuits, diode matrices facilitate precise control of relay operations by steering coil currents along designated paths, preventing unintended cross-activation of adjacent relays. This configuration ensures that a selected input energizes only the targeted relay coil while blocking reverse currents that could trigger others, a technique particularly valuable in electromechanical systems requiring reliable isolation. Selenium diode matrices were used in mid-20th century electromechanical switching systems to manage relay selection in crossbar configurations, handling the high-current demands of multiple simultaneous connections without interference.^[16] Diode matrices also enable isolation and wired-OR logic functions, where multiple signal sources can drive a common output line, with diodes oriented to prevent backfeed from higher-voltage sources into lower ones. This setup implements logical OR operations in analog or hybrid environments, allowing any active input to assert the output while isolating inactive paths. A practical example is the SC-200 Series Triple Diode Matrix Modules, designed for low-voltage DC control applications up to 48 V and 1 A per path, with a maximum power handling of 3 W; these modules insert diode-based isolation directly into control circuitry for reliable signal steering in industrial setups.^[33] In power distribution tasks, diode matrices route low-voltage DC supplies to specific loads in automation systems, such as vending machines or lighting arrays, by confining current flow to intended paths and limiting per-path capacities to avoid overloads. Typical implementations cap individual paths at around 3 W to maintain safety and efficiency, using the diodes' unidirectional properties to isolate segments and prevent fault propagation across the network.^[34] Hybrid circuits integrate diode matrices with transistors to enhance switching capacity, where transistors provide amplification for control signals, and the diode array manages rectification and isolation to handle higher currents without distortion. In such designs, the diodes ensure clean forward conduction during activation, while transistors boost the drive to relay coils or loads, combining the low-power precision of diode steering with amplified output.^[35] Diodes in matrices support OR-logic tripping of multiple breakers from a single protective relay contact while isolating control switches to prevent cross-tripping in protective relaying systems.^[36]

History

Origins

The concept of the diode matrix emerged in the 1940s amid the development of vacuum-tube computers, where diodes were initially employed to implement basic logic functions, replacing less reliable mechanical switches and relays. Early semiconductor diodes, particularly point-contact types, were pioneered at Bell Laboratories around 1939–1940 by Russell Ohl, who discovered the p-n junction while investigating silicon crystals for radio detectors; this breakthrough enabled the creation of compact, solid-state devices suitable for matrix configurations that could handle logical operations efficiently.^[37] These diodes provided the foundational building blocks for arranging logic in grid-like arrays, allowing intersections to represent Boolean operations such as AND and OR gates. A significant early application occurred in the Whirlwind I computer, developed at MIT's Servomechanisms Laboratory between 1949 and 1951, where crystal diodes were used in matrix decoders for address selection in magnetic-core memory and in control switches for sequencing operations.^[38] This implementation demonstrated diodes' ability to form reliable electronic switches, with diode matrices decoding binary addresses into 1-out-of-32 selections to drive vacuum-tube circuits, achieving precise timing and reduced failure rates compared to electromechanical alternatives. The system's operational logic, detailed in reports from 1953–1954, highlighted diodes' role in high-speed binary processing, marking one of the first large-scale uses of diode-based logic in computing.^[38] In 1951, Maurice Wilkes advanced the theoretical foundations by proposing microprogramming, a technique for storing control logic in a read-only memory implemented via diode arrays, as outlined in his seminal work on simplifying computer control circuits.^[28] Wilkes envisioned a diode matrix as a physical representation of microinstructions, where grid intersections encoded sequential operations based on Boolean algebra, predating integrated circuits and enabling flexible, alterable control without rewiring hardware. This approach formalized the mapping of logical states to matrix positions, influencing subsequent designs by treating the array as a state table for machine instructions.^[28] By the mid-1950s, diode matrices saw first major implementations in military systems, such as the SAGE air defense network, where diode logic was integrated into radar-processing equipment for its superior reliability over relays in real-time environments.^[39] The AN/FST-2 units, deployed starting in 1958, utilized diode-based circuits alongside vacuum tubes to process radar data, emphasizing the matrix's capacity for scalable, fault-tolerant switching in large-scale applications.^[39]

Evolution and Decline

Diode matrices reached their commercial peak during the 1960s and 1970s, serving as a key read-only memory technology in minicomputers, early electronic calculators, and consumer electronics such as televisions for channel selection logic. In minicomputers like the Digital Equipment Corporation's PDP-8, introduced in 1965, diode matrices were employed for bootstrap loaders and control functions, with modules such as the M847 providing 32 words of 12-bit storage via a compact diode array.^[40] Similarly, early desktop calculators, exemplified by the Sumlock Comptometer ANITA Mk VIII released in 1961, utilized diode matrix ROMs to encode control programs, enabling reliable arithmetic operations without volatile memory.^[41] Advancements in the 1960s transitioned diode matrices from hand-wired assemblies to printed versions integrated into printed circuit boards (PCBs), enhancing reliability and scalability.^[42] This shift allowed for greater densities on multi-layer boards, making them suitable for denser control logic in evolving electronics. These improvements supported broader adoption in peripherals and switching circuits, where fixed programming met the needs of non-reprogrammable applications. The decline of diode matrices began in the late 1960s with the advent of programmable read-only memories (PROMs), such as the early bipolar PROMs introduced by Radiation Inc. around 1969.^[43] By the 1970s, the proliferation of integrated circuits like the TTL 7400 series logic family further diminished their use, as these provided compact, reprogrammable alternatives for decoding and control functions at lower cost and higher integration. Despite this, diode matrices persisted in low-cost applications, including toys and legacy repairs, into the 1980s. Their legacy endures in the conceptual foundations of application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) and the lookup table (LUT) structures in field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), which echo the matrix-based address decoding for configurable logic.^[42]

Design Considerations

Fabrication Techniques

Diode matrices for prototyping are typically constructed using hand-soldering techniques on perforated boards (perfboards) or via wire-wrapping methods to create custom logic arrays. In these approaches, discrete diodes, such as 1N4148 signal diodes, are soldered at selected grid intersections to connect row and column traces, with excess leads trimmed for compactness; this method allows for easy modification by adding or removing diodes during development, as demonstrated in retro computing builds inspired by early digital logic experiments. Early matrices used selenium or copper-oxide diodes for higher currents (up to several amperes) in switching circuits, transitioning to silicon signal diodes like 1N914 or 1N4148 for low-power computing applications by the 1960s.^[17] For mass production, diode matrices involve automated assembly on printed circuit boards (PCBs), where conductive traces are etched using chemical processes to form the grid, followed by insertion of discrete diodes via pick-and-place machines.^[3] Materials for diode matrices evolved significantly over time, beginning with insulating boards like bakelite or phenolic resins paired with axial-lead diodes in the 1950s for early discrete assemblies. By the 1970s, production shifted to flame-retardant fiberglass-reinforced epoxy (FR-4) PCBs, which supported surface-mount device (SMD) diodes for denser layouts and improved mechanical stability.^[44] Density in diode matrices is constrained by assembly methods, with typical configurations ranging from 4×4 to 32×32 intersections; hand-assembled prototypes maintain ~0.1-inch (2.54 mm) spacing to accommodate soldering tools, while automated processes allow finer pitches down to 0.05 inches or less using SMD components.^[17] Quality control post-fabrication includes visual and automated checks for diode orientation to ensure correct forward-bias directionality, followed by continuity testing with multimeters or bed-of-nails fixtures to verify connections and detect open or shorted junctions.^[45]

Advantages and Limitations

Diode matrices offer significant advantages in simplicity and low cost for implementing fixed logic functions, particularly in small-scale applications. Their passive nature contributes to high reliability compared to active transistor circuits, as they avoid issues like single-event latch-up, though diode junctions can still degrade under high radiation; this makes them suitable for some robust, non-volatile operations in demanding environments. Additionally, signal propagation through diode matrices achieves low delays on the order of nanoseconds, with reported times as low as 4.5 ns for basic gates, supporting fast switching in legacy computing circuits.^[46] Despite these strengths, diode matrices suffer from inherent limitations, including complete non-reprogrammability, which demands physical rewiring or replacement for any logic changes, rendering them inflexible compared to modern alternatives.^[47] Power consumption remains relatively high, typically in the milliwatt range per diode due to forward voltage drops and resistive losses, contrasting sharply with the microwatt efficiency of integrated circuit logic families like CMOS.^[48] Increasing matrix size introduces excessive wiring capacitance and crosstalk, degrading performance and complicating fabrication. In comparisons, diode matrices are cheaper than programmable read-only memories (PROMs) for fixed configurations but lack the latter's field-alterability, while offering non-volatility without reconfiguration delays, unlike field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) that require power for state retention.^[1] Today, they persist in niches such as legacy system repairs, educational demonstrations of early computing principles, and high-reliability applications where reprogrammability is unnecessary and radiation tolerance is paramount.

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Microprogramming History -- Mark Smotherman - Clemson University
In Wilkes' seminal paper, he described an implementation of a control store using a diode matrix. ... Tucker, "Microprogram Control for System/360," IBM Systems ...
[46]
Printed Diodes: Materials Processing, Fabrication, and Applications
Printing techniques for the fabrication of diodes have received increasing attention over the last decade due to their great potential as alternatives for high‐ ...Missing: historical | Show results with:historical
[47]
All You Need To Know About The History Of PCB Evolution - JHYPCB
1950s-1960s. PCBs evolve into double-sided boards with electrical components on one side and identification printing on the other. Zinc plates are incorporated ...
[48]
Testing Assemblies with Diodes - Cirris Inc
Aug 21, 2019 · This article will focus on diodes. How does the tester decide if a diode exists or not? How do you get the most accurate results?
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[PDF] RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ON AN ELECTRON-SENSITIVE ...
The advantages are low heat genera- tion (unlike tubes requiring heater ... point on the diode matrix for detection, is probably the simplest and most.
[50]
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4319843
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[PDF] PROGRAMMABLE - INIS-IAEA
LIMITATIONS OF RELAY LOGIC AND DIODE MATRIX SCHEME : 1. Modifications in the programme need wiring modifications in the relay logic which is a cumbersome ...
[52]
[PDF] "Designing With Logic" - Texas Instruments
This current can rapidly overload protective diode D1 (the maximum current of the input clamp diodes of CMOS devices is only 20 mA) and destroy the device.
[53]
Flexible switch matrix addressable electrode arrays with organic ...
Jan 15, 2024 · We introduce a pn organic electrochemical diode using complementary p- and n-type conducting polymer films embedded in a 15-μm -diameter vertical stack.