ELAS
The Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS; Ελληνικός Λαϊκός Απελευθερωτικός Στρατός) was the primary military organization of the communist-dominated National Liberation Front (EAM), functioning as Greece's main guerrilla force against the Axis occupation during World War II.[1][2] Emerging in the mountains under figures like Aris Velouchiotis, ELAS conducted ambushes, sabotage operations, and territorial control in rural areas, tying down German, Italian, and Bulgarian forces while building a parallel administration in liberated zones.[3] By late 1944, its strength reached approximately 22,000 fighters, enabling it to dominate much of the countryside and contribute to the eventual Axis withdrawal from mainland Greece in October of that year.[1] Despite its anti-Axis efforts, ELAS's communist leadership pursued ideological hegemony, systematically eliminating rival non-communist resistance groups like EDES through armed confrontations and forced absorptions, which eroded broader national unity.[1] Post-liberation, ELAS forces stormed police stations in Athens on December 3, 1944, igniting the Dekemvriana battles against British expeditionary troops and the returning Greek government, in a bid to install a Soviet-style regime.[1][2] These events, marked by atrocities including public torture-murders of policemen and internment of civilians, underscored ELAS's shift from wartime resistance to civil strife, culminating in the 1945 Varkiza Agreement for nominal disbandment—though many fighters later reformed into the Democratic Army of Greece for the ensuing civil war.[1][2]Historical Context and Formation
Axis Occupation of Greece
The Axis occupation of Greece began after Italy's invasion on 28 October 1940, which Greek forces initially repelled, prompting German intervention on 6 April 1941 alongside Italian and Bulgarian troops. German armored divisions rapidly advanced through the Metaxas Line and outflanked Allied positions in the Battle of Greece, capturing Thessaloniki on 9 April and Athens on 27 April 1941. The Greek army capitulated on 23 April, with remaining Allied forces evacuating by late May, marking the end of organized resistance and the establishment of Axis control over the mainland and most islands.[4][5] Greece was partitioned into three zones of occupation: Germany assumed direct control of key strategic areas, including the Athens-Piraeus region, eastern Macedonia with Thessaloniki, parts of western Macedonia, and Crete; Italy occupied the majority of the mainland, Peloponnese, and numerous Aegean islands; Bulgaria annexed eastern Macedonia, western Thrace, and the Florina-Kastoria region. This division facilitated resource extraction, with occupiers imposing heavy requisitions of food, livestock, and raw materials to support Axis war efforts, exacerbating economic collapse from prior invasion damage. Following Italy's armistice with the Allies on 8 September 1943, German forces seized former Italian territories, intensifying control until liberation in October 1944.[6][7] Economic exploitation and blockades triggered the Great Famine, peaking in the winter of 1941-1942, as Axis forces commandeered agricultural output—Germany alone extracted over 20% of Greece's grain production—while disrupting shipping and imposing export bans that prevented food imports. In Athens, daily death rates from starvation and typhus reached 300 by December 1941, contributing to an estimated 200,000 to 300,000 total famine-related deaths nationwide during the occupation. German policies also included forced deportations of labor, with 60,000 Greeks sent to Germany by 1944, alongside systematic plunder of infrastructure and cultural artifacts.[8][5] Occupation brutality, manifested in reprisal killings—such as the execution of 50 Greek civilians for every German soldier killed—and village razings, like the Kalavryta massacre in December 1943 where over 500 men and boys were shot, generated profound popular discontent. These conditions, compounded by collaborationist puppet regimes, spurred the growth of armed resistance groups; the Communist Party of Greece, leveraging underground networks, formed the National Liberation Front (EAM) in September 1941, which by December organized ELAS as its guerrilla army to target Axis supply lines and garrisons.[4][1]Establishment of EAM and ELAS
The National Liberation Front (EAM), or Ethnikó Apeleftherotikó Métopo, was founded on September 27, 1941, in a clandestine meeting in Athens' Kallithea district, spearheaded by the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) alongside smaller leftist groups such as the Agricultural Party of Greece and the National Union of Greece.[9][10] This initiative followed the KKE's Central Committee convocation in late June 1941, which assessed the Axis occupation—initiated by the German invasion in April 1941—as a strategic opening to mobilize the populace against the occupiers and the puppet Greek government, amid widespread famine and economic collapse that claimed an estimated 300,000 lives during the winter of 1941–1942.[10] Although presented as a broad patriotic coalition, EAM's structure and directives were dominated by KKE cadres, who supplied the organizational discipline lacking in other nascent resistance efforts.[11] EAM rapidly expanded its civilian networks for sabotage, intelligence, and aid distribution, establishing local committees (organossis) across urban and rural areas to enforce compliance and recruit amid the power vacuum left by the occupation forces' focus on exploitation rather than governance.[10] By mid-1942, these efforts transitioned to armed resistance, with partisan bands forming under EAM auspices in mountainous regions like Roumeli and the Peloponnese, precursors to a unified military structure.[10] The KKE's emphasis on mass mobilization, drawing from Marxist-Leninist tactics of people's war, enabled EAM to outpace rivals like the republican-aligned National Republican Greek League (EDES), which emerged later in 1941 but lacked comparable grassroots penetration.[11] The Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS), or Ellinikós Laïkós Apeleftherotikós Strátos, was officially constituted as EAM's military wing in December 1942, though initial guerrilla detachments had coalesced earlier in 1942 under captains such as Athanasios Klaras (known as Aris Velouchiotis) in Central Greece.[11] ELAS adopted a decentralized command suited to hit-and-run tactics, with divisions (mereïdes) organized by geography rather than rigid hierarchy, prioritizing ideological loyalty over professional military experience; recruits included peasants, workers, and deserters armed initially with captured weapons and improvised explosives.[11] This formation reflected the KKE's strategic calculus to build a parallel power base, ostensibly for national defense but oriented toward securing territorial control for postwar political leverage, as evidenced by internal directives prioritizing expansion over coordination with non-communist groups.[10] By late 1943, ELAS claimed over 50,000 fighters, though effectiveness varied due to limited Allied supplies and internal purges of suspected "deviationists."[11]Military Organization
Command and Leadership Structure
The leadership of ELAS was subordinate to the Central Committee of EAM, which was dominated by members of the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) and provided overarching political direction, ensuring alignment with communist objectives amid the Axis occupation. [12] ELAS maintained a distinct military hierarchy under this umbrella, comprising a High Command focused on operational planning and execution, and an ELAS Central Committee handling organizational, logistical, and cadre-related issues. [12] This dual structure reflected the fusion of military and political authority, with political commissars embedded at all levels to enforce ideological discipline and prevent deviations from party lines, a practice rooted in Soviet-influenced guerrilla doctrines. [13] From its inception in December 1941, ELAS adopted a tripartite leadership model extending from the General Headquarters down to platoon level, typically consisting of a military commander for tactical decisions, a political commissar for ideological oversight and morale, and a staff or security officer for administrative and enforcement functions. [13] This setup prioritized political loyalty over pure military efficiency, as evidenced by the frequent subordination of field commanders to EAM directives, which sometimes hampered unified operations against Axis forces. [14] In September 1943, Major General Stefanos Sarafis, a former republican army officer with experience from the Greco-Italian War, was appointed Chief of ELAS General Headquarters to professionalize command, though he operated under KKE political supervision. [15] [14] Key field commanders included Athanasios Klaras, known as Aris Velouchiotis, a KKE Central Committee member appointed kapetanios (chief captain) in early 1942, who led partisan bands in central Greece (Roumeli) and pioneered ELAS's initial guerrilla tactics starting February 1942. [16] [17] Political oversight was exerted by figures like Andreas Tzimas, chief commissar responsible for integrating communist cadre into units, and Georgios Siantos, who coordinated from EAM's Athens headquarters. [18] Regional commands, such as the Macedonian division under Evripidis Bakirtzis and later Markos Vafiadis, operated semi-autonomously but reported to the central apparatus, with Lieutenant General Ptolemaios Sarigiannis serving as Chief of Staff for ELAS's Central Committee by 1944. [19] This structure enabled rapid expansion to over 50,000 fighters by mid-1944 but also sowed tensions, as communist dominance alienated non-communist elements and fueled rivalries with other resistance groups. [13]Recruitment, Composition, and Armament
ELAS recruitment combined voluntary enlistment motivated by resistance to Axis occupation and EAM propaganda emphasizing national liberation with coercive measures, including forced conscription in areas under its control and threats labeling non-joiners as traitors.[13] In liberated villages, local elders often drafted men, who swore oaths pledging death for desertion, while economic hardship and reprisals against non-supporters bolstered numbers.[13] The organization appealed to marginalized groups such as youth through EPON and women, expanding its base beyond initial Communist cadres.[13] ELAS composition drew primarily from rural Greek peasants, workers, and mountain villagers, encompassing a mix of ideological Communists, nationalists, and opportunists united against occupation, with leadership featuring former regular army officers like Colonel Stephanos Sarafis as military commander from April 1943.[13] It included diverse elements such as men, women, and youth, though exact demographics remain sparsely documented; women served in combat and support roles, reflecting EAM's inclusive rhetoric toward repressed segments of society.[13] By late 1943, ELAS integrated around 800 monarchist and 1,500 republican officers alongside 1,270 reservists, broadening its military expertise.[13] Strength grew from small bands in 1942 to approximately 5,000 men by spring 1943, reaching 16,000 active guerrillas plus 16,000 reserves by June 1943, 44,000 by late 1943, and peaking at 95,000 in summer 1944 before contracting to about 50,000 by October 1944.[13] Armament consisted of a disparate array of light infantry weapons, predominantly captured from Italian and German forces, including rifles, machine guns, and submachine guns familiar to Greek troops from pre-occupation stocks.[13] British airdrops via SOE supplied additional small arms, explosives, and over 2,500 tons of materiel by 1944, though ammunition shortages persisted; significant hauls included artillery from the surrendered Italian Pinerolo Division in September 1943.[13] Per commander Sarafis, typical holdings encompassed 3,000 rifles, 300 automatic rifles, 100 submachine guns, 30 machine guns, and 10 mortars, with improvised devices like rock mines supplementing formal equipment for guerrilla tactics.[13] Heavy weapons remained scarce, limiting ELAS to infantry-focused operations without tanks or aircraft.[13]