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Effervescence

Effervescence is the fizzing or foaming that occurs when gas, typically carbon dioxide, escapes from a liquid solution, producing visible bubbles.^[1] This phenomenon arises from either chemical reactions that generate gas or physical processes, such as the release of dissolved gases due to reduced solubility under lower pressure or higher temperature.^[2] The term derives from the Latin effervescere, meaning "to boil up," reflecting its association with bubbling akin to boiling.^[3] In chemistry, effervescence serves as a key indicator of gas-evolving reactions, such as those between acids and carbonates or bicarbonates, where carbon dioxide is produced according to the general equation: acid + carbonate → salt + water + CO₂.^[4] Common everyday examples include carbonated beverages like soda, where carbon dioxide is dissolved under high pressure during production and effervesces upon opening the container, creating the characteristic fizz.^[5] In pharmaceuticals, effervescent tablets exploit this reaction for rapid dissolution and absorption; formulations typically combine an acid (e.g., citric acid) and a base (e.g., sodium bicarbonate), which react in water to release CO₂ and aid in drug delivery, as seen in antacids like Alka-Seltzer.^[6]^[7] Beyond consumer applications, effervescence plays roles in analytical chemistry and geology: it is used to identify carbonate minerals by their reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid, producing bubbles as a diagnostic test.^[8] In industrial contexts, controlled effervescence enhances processes like fermentation in brewing or leavening in baking, where yeast produces CO₂ to create foam or rise.^[9] These diverse manifestations highlight effervescence's fundamental importance in both natural and engineered systems involving gas-liquid interactions.

Definition and Characteristics

Core Definition

Effervescence is the escape of gas from a liquid solution, resulting in the formation of visible bubbles and often accompanied by fizzing or foaming sounds. This phenomenon typically arises from either the release of dissolved gas in a supersaturated solution or the in situ generation of gas through chemical reactions, leading to a dynamic bubbling effect.^[1]^[10] The term "effervescence" derives from the Latin verb effervescere, meaning "to boil up" or "to bubble forth," which captures the vigorous, upward motion of bubbles akin to boiling. It first appeared in English during the mid-17th century, around 1651, to describe the bubbling behavior observed in certain liquids.^[3]^[11] Unlike foaming, which features stable, persistent bubbles stabilized by surface-active agents, or frothing, which involves air incorporation through mechanical agitation, effervescence is characterized by the rapid, spontaneous evolution of gas bubbles that rise and burst quickly, producing a distinct fizz.^[12]^[13] Effervescence fundamentally depends on gas solubility principles, including Henry's law, which posits that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in the equilibrium phase above the liquid at constant temperature. Disruptions to this equilibrium, such as pressure reduction, promote gas exsolution and bubble formation.^[14]

Observable Properties

Effervescence manifests visually through the formation and rise of gas bubbles, typically ranging in size from 0.1 to 1 mm in diameter, which originate at nucleation sites such as microscopic imperfections or particles within the liquid or on container surfaces.^[15] These sites initiate bubble growth, often resulting in observable patterns like linear streaming, where bubbles ascend in organized trains, or clustering, where multiple bubbles aggregate near active nucleation points before dispersing upward.^[16] Accompanying these visual effects are auditory cues, such as the characteristic fizzing or hissing sound produced by the rapid escape of gas from bursting bubbles at the liquid surface.^[17] Tactile sensations include a tingling or prickling feeling on the tongue or skin, arising from the dissolution of carbon dioxide gas, which activates sensory nociceptors in mucous membranes.^[18] The duration and intensity of effervescence vary with environmental conditions; higher temperatures accelerate bubble formation and gas release, leading to more vigorous activity, while elevated pressure suppresses effervescence by increasing gas solubility and slowing bubble escape.^[19] For instance, agitating a sealed container, such as shaking a bottle, introduces additional nucleation sites that intensify the effervescence upon opening, producing a more explosive release of bubbles compared to undisturbed conditions.^[20] Basic measurements of effervescence often quantify the rate as the number of bubbles produced per second from individual nucleation sites, with frequencies typically ranging from less than 1 to around 30 bubbles per second depending on the system.^[16]

Underlying Mechanisms

Chemical Reactions

Effervescence primarily arises from acid-base reactions that generate carbon dioxide gas, most commonly involving a weak acid and a bicarbonate salt. In typical formulations, citric acid reacts with sodium bicarbonate in the presence of water to produce sodium citrate, water, and carbon dioxide according to the balanced equation:

\ce{C6H8O7 + 3NaHCO3 -> Na3C6H5O7 + 3H2O + 3CO2}

This reaction proceeds via the protonation of bicarbonate ions by the acid, leading to the decomposition of carbonic acid into CO₂ and H₂O.^[21]^[6] Carbon dioxide is the predominant gas responsible for effervescence in most contexts, but other gases can contribute in specific reactions. For instance, oxygen gas is produced through the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, as shown in the equation:

\ce{2H2O2 -> 2H2O + O2}

Similarly, hydrogen gas effervescence occurs in reactions between acids and active metals, such as zinc with hydrochloric acid: \ce{Zn + 2HCl -> ZnCl2 + H2}.^[22] This decomposition is accelerated by catalysts such as metal ions or enzymes, generating rapid bubbling.^[23] The kinetics of these gas-evolving reactions are influenced by factors like pH, which directly affects the reaction rate in acid-base systems; lower pH values increase the concentration of protons, thereby accelerating CO₂ production from bicarbonates. Catalysts, including enzymes in certain contexts, lower the activation energy to enhance the rate without being consumed.^[24] Historically, tartaric acid was a key reagent in early effervescent powders, such as those in 19th-century Seidlitz mixtures combined with sodium bicarbonate for laxative effects. Modern formulations often employ a combination of citric and tartaric acids to enhance granule stability, mitigating the crumbling associated with tartaric acid alone and the stickiness from citric acid alone.^[25]^[26]

Physical Dynamics

Effervescence involves the physical processes governing gas bubble formation, ascent, and release within a liquid medium. The initial stage is nucleation, where gas bubbles emerge from a supersaturated solution. Homogeneous nucleation occurs spontaneously in the bulk of a pure liquid without external surfaces, requiring significant supersaturation to overcome the energy barrier. Heterogeneous nucleation, more common in practice, initiates at impurities, container walls, or particulate matter, lowering the required energy due to partial wetting of the nucleus by the substrate. The Gibbs free energy change for bubble formation, ΔG, balances the unfavorable surface energy increase against the favorable volume energy gain from pressure relief:

\Delta G = 4\pi r^2 \sigma - \frac{4}{3}\pi r^3 \Delta P

where r is the bubble radius, \sigma is the liquid-gas surface tension, and \Delta P is the pressure difference driving supersaturation. The critical radius r^* = 2\sigma / \Delta P marks the energy maximum, beyond which bubbles grow spontaneously.^[27]^[28] Once nucleated, bubbles rise due to buoyancy, achieving a terminal velocity governed by drag forces in low-Reynolds-number flows. For small spherical bubbles, Stokes' law provides the terminal rise velocity v:

v = \frac{2 r^2 (\rho_l - \rho_g) g}{9 \eta}

where \rho_l and \rho_g are the densities of the liquid and gas, g is gravitational acceleration, and \eta is the liquid viscosity. This velocity determines the time available for mass transfer and coalescence during ascent, influencing the overall effervescence pattern. Larger bubbles deviate from sphericity and Stokes' regime at higher velocities, but the law establishes the fundamental scaling for micron-sized bubbles in typical liquids. Supersaturation, the state where dissolved gas concentration exceeds equilibrium solubility, triggers effervescence by destabilizing the solution. This arises from cooling, which decreases gas solubility, or sudden pressure reduction, such as opening a carbonated container, both increasing the effective \Delta P and promoting nucleation. In supersaturated liquids, gas diffuses into nascent bubbles, accelerating growth until the concentration equilibrates or bubbles escape. Numerical models of advection-diffusion confirm that pressure drops enhance growth rates, with bubble radius expanding proportionally to the square root of time in diffusion-limited regimes.^[29] Liquid properties modulate these dynamics, particularly through viscosity and temperature effects on bubble interactions. Higher viscosity impedes bubble motion and coalescence by increasing drag and slowing drainage between approaching films, shifting regimes toward isolated bubble streams at elevated shear rates. Elevated temperatures reduce viscosity and surface tension, promoting faster coalescence and larger bubble sizes, as the critical approach velocity for film rupture decreases. In extreme conditions, such as rapid pressure drops or acoustic fields, cavitation can occur, forming vapor-gas bubbles that collapse violently, distinct from steady effervescence but contributing to enhanced gas release in supersaturated systems.^[30]^[31]

Practical Applications

In Food and Beverages

Effervescence plays a central role in food and beverage formulation by introducing carbon dioxide (CO₂) gas, which creates bubbles upon release and enhances texture, flavor perception, and overall consumer appeal. In beverages, carbonation is achieved through two primary methods: natural fermentation, where microorganisms produce CO₂ as a byproduct, and forced carbonation, where CO₂ is directly injected under pressure. These techniques allow for controlled effervescence that contributes to the refreshing quality of products ranging from beers to soft drinks.^[32] Natural carbonation occurs during fermentation, as seen in beer production, where yeast such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae converts sugars into ethanol and CO₂ via the reaction C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₂H₅OH + 2CO₂. This process captures the gas naturally within the beverage, providing a subtle integration of effervescence that influences both flavor development and mouthfeel. In contrast, forced carbonation involves dissolving CO₂ into the liquid under high pressure, typically achieving 2 to 4 volumes of CO₂ (where one volume equals the liquid's volume in gas), which allows for precise control and rapid production in commercial settings.^[33]^[34] Various beverage categories rely on effervescence for their signature characteristics. Sparkling wines, such as Champagne, undergo secondary fermentation in the bottle, where added yeast and sugar generate CO₂, building pressure that results in fine bubbles upon opening. Soft drinks or sodas achieve carbonation through direct CO₂ injection into chilled water or flavored bases in pressurized tanks, creating the vigorous fizz associated with cola and lemon-lime varieties. Natural mineral waters, sourced from underground springs, contain dissolved CO₂ from geological processes, imparting a gentle effervescence without artificial addition.^[35]^[36]^[37] In solid foods, effervescence is harnessed for novel textures and leavening effects. Effervescent candies like Pop Rocks embed pressurized CO₂ bubbles within a hardened sugar shell during manufacturing, where the molten sugar is mixed with CO₂ under high pressure before rapid cooling; the gas releases with a popping sensation upon contact with moisture in the mouth. Baking powders function as chemical leaveners, combining sodium bicarbonate with acids to release CO₂ gas when mixed with liquids and heated, causing dough or batter to rise through bubble expansion.^[38]^[39] The presence of CO₂ in food and beverages enhances sensory experiences by imparting a perceived sharpness and tingling mouthfeel, often described as a "bite" that stimulates the palate and balances sweetness or acidity. This effervescence was first artificially produced in 1767 by Joseph Priestley, who developed soda water by suspending water over a brewery vat to absorb CO₂, laying the foundation for modern carbonated beverages.^[40]^[41]

In Medicine and Pharmaceuticals

Effervescent tablets in medicine consist of an active pharmaceutical ingredient combined with an acid source, such as citric or tartaric acid, and a base like sodium bicarbonate, which react upon contact with water to produce carbon dioxide gas. This formulation, exemplified by aspirin effervescent tablets containing aspirin, sodium bicarbonate, and citric acid, allows for rapid disintegration and dissolution, enabling quicker absorption of the drug compared to conventional solid forms. The reaction rate is significantly enhanced by the addition of water, typically completing within 1-5 minutes, which facilitates immediate release of the active ingredient into solution for oral administration.^[42]^[43] In therapeutic applications, effervescent formulations are widely used as antacids to neutralize excess stomach acid, where sodium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid according to the equation $2\text{HCl} + \text{Na}_2\text{CO}_3 \rightarrow 2\text{NaCl} + \text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{CO}_2, providing rapid relief from indigestion and heartburn. They are also employed in vitamin supplements, such as effervescent Vitamin C tablets, which have been available since the mid-20th century following the isolation of ascorbic acid in the 1930s, offering an alternative for patients preferring liquid dosing over capsules. Other uses include pain relief, anti-ulcer treatments like famotidine, and supplements for osteoporosis or allergies, where the effervescence aids in buffering gastric pH and improving drug solubility.^[44]^[45]^[43] These formulations provide key advantages, including faster bioavailability and onset of action due to pre-dissolved states, which enhance absorption rates by up to 20-30% in some cases compared to solid tablets, and better palatability by masking bitter tastes through flavoring and fizz. They are particularly beneficial for patients with swallowing difficulties, such as the elderly or children, and reduce gastrointestinal irritation by avoiding intact pill transit. However, drawbacks include high sodium content from bicarbonates, which can pose risks for hypertensive patients by increasing blood pressure, and the need for special low-humidity storage to prevent premature reactions.^[42]^[43]^[46] The regulatory framework for effervescent drugs has evolved from 19th-century origins in Seidlitz powders—effervescent laxatives patented around 1815 using sodium and potassium tartrates with bicarbonate for digestive relief—to modern standards emphasizing stability. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires stability testing under ICH Q1A guidelines, mandating low relative humidity (below 40%) and controlled temperatures (25°C ± 2°C) for moisture-sensitive products like effervescent tablets to ensure shelf-life integrity without degradation. These guidelines address formulation challenges, such as excipient compatibility, to maintain efficacy and safety in pharmaceutical production.^[25]^[47]^[48]

Industrial and Laboratory Uses

Effervescent formulations are widely employed in cleaning agents to enhance mechanical action through gas evolution, aiding in the removal of debris and disinfection. In drain cleaning, effervescent tablets often incorporate sodium chlorite or similar compounds that, upon contact with water and acid, generate chlorine dioxide gas (ClO2) for oxidizing organic matter and killing bacteria. This gas release not only disinfects pipes but also creates bubbling that dislodges clogs from hair, grease, and food residues.^[49] Similarly, denture cleaners utilize alkaline peroxides, such as sodium percarbonate, which dissolve in water to form hydrogen peroxide; this decomposes into oxygen gas, producing effervescent bubbles that mechanically lift stains and biofilms from prosthetic surfaces while providing oxidative cleaning.^[50] These peroxide-based systems are effective for daily maintenance, reducing microbial adhesion without abrasive damage to materials.^[51] In laboratory settings, effervescence serves as a simple yet reliable method for gas generation and qualitative analysis. For instance, the reaction between acids and carbonates produces carbon dioxide (CO2) bubbles, which can be used to supply gas in controlled experiments, such as simulating elevated CO2 levels for photosynthesis studies in plant biology labs; effervescent tablets containing citric acid and sodium bicarbonate provide a convenient, adjustable source of this gas.^[52] Additionally, the "fizz test" exploits effervescence as an indicator in acid-base titrations and mineral identification, where dilute hydrochloric acid (5-10%) is applied to samples; vigorous bubbling signals the presence of carbonates, as CO2 evolves from the reaction CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2, allowing rapid detection without complex instrumentation.^[53] This technique is particularly useful in geochemistry and soil science for assessing neutralization potential.^[54] Industrial applications leverage effervescence for process enhancement in resource extraction and treatment systems. In mining, froth flotation relies on air bubbles attaching to hydrophobic mineral particles, forming a stable froth layer that mimics effervescent agitation; collectors like xanthates modify particle surfaces to promote selective bubble adhesion, enabling separation of valuables such as sulfides from gangue in slurries.^[55] The bubbling action concentrates minerals like copper or zinc, with recovery rates often exceeding 90% in optimized cells. In water treatment, chemical aeration via effervescent agents, such as hydrogen peroxide injections, generates oxygen bubbles to oxidize sulfides and remove hydrogen sulfide odors, improving water quality in wastewater streams by promoting aerobic conditions and reducing corrosion.^[56] Safety considerations are paramount due to the rapid gas evolution in effervescent reactions, which can cause pressure buildup in closed systems, leading to explosions. For example, in confined containers, CO2 or ClO2 generation from acid-carbonate or chlorite reactions has ruptured vessels, as seen in lab incidents where improper sealing during gas-producing experiments caused blasts; protocols emphasize venting, pressure monitoring, and avoiding sealed setups to mitigate risks, with guidelines recommending open systems for all effervescent procedures.^[57]^[58]

Natural Occurrences

Geological Phenomena

In geological contexts, effervescence manifests as the rapid release of carbon dioxide gas from carbonate minerals or dissolved gases in water, often triggered by chemical reactions or pressure changes in rocks and aquifers. A primary example is the acid test employed by geologists to identify carbonate rocks in the field. When dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) is applied to limestone, primarily composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), the reaction produces calcium chloride (CaCl₂), water (H₂O), and carbon dioxide (CO₂) gas, resulting in visible bubbling or fizzing. This diagnostic method, known as the "acid test," distinguishes carbonates from silicates and other non-reactive minerals, with the vigor of effervescence indicating the purity and grain size of the carbonate content—finer grains react more readily.^[59]^[60] Effervescence also occurs naturally in geothermal features such as geysers and soda springs, where dissolved CO₂ from volcanic or magmatic sources degasses upon pressure reduction as water ascends to the surface. In geysers like those in Yellowstone National Park, superheated water saturated with volcanic CO₂ erupts forcefully, producing steam and gas bubbles that contribute to the explosive display. Similarly, soda springs, such as the CO₂-rich thermal waters at Jungapeo in Mexico or Mammoth Hot Springs, exhibit continuous bubbling as hydrostatic pressure decreases, releasing CO₂ and precipitating travertine deposits. These phenomena highlight effervescence as a surface indicator of subsurface volcanic activity and fluid migration.^[61]^[62] In karst landscapes, effervescence plays a role in the dissolution processes that shape terrain features like caves and sinkholes. Rainwater, enriched with atmospheric and soil-derived CO₂ to form carbonic acid, percolates through limestone, slowly dissolving CaCO₃ and creating subsurface voids; upon reaching lower-pressure zones within caves or sinkholes, excess CO₂ effervesces from the groundwater, akin to opening a carbonated beverage, which can accelerate local erosion and deposit secondary minerals. This process is evident in regions like the Mammoth Cave system in Kentucky, where CO₂ degassing contributes to ongoing karst evolution.^[63]^[64]^[65] Historical observations in 18th-century Europe connected effervescence in mineral waters to underlying geological processes, particularly volcanic origins. Scottish chemist Joseph Black's experiments in the 1750s identified "fixed air" (CO₂) as the effervescent component in limestone and mineral springs, linking it to subterranean sources and challenging earlier vitalist views of water's properties. Studies of springs in volcanic areas, such as those in the Phlegraean Fields near Naples documented by travelers and naturalists, attributed bubbling to gaseous emissions from deep earth activity, influencing early hydrogeological theories. These investigations, including analyses of waters from Pyrmont and Spa, laid groundwork for understanding effervescence as a geochemical tracer of geological dynamics.^[66]^[67]

Biological Contexts

In human digestion, effervescence manifests as the release of carbon dioxide (CO₂) gas, leading to burping or belching. Consumption of carbonated beverages introduces dissolved CO₂ into the stomach, where it forms bubbles upon pressure release, prompting eructation to expel the gas and alleviate distension.^[68] Gut microbiota contribute to endogenous CO₂ production through anaerobic fermentation of undigested carbohydrates, generating gases that can accumulate and induce similar effervescent symptoms.^[69] In plant biology, effervescence occurs during photosynthesis in aquatic species, where oxygen (O₂) evolves as bubbles from leaf surfaces under illumination. Submerged plants such as Elodea or mosses release these supersaturated O₂ microbubbles through stomata or hydrophilic surfaces, serving as a visible indicator of photosynthetic efficiency and aiding in gas exchange in low-oxygen environments.^[70]^[71] Fermentation by yeasts, including S. cerevisiae, represents another biological process producing CO₂ effervescence; in anaerobic conditions, these fungi convert sugars to ethanol and gas, a mechanism harnessed in plant-associated fermentations but inherent to yeast metabolism for energy production.^[72] Medical anomalies involving internal effervescence include aerophagia, a condition characterized by habitual excessive air swallowing, resulting in intragastric gas accumulation and frequent belching as the body expels the trapped air.^[73] In vascular contexts, gas bubbles in the blood—known as venous gas emboli—can form biologically during decompression or trauma, appearing as effervescent echoes on ultrasound imaging that reveal their size, density, and flow dynamics for diagnostic purposes.^[74]

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The Acid Test | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
Jun 19, 2019 · Referred to as “the acid test,” the hydrochloric acid causes carbon dioxide gas to be released from the carbonate.
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Hardness and Acid Reaction Tests For Minerals and Rocks
Oct 25, 2000 · HCl ACID REACTION: Carbonate minerals and rocks ... These contaminated rocks react just as well as pure carbonate rocks, sometimes better.
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How hot are Yellowstone's boiling waters? Some are hotter than ...
Jul 11, 2022 · Vigorous effervescence resembles the opening of a soda can, when bubbly water with CO2 is released. Similarly, water temperature at Mammoth Hot ...
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[PDF] Recording Change at Mammoth Hot Springs - National Park Service
The effervescent re- lease of carbon dioxide. (CO2) from the spring ... The growing Thermus cell assimilates some of this material, but oxidizes the rest of it to ...
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Dissolving Limestone - IGWS - Indiana University
Limestone dissolves slowly with carbonic acid, a weak acid formed when carbon dioxide combines with water, forming sinkholes and caves.
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[PDF] Geobit 11 Caves.indd
If water in the soil zone interacts with limestone or dolomite prior to entering a cave, it dissolves the carbonate minerals and becomes slightly alkaline. In ...
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WEC189/UW208: Florida's Geological History - University of Florida
Karstification involves the dissolution of limestone by acid to form geologic features such as caves, sinkholes, springs, etc. As rainwater reacts with ...
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[PDF] Joseph Black–Magnesia and Fixed Air - UNT Chemistry
Joseph Black (1728–1799) (Figure 1) is per- haps best known for the discovery and charac- terization of carbon dioxide (fixed air), made during his research ...Missing: geological | Show results with:geological
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On the Earth's revolutions: floods and extinct volcanoes in northern ...
Jan 1, 2009 · During the eighteenth century, geological travels to the Central Southern Apennines, Phlegraean Fields, Vesuvius, Aeolian Islands and Sicily ...
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Pathophysiology, Evaluation, and Treatment of Bloating - NIH
Burping and belching ... CO2 may come from swallowing air, drinking carbonated beverages, or neutralization of acids and alkalis in the upper GI tract.
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Intestinal gas production by the gut microbiota: A review
This review provides an overview of gas production by the human gut microbiome and outlines foods associated with intestinal gas.
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Probiotic potential of Saccharomyces cerevisiae GILA with ... - Nature
Apr 24, 2023 · The objective of the present study, we demonstrated the probiotic potential of S. cerevisiae strains derived from Korean rice wine. The ...
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Acoustic effects during photosynthesis of aquatic plants enable new ...
Mar 14, 2017 · In photosynthesis of submerse water plants Oxygen emission occurs in form of bubbles which are released from the stomata or small openings ...
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Frontiers | Underwater Photosynthesis of Submerged Plants
The bubbles on the submerged mosses (A) are obvious signs that underwater photosynthesis takes place with O2 evolution causing the bubble formation.
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The Role of Yeasts in Fermentation Processes - PubMed Central - NIH
During fermentation, yeast cells convert cereal-derived sugars into ethanol and CO 2 . At the same time, hundreds of secondary metabolites that influence the ...
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Aerophagia, gastric, and supragastric belching: a study using ... - NIH
Excessive belching is often thought to result from aerophagia: swallowing of air too frequently or in too large quantities. In the Rome II consensus aerophagia ...
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Comparison of Newer Hand-Held Ultrasound Devices for Post-Dive ...
Jun 9, 2022 · Bubbles in circulation are referred to as venous gas emboli (VGE) when detected with ultrasound, where they can be seen flowing towards the ...
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Research on the Cavitation in the Snapping Shrimp - IOP Science
When it comes to danger or when it finds prey, the snapping shrimp will close its snapping claw rapidly, generating cavitation bubbles to stun or kill the prey ...<|separator|>
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ultrafast motion and cavitation emerge at the millimeter scale in ...
Feb 28, 2023 · Adult snapping shrimp use an enlarged claw to produce high-speed strikes that generate cavitation bubbles. However, until now, it was unclear ...