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The Geysers

The Geysers is the world's largest geothermal field and power-producing complex, located in the Mayacamas Mountains of northern California, approximately 75 miles north of San Francisco, spanning about 45 square miles across Lake, Mendocino, and Sonoma counties.^[1]^[2] It harnesses natural dry steam from high-temperature reservoirs within the Clear Lake Volcanic Field, part of the San Andreas Fault system, to generate electricity through a network of 18 power plants drawing from over 350 wells.^[2]^[3] The field produced a net average of 625 megawatts in 2024, enough to power around 625,000 homes, accounting for a significant portion of California's renewable energy output.^[1]^[4] Geologically, The Geysers formed from volcanic activity dating back about a million years, when a plume of molten magma intruded near the Earth's surface, heating groundwater into superheated steam reservoirs at depths of 6,000 to 10,000 feet.^[5] This steam-dominated resource, unique for its lack of liquid water in production zones, has been exploited since the early 20th century, with the first exploratory well drilled in 1920 and the first modern production well in 1955.^[1] Commercial electricity generation began in 1960 with the startup of Pacific Gas & Electric's Unit 1, marking the beginning of the field's expansion into the largest geothermal operation globally.^[1] By 1989, the last major plant (Aidlin Unit 1) was added, and today, Calpine Corporation operates 13 of the plants with a capacity of 725 megawatts, while the full complex includes contributions from other entities like the Northern California Power Agency.^[1]^[6] The site's significance extends beyond energy production, as it demonstrates sustainable geothermal technology with minimal environmental impact, including hydrogen sulfide abatement systems to reduce emissions and a 2024 average unit availability of over 93%.^[1] It supplies clean, baseload power to counties including Sonoma, Mendocino, Lake, Marin, and Napa, contributing about 52% of California's geothermal generation and 4% of its total clean energy in 2024.^[7]^[1] Recent developments include a new steam well completed in January 2025 and investments for 25 megawatts of expansion announced in October 2025, alongside next-generation enhanced geothermal systems aiming for additional capacity by 2030.^[1]^[8]^[9] Scientifically, The Geysers provides valuable insights into volcanic tectonics and fault dynamics, supporting ongoing research by the U.S. Geological Survey.^[2]

Location and Overview

Geographical Setting

The Geysers geothermal field is located in the Mayacamas Mountains of northern California (38°48′N 122°45′W), spanning parts of Sonoma, Lake, and Mendocino counties.^[2] It lies approximately 75 miles north of San Francisco, within a tectonically active region influenced by the San Andreas Fault system.^[10] The field covers roughly 45 square miles, encompassing a complex landscape that supports its geothermal resources.^[2] The topography of The Geysers features rugged, mountainous terrain with elevations ranging from about 1,200 feet in lower valleys to over 4,000 feet on surrounding peaks, including the prominent Cobb Mountain at 4,724 feet.^[10] This includes northwest-trending forested ridges of oak and conifer trees interspersed with steep canyons, hilly uplands, and terraced valleys, all shaped by fault-related tectonics and erosion.^[10] The area's physiography forms a major drainage divide, directing precipitation—typically 25 to 80 inches annually—toward either the Russian River to the southwest or the Sacramento River to the east, with much of the water contributing to surface runoff rather than infiltration.^[10] The field is situated adjacent to the Clear Lake Volcanic Field, which influences regional hydrology through volcanic aquifers and groundwater interactions that feed the geothermal steam reservoir.^[11] Access to The Geysers is provided by a network of winding roads, such as those along the ridgelines and through canyons, adapted to the steep 30%–70% slopes, while high-voltage transmission lines connect the area to broader electrical infrastructure for power distribution.^[12]

Field Extent and Infrastructure

The Geysers geothermal field covers an area of approximately 45 square miles (117 km²), spanning parts of Sonoma, Lake, and Mendocino counties in northern California.^[1] This extent includes over 350 active production and injection wells, with Calpine operating 322 steam production wells and 60 injection wells as of 2024.^[1] The field's boundaries are generally defined to the south by Big Sulphur Creek and its associated fault zone, extending northward to encompass Cobb Mountain.^[2]^[13] Key infrastructure supports steam extraction and reservoir management across this terrain. Steam gathering pipelines total 92.2 miles, connecting wells to power facilities, while injection systems feature 72 miles of water lines to reinject treated wastewater for reservoir replenishment.^[1] Monitoring stations, including a network of seismic sensors with up to 139 stations for microearthquake detection and wellhead data collection, ensure operational safety and resource assessment.^[14] The layout of these elements is influenced by the rugged Mayacamas Mountains topography, which guides pipeline routing along valleys and ridges.^[1] Ownership of the field is primarily held by Calpine Corporation, which acquired key steam field leases in 2004 and has since consolidated operations across approximately 80% of the production area.^[15]^[16] Portions of the field, about 7,100 acres of public lands straddling the Lake-Sonoma county line, are managed by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management's Ukiah Field Office to balance energy development with environmental stewardship.^[17]

Geology

Tectonic and Structural Features

The Geysers geothermal field occupies a tectonically dynamic position in northern California, within the broader Pacific Ring of Fire, where the transform boundary between the Pacific and North American plates drives regional deformation and magmatism.^[2] The field is situated near the northern extent of the San Andreas Fault system, which accommodates dextral strike-slip motion, and is profoundly influenced by the nearby Mendocino Triple Junction—the convergence point of the Pacific, North American, and Gorda plates—resulting in distributed faulting, crustal thinning, and elevated seismic activity that facilitates geothermal fluid migration.^[18] This junction's northward migration has contributed to the extensional stress regime in the Coast Ranges, promoting the ascent of mantle-derived melts and the formation of fracture networks critical to the field's hydrothermal system.^[19] Key structural features include a series of northwest-trending fault zones that define the field's boundaries and internal architecture, creating pathways for deep heat and fluids while confining the reservoir laterally. The Mercuryville Fault, to the southwest, and the Collayomi Fault, to the northeast, serve as primary bounding structures, acting as relatively impermeable barriers that limit lateral steam migration and enhance vertical permeability along associated fractures.^[2] These faults, part of the extensional array linked to the San Andreas system and Mendocino Triple Junction, dissect the Franciscan Complex basement rocks, forming a structural graben-like depression that hosts the geothermal accumulation.^[20] Subsidiary faults and shear zones within the field further enhance fracturing, providing conduits for hydrothermal upflow.^[21] The field's geothermal potential is rooted in the volcanic evolution of the Clear Lake Volcanic Field, a Pliocene to Holocene volcanic province spanning over 2 million years of activity, characterized by basaltic to rhyolitic eruptions within the tectonic framework of the San Andreas transform margin.^[22] Central to this history are rhyolitic intrusions of the felsite unit, emplaced during the early Pleistocene around 1.1 to 1.4 million years ago, which intruded into the greywacke and serpentinite of the Franciscan assemblage, altering the host rocks and contributing residual heat.^[23] The primary heat source is a buried magma chamber, inferred from geophysical data, located at depths of approximately 5 to 8 kilometers (3 to 5 miles) beneath the field, where temperatures exceed 400°C and sustain the steam-dominated reservoir through ongoing conductive heating.^[24]

Reservoir Characteristics

The Geysers geothermal reservoir is a dry steam-dominated system, primarily hosted within fractured metamorphic rocks at depths ranging from 6,000 to 10,000 feet (1,800 to 3,000 meters).^[1] This vapor phase is superheated, with temperatures typically exceeding 450°F (232°C) and reaching up to 400°C (752°F) in the northwestern high-temperature zone.^[25] The reservoir's fluid state is maintained by a combination of high heat flow and limited liquid water presence, resulting in nearly pure steam extraction without significant two-phase flow in most production zones.^[2] The primary reservoir rock consists of greywacke and intercalated argillite from the Franciscan Complex, a Jurassic-Cretaceous accretionary complex characterized by low matrix porosity of 1-2% but high effective porosity and permeability derived from an extensive fracture network.^[2]^[26] These fractures, often enhanced by tectonic faults, provide the dominant pathways for steam migration and extraction, with permeability varying from 10^{-14} to 10^{-12} m² in highly fractured intervals.^[27] The brittle nature of the greywacke facilitates fracture propagation, though overall matrix permeability remains low, limiting fluid storage to fracture volumes.^[28] Initial steam reserves at The Geysers were estimated at over 2,500 billion kg, supporting early commercial production but revealing limited natural recharge rates of less than 10% of extraction volumes annually.^[29] Intensive steam withdrawal led to a significant pressure decline, from approximately 500 psi in the 1960s to under 100 psi by the 1990s across much of the field, exacerbating subsidence and reducing well productivity.^[30] This depletion highlighted the reservoir's finite nature without recharge, prompting later injection programs to stabilize pressures.^[16]

History

Pre-Commercial Exploration

The Pomo and Lake Miwok peoples, indigenous to the Sonoma and Lake County regions encompassing The Geysers, have long recognized the area's thermal features, including hot springs and fumaroles, for their cultural and medicinal significance predating European contact in the pre-1800s. These communities, part of the broader Native American groups inhabiting northern California for over 12,000 years, utilized the steam vents and pools for healing rituals, spiritual ceremonies, and practical purposes such as cooking.^[31]^[5] In the mid-19th century, European-American explorers began documenting the site's steam manifestations, which were initially mistaken for geysers despite consisting primarily of fumaroles and hot springs. While pursuing a grizzly bear in 1847, surveyor William Bell Elliott stumbled upon the area, describing the rising steam as resembling the "Gates to Hades" and naming it "The Geysers." By the 1850s, further observations and early illustrations, such as those by John Russell Bartlett in 1852, highlighted the site's active steam vents, drawing initial curiosity and rudimentary tourism amid California's Gold Rush era.^[5] Early 20th-century scientific investigations focused on assessing the potential of the steam resources for power generation. In 1927, researchers from the Carnegie Institution of Washington, including E.T. Allen and A.L. Day, conducted the first systematic study of the steam reservoir, analyzing data from existing wells drilled by landowner John C. Grant in the 1920s and confirming the presence of high-temperature dry steam suitable for exploitation. Grant utilized steam from these wells to generate electricity with a small steam-engine, producing the first power at the site in the 1920s, though on a non-commercial scale.^[32]^[5]^[33] Building on these findings, pre-commercial test drilling in the 1950s marked a pivotal step toward verifying the site's geothermal viability. In 1955, Magma Power Company, under the leadership of B.C. McCabe, leased land from The Geysers Development Company and drilled the first modern exploratory well, Magma No. 1, to a depth of approximately 1,000 feet, encountering dry steam at temperatures exceeding 400°F and flow rates indicating substantial reservoir potential. This confirmation of a vapor-dominated system, without significant liquid water, laid the groundwork for future commercial efforts without initiating production.^[34]

Commercial Development Milestones

The commercialization of The Geysers geothermal field began in 1960 with the completion of Unit 1 by Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E), marking the nation's first commercial geothermal power plant with an initial capacity of 11 MW.^[5]^[35] This facility utilized dry steam extracted from wells drilled by early developers, including Union Oil Company, which had acquired significant land interests and conducted exploratory drilling in the late 1950s and 1960s to supply steam to PG&E.^[29] The 1970s and 1980s saw rapid expansion driven by rising energy demands and supportive policies, with capacity growing from approximately 82 MW in 1968 to over 2,000 MW by 1989 through the construction of 22 power units across multiple operators.^[5]^[29] Key regulatory milestones included the Geothermal Steam Act of 1970, which facilitated federal leasing of geothermal resources, and incentives from the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), established in 1974, offering loan guarantees covering up to 75% of project costs to encourage private investment.^[29]^[36] The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) of 1978 further accelerated development by mandating utilities to purchase power from qualifying facilities at avoided-cost rates, alongside federal tax credits providing up to 25% on capital investments for geothermal projects.^[29]^[37] Union Oil Company, operating as a major steam producer during this period, expanded its holdings in the 1970s, drilling numerous production wells and contracting steam sales that supported the addition of several units.^[38]^[39] Ownership transitioned significantly in the late 1990s and early 2000s as the field matured, with Calpine Corporation acquiring key assets from PG&E and Union Oil Company (later Unocal) between 1999 and 2004, consolidating control over approximately 80% of production and enabling integrated field management.^[38]^[5]^[16] This shift, beginning with Calpine's initial 1 MW stake in 1989 and culminating in the 2000 purchase of 19 plants totaling around 700 MW, stabilized operations amid declining steam pressures by optimizing steam allocation and introducing wastewater injection programs.^[5]^[40]

Geothermal Development

Power Stations and Operators

The Geysers geothermal field hosts 15 active power stations operated by Calpine and the Northern California Power Agency (NCPA) as of 2025, organized into major complexes such as the Big Geysers, Sulphur Springs, and McCabe areas, which collectively provide a net generating capacity of approximately 890 MW. An additional facility, the Bottle Rock power plant (55 MW), operated by Mayacma Geothermal, was reported operational in 2025, potentially increasing the total.^[4]^[1]^[41] The primary operator is Calpine Corporation, which owns and manages 13 of these stations—spanning facilities like the Big Geysers units (e.g., Units 3, 4, 5, 11, 12, 13, 16, 18, 20) and others in the Sulphur Springs and McCabe complexes—accounting for about 90% of the field's output at 725 MW.^[1]^[4] The Northern California Power Agency (NCPA), a consortium of municipal utilities including those in the North Bay area, operates the remaining two stations: Geothermal Plant No. 1 (110 MW) and Geothermal Plant No. 2 (55 MW operational capacity, derated from original 110 MW due to reservoir conditions).^[42]^[43]^[44] The Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) participates through long-term power purchase agreements, securing up to 100 MW from Calpine's operations to support its renewable portfolio.^[45] Several units have been decommissioned amid resource pressures, notably PG&E's Unit 1—the field's pioneering 11 MW facility brought online in 1960—which ceased operations in the 1990s due to declining steam availability.^[4] The stations predominantly employ dry steam technology, where superheated steam (up to 450°F) is extracted directly from production wells and routed to turbines without flashing or secondary fluids, though some incorporate binary cycle elements for enhanced efficiency in lower-pressure zones and wastewater reinjection systems to sustain reservoir performance.^[1]^[4]^[44] In October 2025, Calpine announced a 25 MW expansion at the North Geysers Incremental Development project, supported by investments including from Clean Power Alliance.^[8]

Drilling and Well Operations

Drilling at The Geysers geothermal field has involved the construction of over 600 wells since the 1950s, primarily by the main operator Calpine Corporation, with depths averaging 8,500 feet.^[1] These wells are typically drilled using conventional rotary techniques with air or mud as the circulating medium to navigate the hard, fractured Franciscan Complex rocks and minimize formation damage in steam-bearing zones.^[2] The process begins with surface casing to stabilize shallow unconsolidated sediments, followed by intermediate and production casing strings set to depths that isolate high-pressure steam intervals while addressing lost circulation common in permeable fractures.^[46] Well completion at The Geysers emphasizes targeting the fractured reservoir for optimal steam inflow, involving the installation of steel casing cemented across the full length to provide structural integrity and zonal isolation.^[46] In the production zones, which lie within highly fractured graywacke formations at depths of 6,000 to 10,000 feet, the casing is perforated using shaped charges or mechanical methods to expose intervals intersecting major steam-conducting fractures, allowing direct access to superheated steam without open-hole risks.^[2] This approach preserves natural permeability while preventing collapse in the brittle rock environment, with completion fluids carefully selected to avoid precipitation that could clog fractures.^[46] Ongoing maintenance of wells at The Geysers addresses challenges from scaling and corrosion, primarily caused by silica deposition from steam flashing and acid-chloride components like hydrogen chloride that attack casing and surface piping.^[47] Silica scaling reduces flow rates by forming amorphous deposits in wellbores and perforations, while corrosion leads to casing perforations and leaks, necessitating regular inspections via downhole logging and pressure testing.^[47] These issues are mitigated through acid treatments, such as inhibited hydrochloric acid soaks to dissolve silica scales and neutralize corrosive acids, often performed periodically to restore productivity without full redrilling.^[48] In the 2010s, operations transitioned toward advanced directional and horizontal drilling to enhance reservoir access and reduce costs, building on earlier horizontal injection well pilots from the early 2000s.^[49] Horizontal sections, extending laterally up to several thousand feet within steam-rich fracture networks, allow multiple production laterals from a single surface pad, improving steam recovery from marginal zones while minimizing surface disturbance.^[16] This evolution has supported sustained field output by intersecting previously untapped fractures, with drilling times optimized to around 75-85 days per well through improved bit technology and real-time geosteering. In January 2025, Calpine completed a new steam production well to bolster resource supply.^[1]

Production and Operations

Steam Extraction and Energy Generation

The Geysers operates as a dry steam geothermal field, where superheated steam is extracted directly from a vapor-dominated reservoir through a network of production wells drilled to depths averaging 8,500 feet, with some reaching up to 12,900 feet. This steam, typically at temperatures around 360-370°F and pressures of 40-100 psig, flows naturally to the surface due to reservoir pressure and is collected via 322 active production wells. A new production well (Prati State 66) was completed in January 2025 to support continued steam extraction.^[1] The extracted steam is then transported through an extensive system of 92.2 miles of insulated steel pipelines to the power plants, minimizing heat loss during transit.^[1] At the power stations, the dry steam is directed into conventional steam turbines, where it expands and drives the turbine blades to produce mechanical energy. These turbines are coupled directly to electrical generators, converting the mechanical energy into electricity through a direct-cycle process without the need for intermediate heat exchangers. The system employs condensing steam turbines, which exhaust the steam into surface condensers to create a vacuum that enhances expansion and overall performance. Efficiencies for these dry steam plants typically range from 15% to 20%, reflecting the conversion of low-enthalpy steam resources into usable power.^[50]^[51]^[52] Post-turbine, the low-pressure exhaust steam is condensed in cooling towers using air-cooled or water-cooled systems to form liquid condensate, which is collected and pumped for reinjection. This condensate, along with treated wastewater from nearby sources to augment supply, is returned to the reservoir through 60 active injection wells connected by 72 miles of pipelines, helping to maintain reservoir pressure and sustain long-term steam production. The reinjection process is critical for resource management in this vapor-dominated system.^[1]^[16] Individual production wells at The Geysers typically yield steam flow rates ranging from 40,000 to 300,000 pounds per hour, though current averages have declined to around 11,900 pounds per hour due to reservoir maturation. The generated electricity from the 13 operating power plants, totaling a net capacity of 725 MW, is stepped up and integrated into the California grid primarily via 230 kV transmission lines operated by PG&E, feeding into the California Independent System Operator (CAISO) for statewide distribution and supporting baseload power for approximately 725,000 homes.^[53]^[1]^[54]

Output Trends and Capacity

The Geysers geothermal field achieved its peak installed capacity of 2,043 MW in 1987, driven by rapid expansion during the 1970s and 1980s.^[5] This marked the height of commercial development, with actual generation peaking at around 1,500–1,600 MW that year at capacity factors exceeding 90%.^[29] However, overexploitation led to significant reservoir depletion, causing steam pressure declines and well productivity losses, which prompted a sharp reduction in output.^[29] By mid-2025, Calpine's active net capacity across its 13 operating power plants had reached approximately 732 MW, following a 7 MW addition from the North Geysers Incremental Development, with further 25 MW expansion announced in October 2025.^[1]^[5]^[8] Calpine's annual energy generation at The Geysers has averaged about 5,500 GWh in recent years, exemplified by 5,472 GWh produced in 2024.^[1] This output is equivalent to powering roughly 725,000 average California homes annually.^[55] Post-reinjection efforts since the mid-1990s have helped maintain capacity factors in the 60–70% range historically, though recent operational availability has reached over 93%, reflecting improved resource management.^[29] ^[1] Output trends continue to be influenced by external factors, including seasonal demand fluctuations and ambient temperature variations that reduce efficiency in air-cooled turbines during warmer months, as well as periodic maintenance shutdowns for plant upkeep.^[56] ^[54] These elements contribute to variability, with curtailments occasionally imposed to balance grid needs despite the field's baseload potential.^[54]

Environmental Impacts

Induced Seismicity

Induced seismicity at The Geysers geothermal field has been a prominent feature since commercial operations began in the 1960s, primarily resulting from pressure perturbations caused by steam extraction and fluid reinjection. These activities alter the subsurface stress regime, triggering microearthquakes that are generally small in scale. Rates have varied since the 1970s, with historical data from 1975-1982 showing around 1,000 events per year, peaking at thousands annually in the 2000s, and remaining high with approximately 10,000 events in 2020; the vast majority register magnitudes below 2.0 and rarely exceed 4.5, with the largest recorded at approximately M4.5.^[57]^[58]^[59] The seismicity is closely tied to changes in reservoir pore pressure, where steam withdrawal reduces pressure and promotes shear failure on existing faults, while reinjection elevates pressure to enhance permeability but can also induce fracturing.^[60]^[61] Notable events, such as those up to magnitude 4.5, have highlighted the potential risks of geothermal operations and prompted the establishment of enhanced monitoring protocols. These events, felt across northern California, have been directly linked to production-induced stress changes and underscore the need for systematic seismic surveillance to manage hazards. In response, regulatory and operational frameworks were developed to track and mitigate such occurrences, emphasizing real-time data integration for decision-making.^[57]^[62]^[63] The United States Geological Survey (USGS) maintains a comprehensive monitoring network at The Geysers, comprising over 40 seismometers deployed across the field to capture high-resolution data on seismic activity. This network, in collaboration with operators like Calpine Corporation, enables precise hypocenter locations and magnitude assessments, facilitating the analysis of seismicity patterns. A traffic light system is employed for injection control, categorizing events by magnitude—green for minor activity allowing full operations, yellow for intermediate events requiring reduced rates, and red for larger quakes triggering shutdowns—to minimize risks from fluid injection practices.^[63]^[64]^[65] To address heightened seismicity, operators reduced injection rates following peak activity in 2005-2006, particularly in the Southeast Geysers Effluent Pipeline area, which effectively limited events above magnitude 3.0. This adjustment, correlating with a decline in overall seismic rates, balanced resource maintenance with hazard reduction by lowering pore pressure increases from reinjection. Ongoing evaluations confirm that such measures have sustained lower seismicity levels without compromising long-term field productivity. A recent example is the August 2025 swarm of over 130 earthquakes (magnitudes 0.2 to 4.0) near the field, demonstrating continued monitoring and management of induced activity.^[66]^[67]^[68]

Geochemistry and Fluid Dynamics

The geothermal fluids at The Geysers are predominantly superheated steam, comprising over 95% water vapor, with non-condensable gases making up 0.1–5% by weight depending on the reservoir region.^[69] Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is the dominant non-condensable gas, typically constituting 50–70 mol% of the gas fraction (equating to 1–3% of total steam volume), while hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) ranges from 3–9 mol% of non-condensables (up to 1% of steam).^[69] Other trace components include ammonia (NH₃, 3–12 mol%), methane (CH₄, 3–13 mol%), hydrogen (H₂, 10–30 mol%), nitrogen (N₂, up to 22 mol%), and minor noble gases like helium (He, <0.3 mol%).^[69] These compositions vary regionally, with higher gas contents in the northwest sector due to greater influence from connate and metamorphic sources.^[70] The evolution of these fluids begins with initial magmatic and metamorphic vapors from Franciscan Complex metasediments, which are subsequently diluted by meteoric water infiltration, particularly in the southeast and central regions.^[70] This mixing results in a vapor-dominated system where condensed liquids exhibit a pH of 7–9, reflecting alkaline conditions from rock-water interactions.^[69] High dissolved silica concentrations (often exceeding 100–300 ppm in associated brines) promote amorphous silica polymerization and scaling in production wells and surface equipment, especially as fluids cool and pressure drops.^[71] Isotopic signatures, such as δ¹⁸O (-6.8 to +3.2‰) and δD (-58 to -23‰), confirm the meteoric dilution and minimal magmatic input post-formation.^[69] Fluid dynamics at The Geysers involve natural upflow of superheated steam along major faults and fractures within the fractured graywacke reservoir, driven by a shallow heat source and pressure gradients.^[72] Steam-to-gas ratios decrease from southeast (∼4,000) to northwest (∼100), indicating boiling and phase separation during ascent.^[69] Reinjection of treated wastewater, initiated in the 1990s to sustain reservoir pressure, introduces cooler, higher-total-dissolved-solids fluids (∼400 ppm TDS), altering produced steam chemistry by increasing chloride concentrations and potentially enhancing mineral dissolution or precipitation in fractures.^[73] This can lead to up to 40% of produced steam deriving from reinjected condensate in affected areas, with isotopic shifts (e.g., more negative δD) tracing its migration.^[69] Sampling of these fluids employs downhole tools, such as wireline-deployed condensers that capture two-phase mixtures at reservoir conditions (up to 240°C and 50 bar), to measure gas-liquid ratios and prevent phase changes during retrieval.^[74] Surface methods include wellhead separators and analyzers for real-time monitoring of non-condensable gas compositions via gas chromatography, alongside condensate collection for pH, silica, and anion/cation assays.^[69] These techniques, applied since the 1970s, enable tracking of geochemical evolution and reinjection impacts across the field's 22 production units.^[75]

Sustainability and Future

Resource Management and Reinjection

To sustain the geothermal reservoir at The Geysers, operators implemented a comprehensive reinjection program beginning in 1997, primarily utilizing treated municipal wastewater to replenish extracted fluids and maintain pressure. The Southeast Geysers Effluent Pipeline (SEGEP), operational since October 1997, delivers approximately 9 million gallons per day of secondary-treated wastewater collected from Lake County communities, including areas near Ukiah, through a 40-mile pipeline to injection wells. This was complemented by the Santa Rosa Geysers Recharge Project (SRGRP), which began delivering tertiary-treated effluent from Santa Rosa's Laguna Treatment Plant in 2003, providing an additional 11 million gallons per day via a 42-mile pipeline. Together, these initiatives inject up to 20 million gallons of reclaimed water daily into the reservoir, converting wastewater disposal into a resource for geothermal sustainability.^[76]^[29] The reinjection strategy has proven successful in stabilizing reservoir pressure and enhancing steam production, with injections targeted into low-temperature peripheral zones to minimize thermal breakthrough and optimize fluid circulation. Since the program's inception, it has slowed the annual depletion rate from about 31 billion kg per year in the late 1990s to about 14 billion kg per year, while boosting overall generating capacity by approximately 280 megawatts, representing a 33% increase relative to the field's total of 850 megawatts. By December 2009, cumulative injections had reached 997 billion kg of fluids, achieving a net mass replacement of over 40% of produced steam, with ongoing operations adding substantially more volume—exceeding 1,000 billion kg by 2025. This approach also dilutes non-condensable gases in the steam, improving turbine efficiency and reducing emissions.^[77]^[29]^[76] Economically, the program has lowered operational costs by eliminating the need for freshwater sourcing and providing a cost-effective disposal solution for municipal effluents, generating significant revenue for Sonoma and Lake Counties through stable power production that supports around 725,000 homes. By reusing treated wastewater, it avoids environmental discharge into rivers, aligning with fluid geochemistry considerations to prevent scaling or corrosion in the reservoir.^[76]^[29]

Challenges and Ongoing Research

One of the primary challenges facing The Geysers geothermal field is resource depletion due to extensive steam extraction since commercial production began in 1960, resulting in a reservoir pressure drawdown of approximately 66% by the mid-1990s, from about 3.5 MPa to 1.2 MPa.^[21] Without further interventions, projections indicate a continued decline in capacity, with estimates suggesting a reduction from around 850 MW in 2011 to about 700 MW over the subsequent two decades.^[29] Environmental concerns persist, including hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) emissions, which have been significantly mitigated through abatement programs such as the Stretford process and hydrogen peroxide treatment, achieving reductions by a factor of 10 since the 1970s and bringing ambient levels into compliance with air quality standards.^[78] Additionally, fluid withdrawal has caused land subsidence, with observed rates up to 4.8 cm per year in the 1970s and cumulative deformation exceeding 30 cm in central areas over decades of operation.^[79] Ongoing research focuses on enhancing long-term viability through Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS), with the U.S. Department of Energy supporting pilot demonstrations at The Geysers since the 2010s, including hydraulic stimulation of abandoned wells to create sustained permeability and boost output.^[80] Artificial intelligence applications, such as deep learning models, are being developed to predict induced seismicity and ground motion, enabling better risk management during operations; for instance, neural network-based forecasting has shown promise in anticipating event magnitudes from injection data.^[81] In 2025, GreenFire Energy launched its first commercial closed-loop demonstration project at The Geysers using GreenLoop technology, targeting revitalization of marginal wells to add up to 5 MW of capacity through efficient heat extraction without additional fluid withdrawal.^[82] Recent initiatives include the North Geysers Incremental Development (NGID) project, announced in 2025, which aims to add 25 MW of capacity by June 2026 via new injection infrastructure. Broader efforts target expanding capacity by up to 600 MW through advanced geothermal technologies by 2030.^[83]^[9]

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[PDF] THE GEYSERS GEOTHERMAL FIELD - OSTI.GOV
Calpine's ownership and ability to shift steam where it is needed effectively unitized approximately 80% of The Geysers production. Research and Outreach ...
[17]
The Geysers | Bureau of Land Management
Jun 6, 2025 · The Geysers encompasses about 7,100 acres of public lands and straddles the Lake County/Sonoma County line. The Geysers is administered by BLM's ...
[18]
Structure and seismotectonics of the Mendocino Triple Junction ...
May 20, 2003 · The area onshore between the two San Andreas splays is a tectonic block known as the King Range [e.g., McLaughlin et al., 1994] that is ...
[19]
(PDF) Tectonic controls on magmatism and geothermal resources in ...
Tectonic controls on magmatism and geothermal resources in The Geysers Clear Lake region, California. January 1997. Report number: Open-File Report 97-95 ...
[20]
[PDF] MONITORING CRUSTAL DEFORMATION IN THE GEYSERS ...
Geodetic surveys since 1972-73 reveal significant crustal deformation in The Geysers-Clear Lake region. ... Collayomi and Mercuryville fault zones, and (b) local ...
[21]
Reservoir depletion at The Geysers geothermal area, California ...
Mar 7, 2003 · The reservoir is bounded by the Collayomi fault zone to the northeast and the Mercuryville fault zone to the southwest (Figure 1). It is ...
[22]
Clear Lake Volcanic Field | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
The most recent activity in the Clear Lake Volcanic Field occurred between 8,500 and 13,500 years ago as explosive maar eruptions in and along the shores of the ...Missing: intrusions age
[23]
Age and thermal history of the Geysers plutonic complex (felsite unit ...
U/206Pb concordia ages ranging from 1.13±0.04 Ma to 1.25±0.04 (1σ) Ma. The weighted mean of the U/Pb model ages is 1.18±0.03 Ma. The U–Pb ages coincide closely ...
[24]
Structure of the Crustal Magmatic System in the Geysers‐Clear Lake ...
Oct 4, 2022 · Geophysical and geochemical evidence suggests that the heat source ... magma chamber locating at about 5–13 km in depth. In contrast with ...
[25]
[PDF] Geophysical Characterization of the Northwest Geysers, California
Feb 11, 2019 · The hottest region of The Geysers is in the northwestern geothermal field where temperatures reach 400 °C below 2.5 km (Figure 1).
[26]
[PDF] A case study from The Geysers geothermal - GFZpublic
The low-permeability, highly fractured reservoir rocks (greywacke) have a low total porosity of about 1–2%. [Barker et al., 1992], reservoir temperatures of ...
[27]
[PDF] subsidence at the geysers geothermal field - Stanford University
The steam producing reservoir itself is a highly fractured volume of Franciscan greywacke and Quaternary sili- ... complex source types. oped by 1987 ...
[28]
[PDF] Characterizing Fractures in Geysers Geothermal Field ... - OSTI.GOV
Apr 30, 2015 · ... The Geysers geothermal reservoir (Sonoma County, California). The goal is to gain a better knowledge of the reservoir porosity, permeability ...
[29]
[PDF] Fifty Years of Power Generation at The Geysers Geothermal Field ...
Feb 2, 2011 · The Geysers geothermal field in California has been supplying commercial electric power continuously for the last half century (1960 to present) ...
[30]
[PDF] Steam-Water Relative Permeability
The Geysers Geothermal field, which is located about 70 miles north of San Francisco, California, USA, started production in 1960 with a 12 MW power plant. The ...Missing: distance | Show results with:distance
[31]
Native American Heritage in Sonoma County
Long before we became known as Wine Country, Sonoma County was home to thousands of Native Americans, including those of the Pomo, Miwok, and Wappo tribes.
[32]
Steam wells and other thermal activity at "The Geysers", California
Dec 13, 2019 · Title. Steam wells and other thermal activity at "The Geysers", California. Related Titles. Series: Carnegie Institution of Washington ...Missing: survey | Show results with:survey
[33]
A Reservoir Assessment of The Geysers Geothermal Field - OnePetro
Dec 1, 1984 · In 1955, Magma Power Co. drilled Magma 1 (Fig. 2). Then Magma Power Co. joined Thermal Power Co. to drill and test the geothermal reservoir ...
[34]
Historical overview on geothermal at the Geysers, California
Apr 28, 2010 · The Geysers produced the nation's first commercial geothermal electricity in 1960 at Pacific Gas & Electric's (PG&E's) 11 MW Unit 1 power plant.
[35]
[PDF] 9/3/74 HR14920 Geothermal Energy Research, Development and ...
Recognition of the growing importance of geothermal energy was reflected in enactment of the Geothermal Steam Act of. 1970, which authorized the leasing of ...
[36]
Geothermal timeline - Energy Kids - EIA
The first dry steam geothermal power plant was built in Laderello in Tuscany, Italy. The Larderello plant today provides power to about 1 million households.
[37]
[PDF] GEOTHERMAL OPERATIONS
THE GEYSERS GEOTHERMAL FIELD During 1999, most ownership of The Geysers Geothermal field was consolidated under Calpine Corporation.
[38]
[PDF] geology and history of exploration of the geysers field - NGDS
The hot springs and fumaroles are spread over an elongated area on the northeast side of Big Sulphur Creek which flows in a northwesterly direction. Access to ...
[39]
Performance history of The Geysers steam field, California, USA
The Geysers geothermal field is located in northern California (Fig. 1). It began commercial steam production in September 1960 with the start-up of Unit 1 ...
[40]
NCPA Geothermal Plant No. 1 - California Energy Commission
NCPA-1 is a 110-megawatt geothermal plant in Sonoma County, near Anderson Springs, using steam turbine technology, with two 55 MW units.
[41]
NCPA Geothermal Plant No. 2 - California Energy Commission
The federal lands are administered by the Bureau of Land Management and the Minerals Management Service. NCPA-2 is currently a 55-megawatt (MW) generating ...
[42]
Geothermal | NCPA - Northern California Power Agency
NCPA operates at The Geysers, the world's largest geothermal field, using a unique geothermal-injection system with treated wastewater and solar power.
[43]
SMUD to receive 100 megawatts of geothermal power from Calpine ...
Apr 4, 2022 · SMUD will receive 100 megawatts of geothermal power from Calpine's The Geysers, enough to power 100,000 homes for a year, and will reduce 342, ...
[44]
[PDF] Handbook of Best Practices for Geothermal Drilling - eere.energy.gov
Parameters that determine the casing requirements include the following: nominal production rate from the well and the casing diameter implied by that flow rate ...
[45]
[PDF] Current Techniques in Acid-Chloride Corrosion Control and ...
Corrosion damage due to acid-chloride at The Geysers includes extensive well casing corrosion, casing head perforation, well surface piping failures, and ...Missing: maintenance | Show results with:maintenance
[46]
[PDF] Chemical Cleaning and Rejuvenation of Geothermal and Oil Wells
Acid treatment can help remove scale or similar deposits from perforations and well completion components as well. Conventionally, inhibited acids are used ...
[47]
Absolute Commitment: Geothermal Operations at The Geysers
Apr 27, 2010 · In January 1983, NCPA started up twin turbine generators at its 110 MW Plant 1, the first publicly owned geothermal power facility to operate at ...
[48]
Types of Geothermal Power Plants - California Energy Commission
Most geothermal areas contain moderate-temperature water (below 400°F). Energy is extracted from these fluids in binary-cycle power plants.Missing: features | Show results with:features
[49]
Dry Steam System - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
In a dry steam plant like those at The Geysers in California, steam produced directly from the geothermal reservoir runs the turbines that power the generator.
[50]
Performance improvement of drysteam geothermal power plant by ...
of 16.37% and 48.8% of first and second law efficiency. The Geysers is the largest dry-steam geothermal power plant in the world, with an installed generator.<|separator|>
[51]
[PDF] UmSm Department of Energy - OSTI
Mar 15, 1979 · Production rates at Geysers range from 40,000-300,000 pounds of steam per hour requiring several wells per plant. Reinjection. The high ...
[52]
Analysis of curtailment at The Geysers geothermal Field, California
The Calpine power plants at The Geysers are connected to the grid by three main transmission lines (Fig. 5): the 230 KV Fulton substation (linked to Units 12, ...
[53]
Calpine celebrates 65 years of geothermal power generation at The ...
Oct 29, 2025 · At the heart of The Geysers' success are the people who develop, operate and maintain geothermal production. Calpine has nearly 300 employees ...
[54]
Geothermal | Electricity | 2024 - ATB | NREL
Feb 26, 2025 · Capacity Factor. Definition: Geothermal plant capacity factor is influenced by diurnal and seasonal air temperature variation (for air-cooled ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[55]
Why are there so many earthquakes in the Geysers area in Northern ...
The major seismic hazards in the region are from large earthquakes occurring along regional faults that are located miles away from the geothermal field.
[56]
Induced seismicity in The Geysers Geothermal Area, California
Feb 10, 1984 · We infer from the spatial and temporal pattern of seismicity that the seismicity at The Geysers is induced by geothermal production activities.
[57]
Induced seismicity | Scientific Reports - Nature
Nov 23, 2024 · Fluid extraction for electricity generation at The Geysers geothermal field, California, has induced prolific earthquake seismicity for over 50 ...
[58]
Induced and triggered earthquakes at The Geysers geothermal ...
The Geysers geothermal reservoir in northern California is the most thoroughly studied example of induced seismicity related to an enhanced geothermal system ( ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[59]
[PDF] United States Earthquakes, 1979 - USGS Publications Warehouse
Oct 15, 1979 · ... magnitude (ML) ... 4.4 MS(G). Adak (M). 27 March (G) Southern Alaska. Origin time: 18 38 42.2. Epicenter: 60.49 N., 148.98 W. Depth: 26 km.
[60]
Seismic monitoring at the Geysers geothermal field, California
Two distinct clusters of microearthquakes have been identified at The Geysers, possibly relating to two independent pressure sinks resulting from steam ...
[61]
Analysis of Microseismicity Framing ML > 2.5 Earthquakes at The ...
Aug 8, 2019 · Seismicity across The Geysers geothermal field is recorded by a permanent surface network of 31 short-period stations operating since 2003, run ...Missing: count | Show results with:count
[62]
[PDF] Protocol for Addressing Induced Seismicity Associated with ...
The “traffic light” system may be appropriate for many EGS operations, and provides a clear set of procedures to be followed in the event that certain ...
[63]
Geothermal production and reduced seismicity: Correlation and ...
Jan 15, 2018 · The data set includes: (1) daily observation of extraction and injection flow rates in gallons per minute, recorded primarily through manual ...
[64]
[PDF] NOTICE CONCERNING COPYRIGHT RESTRICTIONS
From the winter 2005-2006 peak, SESA injection has been reduced to the extent that injection rates are, on average, now similar to the pre-SEGEP period (Figure ...
[65]
[PDF] Gas and isotope geochemistry of 81 steam samples from wells in ...
CO2 concentrations in production-well fluids varied from 23.4 to 79.2 mol% of the noncondensable gases; how- ever, most samples had 50-70% CO2. Some fumaroles ...Missing: percentages | Show results with:percentages
[66]
The Origins of Reservoir Liquids and Vapors from The Geysers ...
Jan 1, 2005 · The Geysers steam field is divided into two principal reservoirs, a normal- and a high-temperature reservoir, which appear to be hydrologically ...
[67]
An Overview of Silica Scaling Reduction Technologies in the ... - MDPI
Sep 26, 2024 · In geothermal power plants, silica scales can affect surface equipment, such as heat exchangers, separators, and pipelines, hindering heat ...
[68]
Transport of Geothermal Fluids along Dikes and Fault Zones - MDPI
Field observations of active and fossil natural geothermal fields indicate that geothermal fluids are primarily transported along dikes and fault zones.
[69]
Geochemical consequences of treated waste water injection at the ...
Injection of treated waste water (SRWW) from the City of Santa Rosa, CA, was considered as a means to increase liquid reserves in The Geysers, ...
[70]
[PDF] NOTICE CONCERNING COPYRIGHT RESTRICTIONS
A new downhole sampling tool has been built for use in steam wells at The Geysers geothermal reservoir. The tool con- denses specimens into an initially ...
[71]
[PDF] Geothermal gas sampling methods
Geothermal gases (other than steam) generally consist mostly of. CO2 with lesser quantities of N2, CH4, HS, H , 0,, higher hydrocarbons,.
[72]
THE WATER STORY - The Geysers
Oct 17, 2025 · Since 2007 SRGRP has delivered approximately 11 million gallons per day of tertiary treated wastewater to replenish The Geysers' geothermal ...
[73]
The Geysers Geothermal Field, an injection success story
By December 2009, The Geysers had produced 2,453 billion kg of steam, and injected 997 billion kg of fluids, resulting in a net mass replacement of 40.6%.
[74]
[PDF] AMBIENT AIR H2S MONITORING AT THE GEYSERS
This reduction is consistent with the reduction in H2S emissions occurring from geothermal facilities at The Geysers, which experienced a factor of 10.Missing: mitigation | Show results with:mitigation
[75]
Subsidence at The Geysers Geothermal Field, N. California from a ...
Jul 15, 1997 · This earlier study had determined that The Geysers region was subsiding, with a maximum rate of 0.048 ± 0.0055 m/yr between 1973 and 1977.Missing: land | Show results with:land
[76]
Enhanced Geothermal Systems Demonstration Projects
The Geysers represents the nation's first sustained EGS demonstration success, following a year-long stimulation at two previously abandoned geothermal wells ...
[77]
Deep learning forecasting of large induced earthquakes via ... - Nature
Feb 5, 2024 · PreD-Net has been trained on data related to three different induced seismicity areas, namely The Geysers, located in California, USA, Cooper ...
[78]
GreenFire Energy Launches First Commercial Next-Gen ...
May 8, 2025 · GreenFire Energy today announced the successful launch of its first commercial next-gen geothermal demonstration project at The Geysers.