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Einstein@Home

Einstein@Home is a volunteer-based distributed computing project that utilizes the idle processing power of participants' computers to search for weak astrophysical signals, particularly from spinning neutron stars known as pulsars, using data from gravitational wave observatories like LIGO and radio telescopes such as MeerKAT and Arecibo, as well as the gamma-ray observatory Fermi.^[1] Launched in February 2005 as part of the American Physical Society's World Year of Physics initiative, the project operates on the BOINC platform, allowing volunteers to download and run analysis software on Windows, macOS, Linux, or Android devices without interfering with normal computer use.^[2] Directed by Bruce Allen at the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics and the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, it has engaged over 500,000 volunteers worldwide, contributing vast computational resources equivalent to supercomputing clusters.^[1] The primary scientific goals of Einstein@Home include the detection of continuous gravitational waves—predicted but yet undetected emissions from rapidly rotating neutron stars—and the discovery of previously unknown pulsars, especially radio-quiet ones identifiable through gamma-ray or gravitational wave data.^[1] These searches complement professional observatories by performing computationally intensive all-sky surveys that would be infeasible with dedicated hardware alone, focusing on data from LIGO's observing runs, including the O4 run, which began in May 2023 and concluded in November 2025, contributing to over 218 total gravitational wave detections as of September 2025.^[1]^[3] By employing advanced algorithms like hierarchical matched filtering, the project processes terabytes of noisy data to identify faint, periodic signals amid instrumental artifacts.^[4] Key achievements include the discovery of over 90 new neutron stars, with notable breakthroughs such as the first identification of a radio pulsar using Arecibo data in 2010, demonstrating the efficacy of volunteer computing in astronomy.^[1] In 2013, Einstein@Home uncovered four young gamma-ray pulsars in Fermi Large Area Telescope data, expanding knowledge of isolated neutron stars.^[5] In 2018, it detected a radio-quiet gamma-ray millisecond pulsar, and continuing discoveries include new gamma-ray pulsars identified in 2025, highlighting its role in probing elusive astrophysical phenomena.^[6]^[7] These results have been published in peer-reviewed journals and have advanced searches for continuous gravitational waves, building on the landmark 2015 detection of merging black holes by LIGO.^[8]

Background and History

Founding and Launch

Einstein@Home was developed by the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics (also known as the Albert Einstein Institute) in Potsdam, Germany, and the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, with collaboration from the American Physical Society to leverage distributed computing for gravitational wave research.^[9] The project drew inspiration from the volunteer computing model of SETI@home, adapting it to analyze astrophysical data using idle computer resources from participants worldwide.^[10] The project launched on February 19, 2005, coinciding with the World Year of Physics, a global initiative commemorating the centennial of Albert Einstein's annus mirabilis in 1905, during which he published groundbreaking papers on special relativity, the photoelectric effect, and Brownian motion.^[10]^[9] This timing positioned Einstein@Home as a flagship educational and scientific outreach program, unveiled at the American Association for the Advancement of Science annual meeting in Washington, DC.^[11] From its inception, Einstein@Home focused on processing data from LIGO's early science runs, starting with the third science run (S3) from 2003 and soon including S5 data from 2005, to detect continuous gravitational waves from rapidly rotating neutron stars using the BOINC (Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing) platform for volunteer task distribution.^[9] Early recruitment efforts targeted broad public participation, achieving rapid growth with over 55,000 volunteers from more than 115 countries within three weeks of launch and surpassing 90,000 participants by the end of 2005, which collectively provided substantial initial computational resources equivalent to early supercomputer scales.^[12]^[9]

Key Milestones and Evolution

Launched in February 2005 as part of the World Year of Physics, Einstein@Home initially focused on analyzing data from LIGO's early science runs, including S3, S4, and S5, to search for continuous gravitational waves from spinning neutron stars.^[1] A significant technological advancement occurred in 2008 with the integration of GPU computing, enabling volunteers to leverage NVIDIA CUDA for accelerated processing of gravitational wave data, which dramatically increased computational efficiency compared to CPU-only runs.^[13] In 2009, the project expanded its scope to include searches for radio pulsars, utilizing archival data from the Arecibo Observatory's Pulsar ALFA survey, marking the first such shift in volunteer computing efforts for pulsar discovery and leading to the first discovery in 2010.^[14]^[15] In 2011, Einstein@Home began incorporating gamma-ray pulsar searches using data from the Fermi Large Area Telescope, broadening its multi-messenger astronomy approach by combining distributed computing with gamma-ray observations to identify previously undetected pulsars, with the first discoveries announced in 2013.^[16] The collapse of the Arecibo Observatory in December 2020 necessitated a rapid adaptation, as it halted new radio data acquisition; by 2022, the project had transitioned to processing data from alternative facilities, including the Parkes Observatory and the MeerKAT radio telescope array in South Africa, ensuring continuity in radio pulsar hunts.^[17]^[9] Further evolution came in October 2023 with the launch of the "Pulsar Seekers" project on the Zooniverse platform, engaging citizen scientists in visual classification of pulsar candidates from radio telescope plots to complement automated computational searches.^[18] The project's computational backbone evolved alongside LIGO upgrades, transitioning from the initial S5 and S6 runs to the more sensitive Advanced LIGO observing runs: O1 (2015–2016), O2 (2016–2017), O3 (2017–2020), and the ongoing O4 run (initiated May 2023 and continuing through 2025), allowing deeper all-sky searches for gravitational waves.^[1] Marking its 20th anniversary on February 19, 2025, Einstein@Home had engaged nearly 500,000 volunteers worldwide, delivering sustained computing power exceeding 13 petaFLOPS (13,300 TFLOPS) and contributing to over 90 neutron star discoveries across radio and gamma-ray domains.^[9]

Project Operations

Volunteer Participation and Infrastructure

Einstein@Home harnesses the idle computing resources of volunteers worldwide through the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform, which facilitates task distribution, result validation, and a credit system to incentivize participation. Volunteers install the BOINC software and select Einstein@Home as a project, allowing their devices to automatically download and process computational tasks during periods of low activity. The credit system awards points based on validated contributions, where results from a volunteer's machine are compared against those from at least two others to confirm accuracy before credits are granted.^[19]^[20] The project supports a range of operating systems, including Windows, macOS, Linux, and Android (with mobile app support available since 2013), enabling participation on diverse hardware such as CPUs and GPUs. This broad compatibility allows volunteers to contribute using desktops, laptops, or even mobile devices, with BOINC optimizing resource usage to avoid interfering with normal operations. GPU acceleration, in particular, enables multiple tasks to run concurrently on capable hardware, enhancing overall efficiency.^[1]^[21] As of 2025, Einstein@Home has engaged over 500,000 volunteers globally, forming one of the largest distributed computing efforts. While exact concurrent user figures fluctuate, the project's sustained activity is evident from high recent average credits, such as around 130 million credits per day for leading teams, reflecting peak performance in the teraflops range across the network.^[22] These contributions have cumulatively delivered billions of CPU-core hours, underscoring the scale of volunteer-driven computation.^[23]^[22] The task workflow begins with BOINC downloading compact work units—data chunks requiring about 70 MB of memory and 100 MB of disk space—to the volunteer's device. The software then processes these units in the background, searching for astrophysical signals, with typical completion times fitting within two-week deadlines and daily quotas of up to eight tasks per CPU core. Completed results are uploaded automatically, undergoing cross-validation against identical tasks run on other machines to ensure reliability and filter errors, a process that generally takes 1-10 days.^[19]^[24] Privacy and security are prioritized, with no collection of personal data beyond essential account details and optional team affiliations, which users can join voluntarily for community engagement. All executable files are digitally signed for integrity, and servers are protected by firewalls with anonymized IP logging retained only for seven days. This setup, inspired briefly by predecessor projects like SETI@home, ensures secure, anonymous contributions without compromising user privacy.^[25]^[19]

Data Sources and Processing Pipeline

Einstein@Home primarily utilizes gravitational wave data from the LIGO, Virgo, and KAGRA detectors, focusing on public datasets from their observing runs. The project has analyzed data from the third observing run (O3), which spanned from April 2019 to March 2020 and provided approximately 11 months of multi-detector observations sensitive to continuous gravitational wave signals in the frequency range of 20–2000 Hz. More recently, Einstein@Home has incorporated data from the ongoing fourth observing run (O4), which began in May 2023 and continues through November 2025, enabling multi-directional searches for targeted sources such as known pulsars.^[26] These datasets originate from the detectors' strain time-series measurements, calibrated to account for instrumental responses. For radio pulsar searches, Einstein@Home processes archival and survey data from several major telescopes. Pre-2020 observations from the Arecibo Observatory's 305-m dish, particularly the Pulsar ALFA (PALFA) survey, provide high-sensitivity drift-scan data targeting the Galactic plane and anti-center regions, with 5-minute pointings corrected for dispersion effects from interstellar medium.^[17] Data from the Parkes Observatory's 64-m telescope, including surveys of the southern sky, have been analyzed for binary systems with orbital periods exceeding 11 minutes.^[27] Additionally, recent efforts incorporate data from the MeerKAT telescope's 64-dish array in South Africa, utilizing 15-minute observations from the TRAPUM survey of globular clusters to probe short-period binaries in the southern hemisphere.^[17] Gamma-ray data for pulsar identification comes from the Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT), which conducts continuous all-sky surveys in the 20 MeV to 300 GeV energy range, detecting about 10 photons per day per typical pulsar with a 95-minute orbital period.^[28] Einstein@Home targets both all-sky blind searches and directed analyses of unidentified sources, including regions like the Galactic center, using public photon event data updated annually with cumulative catalogs spanning over 15 years of observations.^[29] These datasets emphasize high-time-resolution timing to reveal pulsation signals from isolated or binary neutron stars. The processing pipeline begins with data conditioning at central servers, where raw inputs undergo noise removal, glitch excision, and filtering to mitigate instrumental artifacts and environmental disturbances, producing cleaned time-series or short-time Fourier transform (SFT) files suitable for signal hunts. For gravitational wave and radio analyses, the conditioned data is segmented into semi-coherent chunks—typically 30 minutes to several hours long—to reduce computational demands while preserving sensitivity; these segments are distributed via the BOINC platform to volunteers' devices for initial incoherent searches across parameter spaces like frequency and Doppler shifts.^[30] Results from these distributed computations, including candidate statistics, are aggregated back at the servers for coherent follow-up, where longer integration times (up to days) refine promising signals through phase-coherent matching. Gamma-ray processing similarly involves photon dedispersion and orbital templating on volunteer machines, followed by central vetoing against known sources. This pipeline handles large-scale datasets, with Einstein@Home processing on the order of terabytes annually across all-sky blind searches—scanning the entire celestial sphere for unknown emitters—and directed searches targeting catalogs of supernova remnants or globular clusters, enabling the project to cover vast parameter volumes unattainable by single-institution efforts.^[27] The distributed nature ensures scalability, with volunteer contributions aggregating to exaflop-scale computing power over time.^[31]

Scientific Objectives

Gravitational Wave Detection Goals

The primary goal of Einstein@Home in gravitational wave detection is to achieve the first direct observation of continuous gravitational waves emitted by asymmetric, rotating neutron stars, such as pulsars, as predicted by Einstein's theory of general relativity.^[32] These waves arise from the quadrupole deformation of the star's mass distribution, producing nearly monochromatic signals at twice the rotation frequency that persist over long durations, unlike the transient bursts from mergers.^[33] The project targets a range of potential sources within the Milky Way, including known pulsars with established timing from electromagnetic observations, young neutron stars in supernova remnants like Cassiopeia A and Vela Jr., and unknown isolated neutron stars that may constitute a vast, undetected population estimated at around 100 million in the galaxy.^[32] By focusing on these galactic sources, Einstein@Home leverages the high sensitivity of ground-based detectors like LIGO to probe nearby objects where signal strengths are strongest.^[34] Detecting these signals would enable measurements of the neutron star's ellipticity—a dimensionless measure of its deviation from axial symmetry—allowing inferences about its internal structure, such as the distribution of mass and rigidity in the crust, the strength and configuration of internal magnetic fields, and constraints on the equation of state governing superdense matter.^[32] Additionally, analysis of spin-down rates—the observed deceleration of rotation—combined with torque measurements from detected waves, would help distinguish energy losses due to gravitational wave emission from those caused by electromagnetic radiation and other braking mechanisms, providing insights into the physics of neutron star evolution.^[33] Over the long term, Einstein@Home aims to reach strain sensitivities as low as $10^{-26}, enabling the detection of weakly emitting sources at greater distances or with smaller asymmetries, particularly with data from advanced detector upgrades and extended observation runs.^[1] This threshold would unlock a new window into otherwise invisible neutron stars, testing fundamental aspects of general relativity in the strong-field regime and refining models of compact object formation and dynamics.^[34]

Pulsar Identification in Electromagnetic Spectra

Einstein@Home conducts blind searches for radio pulsars in surveys of the Galactic plane, utilizing data from telescopes such as Arecibo and MeerKAT, while also targeting gamma-ray millisecond pulsars within unidentified sources detected by the Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT). These efforts aim to expand the known population of neutron stars by identifying periodic signals in electromagnetic data, thereby mapping the distribution and properties of pulsars across the Galaxy.^[17]^[28] The project places particular emphasis on rare and challenging objects, including binary pulsar systems with orbital periods exceeding 11 minutes in Arecibo data or 30 minutes in MeerKAT observations, radio-quiet gamma-ray pulsars that evade traditional radio detection, and pulsars located near the Galactic center where interstellar scattering obscures signals. Such discoveries provide insights into underrepresented populations, such as those in dense environments or with atypical emission profiles.^[17]^[6]^[7] These searches are motivated by the need to refine models of stellar evolution through better characterization of neutron star populations and their associations with supernova remnants, to elucidate pulsar beaming geometries and multi-wavelength emission mechanisms, and to identify potential electromagnetic counterparts to gravitational wave sources for multi-messenger astronomy. By filling gaps in the pulsar catalog, Einstein@Home contributes to a more complete census of neutron stars, enhancing our understanding of their formation and evolution. As of 2025, these efforts have resulted in the discovery of over 90 new radio and gamma-ray pulsars, including four new gamma-ray pulsars in the inner Galaxy identified in September 2025.^[17]^[28]^[11]^[7] Targeted surveys include high-latitude Fermi sources to minimize Galactic foreground confusion and inner Galaxy regions via initiatives like the TRAPUM survey with MeerKAT, which probes obscured areas and globular clusters for hidden pulsars. The overarching goal is to significantly expand the pulsar catalog through distributed volunteer computing to process vast datasets.^[6]^[17]^[28]

Search Methods

Algorithms for Signal Detection

Einstein@Home employs a suite of sophisticated algorithms to detect faint gravitational wave (GW) signals and pulsar periodicities amid substantial noise in detector data. These methods are designed to handle the computational demands of volunteer distributed computing, balancing sensitivity with feasibility over vast parameter spaces such as frequency, spin-down rate, sky position, and binary orbital parameters. Central to GW searches is matched filtering, which correlates data with theoretical templates of expected signals from rotating neutron stars, incorporating corrections for Doppler modulation due to the detector's motion relative to the source and for the source's intrinsic spin-down. This approach uses the F-statistic as a detection statistic, maximizing signal-to-noise ratio for unknown source orientations and polarizations. Hierarchical template placement refines the search by starting with coarse grids and progressively narrowing to finer resolutions for promising candidates, enabling all-sky surveys without exhaustive computation. For pulsar periodicity detection in radio and gamma-ray data, algorithms focus on identifying narrow peaks in power spectra corresponding to rotational frequencies. The Hough transform maps these spectra into parameter space (e.g., frequency and frequency derivative) by voting along expected signal trajectories, effectively detecting sinusoidal modulations robust to noise artifacts. Power spectrum stacking enhances sensitivity by aligning and summing spectra from multiple data segments or detectors, amplifying periodic signals while averaging out stochastic noise. These techniques are particularly effective for directed searches toward known targets but extend to broader scans with appropriate parameter binning. To manage the phase drift over long observation times that precludes fully coherent searches, Einstein@Home implements semi-coherent methods, which divide data into shorter coherent segments and combine results incoherently. The Hough transform serves as a foundational semi-coherent tool, followed by the StackSlide method, which slides segment power spectra relative to each other to account for phase evolution and stacks the aligned powers for candidate selection. This hybrid approach, often termed Hough-StackSlide, achieves near-optimal sensitivity at reduced computational cost compared to fully coherent alternatives, scaling favorably for integration times exceeding months.^[35] Recent advancements include the integration of deep learning techniques to improve candidate vetting and sensitivity in all-sky gravitational wave searches, as applied to LIGO O3 public data. Additionally, specialized algorithms have enabled high-frequency continuous gravitational wave searches up to several kHz in Advanced LIGO data.^[36]^[37] Computational efficiency is bolstered by GPU-optimized implementations, leveraging volunteer hardware for parallel processing. Custom CUDA kernels accelerate key operations like discrete Fourier transforms, which are ubiquitous in power spectrum generation and matched filtering, yielding speedups of orders of magnitude over CPU-only runs and enabling deeper searches within fixed budgets.^[38] Validation of candidate signals proceeds in stages to distinguish astrophysical sources from noise. Incoherent harmonic summing aggregates power across expected harmonics of a candidate frequency, boosting detection probability for weak pulsars where fundamental signals may be buried in noise. Promising outliers undergo follow-up with fully coherent phase models, employing techniques like the Viterbi algorithm to reconstruct precise phase histories and compute maximum-likelihood amplitudes, confirming or rejecting signals against false-alarm thresholds.^[27] The targeted GW signals arise from quadrupolar deformations in rotating neutron stars, characterized by the strain amplitude h_0 = \frac{4\pi^2 G}{c^4} \frac{I_{zz} \epsilon f^2}{r}, where \epsilon is the equatorial ellipticity, f the GW frequency (typically twice the rotation frequency), I_{zz} the principal moment of inertia, and r the distance to the source; searches are tuned to detect h_0 down to $10^{-26} or lower, depending on integration time and noise levels.^[33]

Computational Challenges and Optimizations

The computational challenges in Einstein@Home arise primarily from the immense parameter space required for astrophysical searches, encompassing variables such as signal frequency, spin-down rate, and sky position for potential neutron star sources. For all-sky gravitational wave searches, this necessitates evaluating vast numbers of signal templates, often exceeding $10^{12} in total across the project, with individual work units handling up to $3 \times 10^8 templates to cover broad frequency bands like 50–1190 Hz. Additionally, instrumental noise and artifacts in detector data can generate spurious candidates, increasing the burden of validation and follow-up analyses, which further escalates the overall computational demands on the distributed network. To address these hurdles, Einstein@Home employs task segmentation, dividing the parameter space into bite-sized work units suitable for volunteer computers of varying capabilities, enabling efficient distribution via the BOINC infrastructure. Results undergo quorum validation, requiring consensus from at least two or three independent computations to confirm validity and mitigate errors from hardware variability or noise. Optimizations also include adaptive coarsening techniques for preliminary scans, where coarser parameter grids are used initially to identify promising regions before finer resolution, thereby reducing the total floating-point operations (FLOPS) required per task through vectorized implementations tailored to different processors. The project's handling of heterogeneous hardware further enhances scalability, with dedicated applications for CPUs, NVIDIA/AMD/Intel GPUs, and fallback mechanisms to CPU processing if GPU execution fails, ensuring robust participation across diverse devices. Post-2010 adoption of GPU computing dramatically boosted performance, with approximately 10,000 active GPUs delivering an order-of-magnitude increase in search speed compared to CPU-only eras. In the 2020s, expansions to support ARM architectures and Apple Silicon have sustained growth, optimizing for emerging volunteer hardware while prioritizing energy-efficient vectorized operations to minimize per-task computational overhead.

Gravitational Wave Analysis

Methods and Techniques

Einstein@Home conducts searches for continuous gravitational waves from spinning neutron stars using data from the LIGO and Virgo gravitational-wave detectors. These signals are expected to be nearly monochromatic, emitted at twice the neutron star's rotation frequency, with a slow frequency evolution due to energy loss. The searches target isolated neutron stars and those in binary systems, addressing challenges such as Doppler shifts from Earth's motion that require exploring a multi-dimensional parameter space including sky position (right ascension and declination), frequency, and spin-down rate.^[32] The primary method is hierarchical semi-coherent matched filtering, which combines short coherent integration segments with incoherent summing to balance sensitivity and computational cost. In coherent stages, Fourier-based matched filtering correlates the data with expected signal templates across narrow frequency bands, typically using 30-minute segments to mitigate phase drifts. Subsequent semi-coherent stages sum detection statistics from these segments over longer time baselines, such as the full observing run, while scanning the parameter space. For all-sky searches, the parameter space is divided into millions of work units distributed via the BOINC platform to volunteers' computers, enabling coverage of frequencies from 20 Hz to over 2000 Hz and spin-down rates up to $10^{-9} Hz/s.^[34]^[32] Directed searches focus on known or candidate sources, such as young supernova remnants (e.g., Cassiopeia A, Vela Jr.), reducing the sky position parameters and concentrating on frequency and spin-down. These employ refined templates accounting for potential binary motion or glitches. Data from LIGO's observing runs (O1 through O4) are obtained from the Gravitational Wave Open Science Center, processed in short Fourier transforms to remove instrumental artifacts, and analyzed for excess power consistent with gravitational-wave emission. The distributed framework allows Einstein@Home to achieve sensitivities equivalent to thousands of CPU-years, surpassing dedicated supercomputer efforts in parameter coverage.^[36]^[39] Candidate signals from initial searches undergo follow-up in hierarchical stages, refining parameters with more computationally intensive fully coherent methods on subsets of data to assess significance against noise. No detections have been confirmed to date, but these techniques set stringent upper limits on signal strength.^[4]

Results and Constraints

As of November 2025, Einstein@Home searches for continuous gravitational waves from isolated neutron stars have yielded no detections. The most stringent constraints arise from the all-sky search using public LIGO O3 data, covering frequencies from 20 to 1726 Hz, which excludes neutron stars within 100 pc with ellipticities \epsilon > 5 \times 10^{-8} spinning faster than 200 Hz (period P < 5 ms).^[36] This search also sets the strongest upper limit on gravitational-wave strain amplitude at h_0^{90\%} = 8.1 \times 10^{-26} near 203 Hz, probing physically motivated ellipticities between $10^{-8} and $10^{-6} for nearby sources.^[36] Results from an Einstein@Home search using LIGO O2 data demonstrate enhanced sensitivity in targeted searches on young supernova remnants. For instance, improved upper limits exclude ellipticities above $10^{-7} across broad frequency bands for the central compact object in Vela Jr. (at ~300 pc), building on prior constraints and ruling out higher deformation levels that could dominate emission mechanisms.^[40] These bounds surpass previous efforts by over 300% in sensitivity above 1500 Hz for Vela Jr., leveraging refined hierarchical algorithms on distributed computing resources.^[40] In directed searches on known pulsars, Einstein@Home has established tight upper limits using O2 data, such as h_0^{90\%} < 1.3 \times 10^{-25} near 163 Hz for rapidly rotating neutron stars, though specific Crab pulsar limits from all-sky components align closely with broader LIGO efforts at similar levels (e.g., below $4 \times 10^{-25}).^[41] A 2024 deep search publication focused on central compact objects in remnants like Vela Jr. and G347.3-0.5, using combined O2 and O3a data, set new upper limits on gravitational-wave torque, with h_0^{90\%} < 6.4 \times 10^{-26} at 163 Hz for Vela Jr., translating to torque bounds below electromagnetic spin-down contributions and constraining maximum ellipticities to \epsilon < 10^{-7} at 400 Hz.^[42] These non-detections have significant implications for neutron star physics. The constraints rule out gravitational-wave-dominated spin-down for young pulsars in the searched remnants, as the upper limits fall well below indirect spin-down bounds derived from observed rotational energy loss, favoring magnetic dipole radiation as the primary mechanism.^[42] Additionally, limits on r-mode amplitudes (\alpha \geq 10^{-5} excluded for spins above 150 Hz at 100 pc) from the O3 all-sky search restrict excitation scenarios in newborn neutron stars, indirectly constraining models of core-collapse supernovae that invoke r-modes for rapid cooling and potential r-process nucleosynthesis sites.^[36] As of November 2025, Einstein@Home is actively searching for continuous gravitational waves using early public data from LIGO's O4 observing run (May 2023–November 2025), including ongoing multi-directional all-sky searches that leverage volunteer computing to probe new parameter spaces.^[26]

Radio Pulsar Searches

Methods and Techniques

Einstein@Home conducts blind searches for radio pulsars using data from large radio telescopes, focusing on isolated and binary neutron stars without prior ephemerides. These searches process archival survey data through distributed volunteer computing, employing incoherent dedispersion to correct for interstellar dispersion effects across multiple trial dispersion measures (DM), typically 628 values for Arecibo data.^[17] The pipeline begins with radio frequency interference (RFI) mitigation and channelization, followed by dedispersion trials. For each DM, a Fourier transform is applied to the time series to detect periodic signals via power in the fundamental frequency and harmonics, enhancing sensitivity to weak pulsars. Semi-coherent methods sum short coherent integration segments (e.g., 6-60 seconds) to search broad parameter spaces, including spin frequencies up to several hundred Hz, spin-down rates, and for binaries, orbital periods down to 11 minutes, addressing acceleration and sideband effects in compact systems.^[43]^[27] Data sources include the Pulsar Arecibo L-band Feed Array (PALFA) survey from the Arecibo Observatory (5-minute integrations at 1.4 GHz) and the Parkes Multibeam Pulsar Survey (PMPS) from the Parkes Observatory (narrow 3-MHz bandwidth, 1-minute pointings). More recently, the project analyzes data from the MeerKAT telescope's TRAPUM survey (15-minute observations), targeting globular clusters and the Galactic plane for short-period binaries. Candidate signals are ranked using detection statistics like the Fourier power threshold and verified through follow-up radio observations with telescopes such as Effelsberg or Green Bank to confirm pulsations and derive timing models.^[17]^[44] These computationally intensive searches divide the parameter space into millions of work units, processed on volunteers' devices via BOINC, achieving sensitivities comparable to dedicated clusters by handling terabytes of raw data and mitigating phase drift in long integrations.^[43]

Discoveries and Findings

As of December 2023, Einstein@Home has discovered 55 previously unknown radio pulsars, primarily through re-analysis of archival data from major surveys. These include 31 pulsars from Arecibo PALFA data and 24 from the Parkes Multibeam Pulsar Survey, contributing significantly to the known pulsar population and tests of general relativity in binary systems.^[45] The first discovery was PSR J2007+2722 in 2010, an isolated pulsar with a 40.8 Hz spin frequency found in PALFA data, notable for its high spin rate and faint flux (1.2 mJy at 1.4 GHz). This breakthrough validated the distributed computing approach for pulsar hunting.^[43] In 2013, Einstein@Home identified 24 new pulsars in PMPS data, including 18 isolated and 6 binary systems, such as short-period binaries with orbital periods of hours to days. These findings, spanning spin periods from 3 ms to several seconds, expanded the sample of pulsars in the Galactic plane and demonstrated the efficacy of novel semi-coherent techniques for binary detection in wide-band data.^[27]^[44] Additional discoveries include binary pulsars like PSR J1913+1102 (2016, 27.3 ms spin, double neutron star system) from Arecibo data, providing insights into supernova kicks and orbital evolution. Ongoing MeerKAT analyses as of 2025 continue to probe for ultra-short binaries, with no new confirmed discoveries reported by November 2025, but enhancing upper limits on pulsar populations in dense fields. These radio pulsars complement gravitational wave searches by offering targets for directed emission studies.^[46]^[17]

Gamma-Ray Pulsar Searches

Methods and Techniques

Einstein@Home employs targeted searches to identify gamma-ray pulsations from over 1,000 unidentified Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT) sources by phase-folding photon arrival times using radio ephemerides derived from prior electromagnetic observations. These ephemerides provide rotational parameters such as spin frequency and its derivative, enabling the alignment of sparse gamma-ray photons into pulse profiles to detect periodicity. This approach is particularly effective for sources with potential radio counterparts, where the low photon count (typically ~10 per day per source) necessitates precise timing to reveal faint signals.^[47] For blind all-sky surveys, Einstein@Home conducts semi-coherent folding searches across the entire gamma-ray sky, targeting isolated and binary pulsars without prior ephemerides. These searches utilize the tempo2 software to handle orbital modulation in binary systems and perform incoherent summing of coherent segments, typically spanning 6 days each, to mitigate computational demands while scanning a four-dimensional parameter space of frequency, spin-down rate, right ascension, and declination. The method accommodates spin frequencies up to 1,520 Hz and spin-down rates ranging from 0 to -10^{-9} Hz s^{-1} for young pulsars or -10^{-13} Hz s^{-1} for millisecond pulsars, enabling detection of unknown sources amid high background noise.^[47]^[28] The searches analyze photons in the energy range of 0.1–300 GeV collected by the Fermi LAT from August 2008 through October 2024, providing datasets spanning up to 16 years with microsecond timing precision. To enhance signal significance, off-pulse subtraction is applied by modeling and removing background emission during non-pulsing phases, using likelihood spectral fits that account for Galactic diffuse and isotropic components via the pointlike tool. This technique isolates pulsed emission, crucial for low-flux sources where background dominates.^[48]^[49] Unique to Einstein@Home's distributed computing framework, photon weighting assigns probabilities to each event based on its likelihood of originating from the target source, computed via the gtsrcprob tool using energy and directional information. For faint signals, maximum likelihood estimation refines pulse profiles by fitting templates (e.g., wrapped Gaussians) to weighted photon phases, maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio through Bayesian optimization and the H-test for harmonic content. These volunteer-distributed computations process terabytes of data, dividing parameter space into millions of work units to achieve sensitivities unattainable on single machines.^[47]^[49] Candidate pulsars identified in initial searches undergo multi-wavelength follow-up, primarily with radio telescopes such as Effelsberg and MeerKAT, to confirm periodicity and derive ephemerides. These observations fold radio data using gamma-ray timing solutions, searching for counterparts in unidentified sources and establishing upper limits on radio flux for potentially radio-quiet gamma-ray pulsars.^[49]^[7]

Discoveries and Findings

Einstein@Home has identified over 43 previously unknown gamma-ray pulsars through blind searches in Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT) data as of late 2025, representing a substantial portion of such discoveries via distributed computing efforts.^[50] Among these, 14 new gamma-ray pulsars were confirmed between 2020 and 2023 as part of contributions to the third Fermi LAT catalog, expanding the catalog's total to 294 confirmed sources.^[51] Notable discoveries include the millisecond binary pulsar PSR J2039–5617, identified in 2021 with a spin period of 2.65 ms and an orbital period of approximately 0.92 days, marking it as a key example of a gamma-selected binary system.^[52] Another significant find is PSR J1653–0158, the first radio-quiet millisecond pulsar (MSP) detected in 2020, featuring a 1.97 ms spin period and an ultracompact 75-minute orbit as a black widow binary, which remained undetected in radio observations despite deep follow-ups.^[53] These gamma-ray pulsars exhibit spin periods typically ranging from 1 to 50 ms, characteristic of MSPs, with a notable fraction located in dense environments such as globular clusters or the Galactic center region; a significant fraction of Einstein@Home's gamma-ray pulsar discoveries are radio-silent, lacking detectable radio emission from Earth.^[7] In 2025, a targeted Einstein@Home search in the inner Galaxy yielded four new gamma-ray pulsars, including one MSP and one young pulsar situated just 0.93° from the Galactic Center, enabling detections in highly crowded fields and refining models of pulsar emission beaming geometry.^[7] These findings have added to the sample of gamma-ray pulsars known from blind searches, providing critical insights into the population of radio-quiet objects and their high-energy emission mechanisms.^[7]

Impact and Future Directions

Contributions to Astrophysics

Einstein@Home has significantly enhanced pulsar catalogs by discovering more than 90 new neutron stars through its distributed computing searches in radio and gamma-ray data, thereby expanding the known population of these compact objects and facilitating multi-messenger astronomy by providing targets for cross-verification with gravitational wave detections.^[1] These discoveries include 24 radio pulsars from Parkes Multibeam Survey data and 31 from Arecibo observations, alongside 43 gamma-ray pulsars identified in Fermi Large Area Telescope data, which collectively improve the understanding of neutron star distributions in the Galaxy.^[28]^[7] The project's gravitational wave searches have imposed stringent upper limits on continuous wave signals from spinning neutron stars, constraining their equatorial ellipticity and thereby informing models of neutron star interiors, including the equation of state at supranuclear densities.^[54] For instance, analyses of LIGO O2 and O3 data have set the most sensitive all-sky limits to date, excluding deformations that would produce detectable signals and testing theories of internal asymmetries driven by magnetic fields or superfluid dynamics.^[55] Meanwhile, pulsar discoveries such as the double neutron star binary PSR J1913+1102 have provided empirical tests of binary evolution pathways, revealing systems with total masses around 2.875 solar masses that challenge and refine population synthesis models.^[56]^[57] Through its volunteer-based model, Einstein@Home has engaged over 500,000 participants worldwide, educating them on general relativity, pulsar astrophysics, and distributed computing principles via interactive tasks and progress updates that demystify cutting-edge research.^[23] This broad involvement, spanning from hobbyists to students, fosters public appreciation for scientific methods and has contributed to STEM outreach by demonstrating real-world applications of volunteer computing in astronomy.^[12] The project maintains active collaborations, including data sharing with the LIGO Scientific Collaboration for gravitational wave analyses and the Fermi Large Area Telescope team for gamma-ray pulsar hunts, enabling joint publications and enhanced search sensitivities that leverage combined expertise and resources.^[58] These partnerships have integrated Einstein@Home results into broader multi-wavelength studies, such as targeted searches in supernova remnants. Einstein@Home has produced 38 peer-reviewed publications as of 2025, documenting its methodological advancements and scientific yields, with recent works including gamma-ray pulsar searches in the inner Galaxy and high-frequency continuous gravitational wave hunts in LIGO O3 data.^[11]^[8] These papers, often appearing in high-impact journals like The Astrophysical Journal and Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, have advanced search algorithms and provided key constraints on astrophysical phenomena.^[7]^[37]

Recent Developments and Collaborations

In 2024, Einstein@Home conducted deep searches for continuous gravitational waves from central compact objects in the supernova remnants Vela Jr. and G347.3, utilizing LIGO O3 data to set stringent upper limits on signal strengths, with ongoing efforts extending through the O4 run, which concludes in November 2025. These analyses incorporated data from the LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA (LVK) collaboration's O4 run, marking the first integration of KAGRA detector contributions into Einstein@Home's distributed computing framework for enhanced sensitivity in targeted searches.^[4] By September 2025, Einstein@Home published results from gamma-ray pulsar searches targeting unidentified Fermi-LAT sources in the inner Galaxy, processing over 15 years of data to identify four new pulsars—including one millisecond pulsar and one young pulsar near the Galactic Center—and constrain pulsar populations in dense stellar environments.^[7] Outreach efforts also advanced, with participation in the Hannover Maker Faire on August 23–24, 2025, where volunteers demonstrated the project's volunteer computing model to engage the public in gravitational wave and pulsar science.^[23] Key collaborations have bolstered Einstein@Home's capabilities post-Arecibo collapse in 2020, including the Zooniverse "Pulsar Seekers" project launched in October 2023, which has garnered thousands of volunteer classifications of radio pulsar candidates from legacy Arecibo data, yielding promising identifications by March 2025.^[59]^[60] Additionally, partnerships with the MeerKAT radio telescope, initiated through the TRAPUM collaboration in 2023, enable searches for pulsars in globular clusters and other targets, compensating for the loss of Arecibo by leveraging international facilities for broader sky coverage.^[61]^[62] Looking ahead, Einstein@Home is preparing for synergies with future missions like LISA, planning multi-messenger analyses that combine space-based gravitational wave data with ground-based pulsar timing, while scaling computational resources for the LVK's O5 observing run expected post-2025 to handle increased data volumes and incorporate advanced candidate ranking techniques.^[63]

References

[1]
About us | Einstein@Home
### Summary of Einstein@Home About Page
[2]
[PDF] Reinhard Prix for the LIGO Scientific Collaboration - LIGO DCC
Einstein@Home was launched in Feb 2005, as part of the. APS “World Year of physics 2005” initiative. It has been growing steadily since its launch (Fig. 5) ...
[3]
Deep Einstein@Home Search for Continuous Gravitational Waves ...
Thousands of volunteers donating compute cycles through the computing project Einstein@Home have made this endeavor possible. Following the Einstein@Home ...
[4]
EINSTEIN@HOME DISCOVERY OF FOUR YOUNG GAMMA-RAY ...
Nov 26, 2013 · We report the discovery of four gamma-ray pulsars, detected in computing-intensive blind searches of data from the Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT).
[5]
Einstein@Home discovers a radio-quiet gamma-ray millisecond pulsar
Feb 28, 2018 · The first gamma-ray MSPs were found shortly after Fermi's launch by folding gamma-ray photon arrival times using rotational ephemerides from ...
[6]
Publications, PhD theses, and reports | Einstein@Home
Results of the deepest all-sky survey for continuous gravitational waves on LIGO S6 data running on the Einstein@Home volunteer distributed computing project, ...
[7]
Happy 20th birthday, Einstein@Home!
Feb 19, 2025 · The project was launched on 19 February 2005 by the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics and the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee as ...
[8]
Einstein@Home, Grassroots Astrophysics Project, Goes Live
... February 19th. ... Einstein@Home is a flagship program of the World Year of Physics 2005 celebration of the centennial of Albert Einstein's miraculous year.
[9]
Einstein@Home is twenty years old today!
Feb 19, 2025 · We officially launched Einstein@Home on February 19th 2005, exactly 20 years ago, at the annual meeting of the American Association for the ...Missing: founded | Show results with:founded
[10]
New Users Flock to Einstein@Home - American Physical Society
The Einstein@Home distributed computing project is enlisting a rapidly growing army of computer users in a search for Einstein's elusive gravitational waves ...Missing: establishment 2004 Max Planck Institute
[11]
An Exploration of CUDA and CBEA for Einstein@Home - SpringerLink
We present a detailed approach for making use of two new computer hardware architectures–CBEA and CUDA–for accelerating a scientific data-analysis application ( ...
[12]
Einstein@Home 'citizen scientists' in the U.S.A. and Germany ...
Starting in March 2009, Einstein@Home also began searching for signals from radio pulsars in astronomical observations from the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto ...
[13]
The Einstein@Home Gamma-ray Pulsar Survey. I. Search Methods ...
Nov 3, 2016 · We report on the results of a recent blind search survey for gamma-ray pulsars in Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT) data being carried out on the distributed ...
[14]
Radio Pulsar Searches | Einstein@Home
The MeerKAT telescope, located in the Karoo desert in South Africa, is the largest radio telescope in the Southern Hemisphere. It consists of an array of 64 ...
[15]
Einstein@Home joins the Zooniverse
Oct 31, 2023 · The new “Pulsar Seekers” project is calling on volunteers from the Zooniverse citizen science platform to sort through these plots to find new pulsars.
[16]
Frequently Asked Questions - Einstein@Home
When you run Einstein@Home on your computer, it will use part of the computer's CPU and or GPU power, disk space, and network bandwidth. You can control how ...
[17]
https://einsteinathome.org/science/brp
[18]
Einstein@Home on Android Devices
Jul 22, 2013 · Starting today, Einstein@Home will run on your Android smartphones and tablets. If you own a device running Android 2.3 or higher please sign it up.Missing: 2011 | Show results with:2011
[19]
Einstein@Home
Einstein@Home uses your computer's idle time to search for weak astrophysical signals from spinning neutron stars (often called pulsars)Community · About us · News · FAQ
[20]
Statistics - Einstein@Home
Statistics ; 4, SETI.Germany, 34,877,396.31 ; 5, BOINC@Poland, 33,755,087.48 ; 6, Team China, 25,864,597.25 ; 7, USA, 23,680,607.50 ...Missing: volunteer participation<|control11|><|separator|>
[21]
Validating work taking...VERY long. - Einstein@Home
Oct 28, 2020 · In order for your task to get validated and receive credit, Einstein has to decide to assign tasks from the same base frequency as your tasks to ...Task validation | Einstein@HomeTask Validation Status | Einstein@HomeMore results from einsteinathome.orgMissing: workflow | Show results with:workflow
[22]
Privacy Policy | Einstein@Home
As a matter of principle, we gather and utilize users' personal data only to the extent required to ensure the functioning of our website and of our contents ...
[23]
Multi-Directional Gravitational Wave Search on O4 data (O4MD1)
Oct 22, 2025 · We started with a new multi-directional search on (the first half of) data from LIGO's fourth observation run ("O4").Results from all-sky search in LIGO O2 data publishedResults from Einstein@Home supernova remnant search publishedMore results from einsteinathome.org
[24]
EINSTEIN@HOME DISCOVERY OF 24 PULSARS IN THE PARKES ...
EINSTEIN@HOME DISCOVERY OF 24 PULSARS IN THE PARKES MULTI-BEAM PULSAR ... (2004 - 2018), J. High Energy Phys. (1997 - 2009), J. Inst. (2006 - present), J ...
[25]
Fermi Gamma-ray Pulsar Search | Einstein@Home
The LAT can detect single gamma-ray photons, their energy (in the range from 20 MeV to 300 GeV), the direction they came from (to less than a degree) and when ...Missing: 2016 | Show results with:2016
[26]
Deep Einstein@Home All-sky Search for Continuous Gravitational ...
We present the results of an all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves in the public LIGO O3 data. The search covers signal frequencies 20.0 Hz ≤ f ≤ ...
[27]
Einstein@Home all-sky "bucket" search for continuous gravitational ...
Aug 22, 2025 · We conduct an all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves using LIGO O3 public data from the Hanford and Livingston detectors. We search ...Missing: size terabytes annual directed
[28]
Background Information - Max-Planck-Gesellschaft
Background information on pulsars, data analysis and Einstein@Home ... Several copies of around 500 Terabytes of data are stored at different computer cluster ...
[29]
Gravitational-wave Searches | Einstein@Home
### Summary of Goals for Detecting Continuous Gravitational Waves from Neutron Stars
[30]
[PDF] Gravitational Waves from Spinning Neutron Stars - LIGO DCC
Summary. This paper gives an introductory overview of the search for continuous gravitational waves from spinning neutron stars. We review the current ...
[31]
Einstein@Home All-sky Search for Continuous Gravitational Waves ...
Continuous gravitational waves are expected in a variety of astrophysical scenarios: from rotating neutrons stars if they present some sort of asymmetry with ...Missing: goals | Show results with:goals
[32]
Einstein@Home Searches for Gamma-ray Pulsars in the Inner Galaxy
Sep 25, 2025 · No radio pulsations were detected from the four new pulsars in archival radio observations or during the MPIfR-MeerKAT Galactic Plane Survey.
[33]
First low-frequency Einstein@Home all-sky search for continuous ...
Dec 8, 2017 · The Advanced LIGO detectors are significantly more sensitive than the initial LIGO detectors. This increase in sensitivity is especially ...Missing: O4 | Show results with:O4
[34]
Einstein@Home all-sky search for periodic gravitational waves in ...
All in all, on the order of 10 11 candidates were returned to the Einstein@Home server from each run, corresponding roughly to 2.3 TB of data. The files ...Missing: directed | Show results with:directed
[35]
https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevD.87.042001
[36]
THE EINSTEIN@HOME GAMMA-RAY PULSAR SURVEY. I ...
ABSTRACT. We report on the results of a recent blind search survey for gamma-ray pulsars in Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT) data being carried ...
[37]
https://arxiv.org/abs/2508.20073
[38]
The Einstein@Home Gamma-ray Pulsar Survey. II. Source Selection ...
We report on the analysis of 13 gamma-ray pulsars discovered in the Einstein@Home blind search survey using Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT) Pass 8 data.
[39]
Deep Einstein@Home all-sky search for continuous gravitational ...
Mar 7, 2023 · We present the results of an all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves in the public LIGO O3 data. The search covers signal frequencies 20 Hz.Missing: size terabytes annual directed
[40]
[2503.09731] Results from an Einstein@Home search for ... - arXiv
Mar 12, 2025 · Above 1500 Hz the Vela Jr. search is the most sensitive carried out thus far, improving on previous results by over 300\%. Above 976 Hz these ...Missing: preliminary | Show results with:preliminary
[41]
Einstein@Home all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves in ...
Sep 25, 2020 · Abstract:We conduct an all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves in the LIGO O2 data from the Hanford and Livingston detectors.Missing: O4 | Show results with:O4
[42]
Deep Einstein@Home search for Continuous Gravitational Waves ...
Aug 26, 2024 · We perform a search for continuous nearly monochromatic gravitational waves from the central compact objects associated with the supernova remnants Vela Jr. ...Missing: torque | Show results with:torque
[43]
A new Fermi Gamma Ray Pulsar Catalog has just been published!
Nov 28, 2023 · Out of the 53 gamma-ray pulsars, 39 were found with Einstein@Home, and 14 on Atlas, the compute cluster at the Max Planck Institute for ...Updated List of Discovered Pulsars - Einstein@HomeNews about Einstein@Home searches for radio and gamma-ray ...More results from einsteinathome.orgMissing: total | Show results with:total
[44]
The Third Fermi Large Area Telescope Catalog of Gamma-Ray ...
This third gamma-ray pulsar catalog (based on 12 yr of data) characterizes 294 confirmed gamma-ray pulsars, and tabulates 33 millisecond pulsars (MSPs) for ...
[45]
Einstein@Home discovery of the gamma-ray millisecond pulsar ...
This search discovered pulsations with a period of 2.65 ms, confirming the source as a binary MSP now known as PSR J2039–5617.
[46]
Discovery of a Gamma-Ray Black Widow Pulsar by GPU ...
Oct 22, 2020 · The pulsar was discovered by directly searching the gamma-ray data using the GPU-accelerated Einstein@Home distributed volunteer computing ...
[47]
Einstein@Home - Wikipedia
Einstein@Home is a volunteer computing project that searches for signals from spinning neutron stars in data from gravitational-wave detectors.
[48]
[PDF] The Einstein@Home search for gravita4onal waves and neutron stars
Jan 26, 2012 · E@H's primary goal is to detect gravitational waves from rapidly spinning neutron stars in data from Laser Interferometer Gravitational-. Wave ...
[49]
Results from all-sky search in LIGO O2 data published
Mar 10, 2021 · Read the open access publication “Einstein@Home All-sky Search for Continuous Gravitational Waves in LIGO O2 Public Data” and learn more about ...
[50]
Einstein@Home Discovery of a Double Neutron Star Binary in the ...
Assuming general relativity accurately models the orbital motion, this corresponds to a total system mass of M tot = 2.875(14) {M}⊙ , similar to the mass of the ...<|separator|>
[51]
EINSTEIN@HOME DISCOVERY OF A DOUBLE NEUTRON STAR ...
We report here the Einstein@Home discovery of PSR J1913+1102, a 27.3 ms pulsar found in data from the ongoing Arecibo PALFA pulsar survey. The pulsar is in ...
[52]
Links | Einstein@Home
Scientific Collaborations · Homepage of the LIGO Scientific Collaboration · Homepage of the Virgo Collaboration · Homepage of the LISA Consortium.
[53]
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/abbc02
[54]
Update on “Einstein@Home: Pulsar Seekers”
Mar 14, 2025 · We launched a Zooniverse project called “Einstein@Home: Pulsar Seekers” in October 2023. Now we have the first promising results.New Zooniverse project “Pulsar Seekers” - Einstein@HomeNew Wetware Project - Pulsar Seeking! | Einstein@HomeMore results from einsteinathome.org
[55]
Einstein@Home: Pulsar Seekers - Zooniverse
Join the Search for Pulsars: Help Einstein@Home scientists to identify these amazing cosmic lighthouses! Learn more Get startedAbout · Classify · Talk · CollectionsMissing: 2023 | Show results with:2023
[56]
News about Einstein@Home searches for radio and gamma-ray ...
Mar 8, 2023 · Part of the Einstein@Home computing power is used to search through data from the Large Area Telescope (LAT) onboard NASA's Fermi Gamma-ray ...Einstein@Home discovers 13 new gamma-ray pulsarsA new Fermi Gamma Ray Pulsar Catalog has just been published!More results from einsteinathome.orgMissing: 2016 | Show results with:2016
[57]
TRAPUM
Jun 16, 2016 · Einstein@Home joins the TRAPUM effort to search for pulsars. Jan 2023. We have recently initiated a project to search for exotic binary ...
[58]
[PDF] The LSC-Virgo-KAGRA Observational Science White Paper (2024 ...
... KAGRA O4 data . . 30. OBS-1.2-B-InfraOps Burst all-sky long-duration subgroup ... OBS-3.4-D-Other Full-O4 directed supernova remnants CW publication .