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Elliot Aronson

Elliot Aronson (born January 9, 1932) is an American social psychologist and professor emeritus of psychology at the University of California, Santa Cruz, recognized for pioneering empirical research on cognitive dissonance theory, which elucidates how individuals reconcile inconsistencies between their beliefs and behaviors to preserve self-esteem. ^[1]^[2]^[3]
Aronson's refinements to cognitive dissonance emphasized its roots in threats to self-concept rather than mere inconsistency, influencing subsequent studies on attitude change, decision-making, and self-justification. ^[4]
In applied domains, he developed the jigsaw classroom technique in the early 1970s, a cooperative learning method that assigns interdependent roles to students to foster empathy, reduce prejudice, and enhance academic performance in diverse settings, initially implemented to address tensions in desegregated schools. ^[5]^[1]
Aronson is the sole recipient in the American Psychological Association's 110-year history to earn its top honors across research, teaching, and writing categories, underscoring his impact on both theoretical and practical social psychology. ^[3]^[6]
His work extends to interpersonal attraction, conformity, and real-world interventions for issues like energy conservation and prejudice mitigation, grounded in controlled experiments that prioritize causal mechanisms over correlational assumptions. ^[4]^[7]

Early Life and Education

Family Background and Childhood Influences

Elliot Aronson was born on January 9, 1932, in Revere, Massachusetts, to Jewish parents who had immigrated from Eastern Europe. As the youngest of four children in a working-class family, he grew up amid the economic hardships of the Great Depression, with his household reflecting the modest circumstances typical of many immigrant families in urban industrial areas at the time.^[8]^[1] The Aronson family resided in the slums of Revere, one of the few Jewish households in a neighborhood characterized by prevalent anti-Semitism. Aronson's parents maintained Orthodox Jewish practices, requiring him to attend Hebrew school, which exposed him to direct hostility from peers during his walks home, particularly in the early evening darkness of winter. He later described being chased and taunted by groups of children who targeted him with slurs and threats, incidents that underscored the raw social tensions and group dynamics of prejudice in a diverse yet divided working-class setting.^[9]^[10]^[11] These formative encounters with discrimination, rather than formal instruction, ignited Aronson's initial fascination with the motivations underlying human behavior and interpersonal conflict, prompting him to observe and question the patterns of exclusion and aggression he witnessed firsthand. In his memoir, he reflects on how such experiences in a resource-scarce environment highlighted individual resilience and the causal role of social categorization in fostering bias, shaping a worldview attuned to empirical realities over abstract ideals.^[12]^[13]

Academic Training and Formative Experiences

Aronson earned a B.A. in psychology from Brandeis University in 1954, with Abraham Maslow as his primary undergraduate mentor.^[14] Maslow's humanistic framework, emphasizing self-actualization and the practical application of psychology to foster human growth, shaped Aronson's initial aspirations to use the field for societal betterment rather than purely academic pursuits.^[15] This exposure instilled a value for psychology's potential to address real-world interpersonal dynamics, though it leaned toward qualitative insights over strict empiricism.^[12] Pursuing graduate training, Aronson obtained an M.A. from Wesleyan University in 1956, working under David McClelland, whose research on achievement motivation introduced him to systematic studies of drives and incentives underlying human behavior.^[14] McClelland's approach bridged motivational theory with empirical measurement, providing Aronson early experience in quantifying psychological processes and foreshadowing his later empirical focus.^[16] Aronson completed his Ph.D. in psychology at Stanford University in 1959, with Leon Festinger as his doctoral advisor and mentor.^[14] Festinger's emphasis on experimental rigor and hypothesis-testing in social influence redirected Aronson's path from humanistic inclinations toward controlled laboratory investigations of phenomena like cognitive dissonance.^[15] This shift prioritized causal mechanisms verifiable through data over introspective or therapeutic methods, equipping Aronson with tools for dissecting social behaviors empirically.^[12]

Professional Career

Initial Academic Positions and Collaborations

Upon earning his Ph.D. in psychology from Stanford University in 1959, Aronson accepted an appointment as assistant professor of psychology at Harvard University, holding the position from 1959 to 1962.^[14] In this early faculty role, he conducted research on social influence mechanisms, including collaborations with J. Merrill Carlsmith on studies of threat and behavioral compliance, such as their 1963 experiment demonstrating how mild threats lead to greater devaluation of prohibited toys compared to severe threats.^[14] Aronson's doctoral research at Stanford involved direct collaboration with advisor Leon Festinger, participating in some of the inaugural experiments designed to test empirical predictions of cognitive dissonance theory, including variations on induced compliance paradigms.^[9]^[17] These joint efforts produced foundational publications, notably Aronson and Mills (1959), which showed that individuals derogate a group more following severe initiation rituals, providing evidence for dissonance reduction through enhanced attraction under high personal cost. In 1962, Aronson transitioned to the University of Minnesota as associate professor of psychology and director of the Laboratory for Research in Social Relations, where he was promoted to full professor in 1964.^[14] This period marked the establishment of his independent research program, building on prior dissonance work through additional experiments on social perception and influence, which garnered early grants and publications reinforcing his empirical approach to interpersonal dynamics.^[14]

Tenure at Major Institutions

Elliot Aronson joined the University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC) as a professor of psychology in 1968, marking the beginning of his long-term tenure at the institution. During this period, he contributed significantly to the development of the social psychology program, serving as Director of the Graduate Program in Social Psychology from 1974 to 1979 and again from 1982 to 1990.^[14] His leadership helped shape the program's curriculum and research focus, fostering an environment that integrated experimental rigor with applications to social issues.^[18] In the 1970s and 1980s, Aronson played a pivotal role in the growth of UCSC's Psychology Department, promoting interdisciplinary collaborations that bridged social psychology with personality and clinical approaches. He advanced from Professor to Distinguished Professor in 1974, holding the latter position until 2001.^[14] Under his influence, the department expanded its graduate offerings and attracted notable faculty, enhancing UCSC's reputation in social sciences.^[19] Aronson's mentorship during his UCSC tenure extended to numerous students, including his son Joshua Aronson, who earned a bachelor's degree in psychology from UCSC in 1986. This academic lineage underscored Aronson's commitment to training the next generation in social psychology, emphasizing empirical methods and real-world relevance. He retired as Professor Emeritus in 1994, continuing to influence the field through emeritus activities.^[20]^[21]

Later Career Developments and Current Activities

Aronson retired from full-time teaching at the University of California, Santa Cruz in 1994, assuming the role of Professor Emeritus thereafter.^[7] Despite this transition, he sustained scholarly productivity, co-authoring revisions to The Social Animal, his influential textbook on social psychology, with the twelfth edition released in 2018 alongside his son Joshua Aronson.^[22] Beginning around 2001, Aronson experienced progressive vision loss from macular degeneration, yet adapted through voice recognition software for writing and correspondence, and by partnering with a guide dog—a yellow Labrador retriever named Desilu—starting in January 2011 after training at Guide Dogs for the Blind.^[23]^[24] These accommodations enabled continued intellectual contributions into his later years, demonstrating resilience amid physical challenges. As of 2025, at age 93, Aronson remained active in public discourse, appearing in a February 13 podcast episode of The Psychology Podcast titled "A Legacy of Social Psychology," where he discussed his career and contributions alongside Joshua Aronson.^[25] This engagement underscores his enduring influence in social psychology, focusing on topics like cognitive dissonance and cooperative learning techniques.

Core Theoretical Contributions

Aronson refined Leon Festinger's original cognitive dissonance theory by emphasizing that dissonance arises primarily from inconsistencies threatening one's self-concept of competence and morality, rather than mere logical contradictions between cognitions.^[26] In his 1969 analysis, he argued that the motivational force of dissonance is strongest when behavior violates an individual's positive self-view, prompting efforts to restore self-consistency through rationalization or attitude change. This shift highlighted internal psychological discomfort as a causal driver, supported by experiments demonstrating selective dissonance reduction tied to ego-relevant threats. A key demonstration came from Aronson's effort justification paradigm, tested in a 1959 experiment with Judson Mills. Female participants underwent varying levels of embarrassment to join a group discussion—mild (reading tame words), severe (reciting obscene words), or none—before hearing a deliberately dull recording of the discussion. Those enduring the severe initiation rated the group and its members significantly more favorably than those in milder conditions, as measured by post-task liking scales, indicating they amplified positive evaluations to justify the disproportionate effort expended.^[27] This finding underscored how insufficient external rewards intensify internal justification, with statistical significance (p < 0.01) across rating items, distinguishing it from mere reinforcement effects. Similarly, in the 1963 forbidden toy experiment with J. Merrill Carlsmith, Aronson examined self-justification in children aged 5-7. Participants ranked toys by preference, then were forbidden play with their second-favorite under either mild (implied disapproval) or severe (harsh punishment) threat, followed by a 15-minute wait with the toy accessible. Children under mild threat subsequently devalued the forbidden toy more sharply on re-ranking (mean rank drop from 2.0 to 3.5) than those under severe threat (minimal change), as the milder external justification required bolstering internal rationalization to resolve the dissonance of compliance without adequate punishment.^[28] Long-term follow-up showed persistent devaluation only in the mild-threat group, reinforcing the causal role of dissonance in sustaining attitude shifts absent strong external constraints.^[29] Aronson's later hypocrisy paradigm, developed with Carrie Fried and Jeff Stone in 1991, further isolated dissonance from hypocrisy—publicly advocating prosocial behavior (e.g., safe sex) while privately failing to practice it. In experiments with undergraduates, inducing recall of past inconsistencies after pro-condom advocacy led to a 20-30% increase in intentions and actual condom acquisition compared to controls, with attitude-behavior changes mediated by self-focused discomfort rather than social pressure.^[30] This paradigm empirically validated dissonance as a mechanism for reducing self-discrepant hypocrisy, where rationalization manifests as heightened commitment to align actions with self-perceived moral standards, without relying on external rewards. These refinements collectively illustrate dissonance as a causal process rooted in aversive arousal from self-inconsistency, driving selective attitude adjustments to preserve ego integrity—evident in phenomena like cult members intensifying belief after disconfirmed prophecies, as dissonance compels reinterpretation to avoid admitting vulnerability in one's worldview.^[31] Empirical patterns across paradigms consistently show greater resolution under low-justification conditions, prioritizing internal causal realism over ad hoc excuses.

Gain-Loss Theory of Attraction

The Gain-Loss Theory of Attraction, formulated by Elliot Aronson and Darwyn Linder in 1965, posits that interpersonal attraction is more strongly influenced by changes in one person's evaluation of another—specifically, gains (improving from negative to positive regard) or losses (declining from positive to negative regard)—than by consistently high or low evaluations.^[32] This model emphasizes the temporal dynamics of esteem as a determinant of liking, where the trajectory of perceived approval exerts a disproportionate impact compared to static impressions.^[33] Unlike theories focused on absolute similarity or competence, it highlights how shifts in interpersonal feedback create amplified affective responses rooted in the rewarding nature of esteem gains and the punishing sting of losses.^[34] The theory was tested in a laboratory experiment involving 120 male undergraduates who believed they were participating in an attitude survey with a peer evaluator.^[32] Participants received six sequential written evaluations from the evaluator (actually a confederate) under one of four conditions: constant high liking (all positive), constant low liking (all negative), gain (initially negative, shifting to positive), or loss (initially positive, shifting to negative).^[33] After the evaluations, subjects rated their attraction to the evaluator, providing a measure of how dynamic feedback patterns affected liking independent of content similarity or initial impressions.^[34] Results confirmed the predictions: attraction scores were highest in the gain condition (mean liking rating significantly above constant high), lowest in the loss condition (below constant low), with constant positive evaluations falling between gain and loss effects.^[32] Statistical analyses showed these differences were robust, with gains producing stronger positive shifts than equivalent static positives, and losses yielding sharper declines, demonstrating a form of evaluation asymmetry akin to loss aversion in judgment.^[33] Subsequent partial replications, such as those examining sequential effects in group settings, supported the core finding that esteem trajectories override baseline impressions in driving attraction.^[35] This framework underscores the volatility inherent in human relational judgments, where attraction emerges not from idealized steady approval but from the causal potency of perceptual shifts in regard, challenging assumptions of stable, equality-based bonds by revealing how fluctuating esteem calibrates liking in real-world interactions.^[32] The theory's emphasis on dynamic processes aligns with empirical observations of interpersonal volatility, as static models fail to account for why improving opinions foster deeper attachment than unchanging praise, informing causal understandings of bond formation beyond superficial consistencies.^[33]

Pratfall Effect and Competence Perceptions

The Pratfall Effect, identified by Elliot Aronson in his 1966 study, refers to the tendency for a minor blunder to increase the perceived likability of a highly competent individual while decreasing it for someone perceived as incompetent.^[36] This effect highlights how competence perceptions interact with displays of imperfection to influence interpersonal attraction, with empirical thresholds determining whether a flaw enhances or diminishes appeal.^[36] In the foundational experiment, 48 male undergraduate participants from the University of Minnesota listened to one of four audio recordings depicting a stimulus person completing a quiz, manipulated along two factors: demonstrated competence (superior or average) and presence of a pratfall (a clumsy spill of coffee immediately after the quiz).^[36] Superior competence was conveyed by the stimulus person answering 92% of 10 quiz questions correctly and mentioning above-average high school achievements, whereas average competence involved 30% correct answers and unremarkable achievements.^[36] Participants then rated the stimulus person's attractiveness through interviews summing eight semantic differential scales (each from -7 to +7), yielding total scores from -56 to +56.^[36] Results showed a significant interaction between competence level and pratfall presence (F(1,40) = 10.33, p < .01), with main effects for competence (F(1,40) = 14.90, p < .001).^[36] The superior-competence individual without a pratfall received a mean attractiveness rating of 20.8, which increased to 30.2 after the pratfall (mean difference = +9.4, t = 3.18, p < .005).^[36] In contrast, the average-competence individual without a pratfall scored 17.8, dropping to -2.5 after the pratfall (mean difference = -20.3, t = 3.15, p < .01).^[36] Intelligence perceptions reinforced this, with superior competence rated higher overall (M = 5.73 vs. 0.83 for average, t = 6.89, p < .005), indicating the pratfall did not erode perceived ability in competent cases.^[36] Aronson hypothesized that the mechanism involves humanizing highly competent figures by revealing vulnerability, thereby reducing perceived aloofness and enhancing approachability without compromising core ability—thus crossing an empirical threshold for "likable imperfection."^[36] For those already viewed as mediocre, the blunder instead amplifies confirmation of inadequacy, underscoring the effect's dependence on baseline competence rather than universal tolerance for errors.^[36] This differential causal dynamic prioritizes perceptual realism over idealized flawlessness in social evaluations.^[36]

Experimental Innovations and Techniques

Aronson's experimental investigations into social influence frequently utilized controlled laboratory environments to isolate causal factors, such as the perceived costs associated with group affiliation. In a 1959 study conducted with female undergraduates at Stanford University, participants were randomly assigned to conditions involving mild, severe, or no initiation rituals prior to "joining" a group discussion on sexual topics; the severe condition required reading increasingly explicit sexual words aloud, while milder versions involved tame content or none, all under the guise of group entry requirements. The design incorporated deception by presenting the interaction as live, though it was pre-recorded audio, enabling precise manipulation of independent variables while measuring dependent outcomes like group evaluations via standardized rating scales immediately after exposure.^[37]^[38] Debriefing procedures were integral, with full disclosure of the setup post-session to mitigate potential distress from embarrassment, reflecting early awareness of ethical trade-offs in pursuing causal insights into influence processes; data indicated minimal long-term harm, justifying the methodological rigor for replicable findings over less controlled observational approaches. This approach extended to 1960s collaborations, such as a 1963 experiment with children aged 4-5, where varying threat severities (mild monetary or verbal warnings versus severe) were imposed against playing with an attractive forbidden toy in a lab playroom setting, followed by valuation assessments to gauge subtle shifts in perceived desirability. Controls included baseline ratings and parental oversight, emphasizing quantifiable metrics like toy preference scores to detect internalized influences beyond self-reports.^[38] These designs bridged lab precision with real-world applicability by prioritizing variables drawn from everyday social dynamics, like authority threats or entry barriers, while avoiding anecdotal evidence through standardized instructions and multiple trials per condition. Aronson's methodological innovations, detailed in his 1968 co-authored handbook chapter, advocated for deception only when essential for ecological validity in influence studies, coupled with thorough post-experimental inquiries to validate participant experiences and ensure data integrity. Such protocols facilitated extensions to field-like elements, as in later adaptations testing compliance in naturalistic threat scenarios, underscoring replicable controls to discern genuine causal mechanisms from confounds.^[39]

Development and Testing of the Jigsaw Classroom

In 1971, shortly after the forced desegregation of Austin, Texas public schools sparked interpersonal conflicts and prejudice among white, African-American, and Hispanic students in competitive classroom environments, Elliot Aronson, a social psychologist at the University of Texas, was approached by the district superintendent for solutions to promote cooperation.^[5] Aronson, along with graduate students Shelley Patnoe, Judy Bridgeman, and others, designed the Jigsaw Classroom as an applied intervention to instill positive interdependence, drawing on principles of mutual reliance to counteract zero-sum rivalries in newly diverse settings.^[5] The technique was first piloted that year in elementary classrooms, with initial two-week exploratory trials in fifth-grade classes to evaluate basic implementation.^[40] The core mechanics divide lesson content into four to six interdependent segments, assigning one to each member of a heterogeneous home group of five or six students; individuals then convene in temporary expert groups to deepen understanding of their segment before returning to teach it to their home group, ensuring collective mastery requires every participant's accurate contribution.^[5] This structure was tested via structured activities over several weeks in desegregated Austin schools, where control groups continued traditional instruction.^[41] Early empirical assessments, including pre- and post-intervention surveys on attitudes and performance metrics, indicated feasibility and short-term benefits specific to high-tension integration contexts: jigsaw participants reported greater liking for outgroup peers (e.g., increased positive ratings by 20-30% in interpersonal scales), elevated self-esteem (particularly for minority students facing majority competition), reduced classroom anxiety, and equivalent or superior academic outcomes, such as improved test scores and decreased absenteeism rates compared to controls.^[5] ^[41] These gains in empathy and cooperation were attributed to the method's emphasis on valuing others' expertise, though effects diminished without ongoing reinforcement and were most pronounced in environments of abrupt demographic shifts rather than voluntary diversity.^[5]

Empirical Validation and Critiques

Supporting Evidence from Replications and Meta-Analyses

A meta-analysis of over 30 years of research on induced hypocrisy, a paradigm rooted in Aronson's refinements to cognitive dissonance theory emphasizing self-discrepancy and behavioral change, demonstrated moderate to large effects on increasing pro-attitudinal behaviors, with effect sizes ranging from d = 0.45 to 0.72 across studies involving attitude-behavior gaps.^[42] This supports the theory's prediction that dissonance arousal from hypocritical actions motivates resolution through increased consistency, as originally proposed in Aronson's work on self-justification.^[42] Replications of Aronson's induced compliance paradigm, central to his dissonance framework, have shown attitude shifts in approximately 70-80% of high-choice conditions across multiple labs, affirming the role of personal responsibility in amplifying dissonance reduction via attitude change rather than mere compliance.^[43] Cross-cultural extensions, including studies in non-Western samples, have validated these effects, with similar patterns of post-decisional attitude bolstering observed in Asian and European cohorts, indicating universality in dissonance-driven self-perception adjustments.^[44] For the jigsaw classroom technique, a 2023 systematic review and meta-analysis of 25 studies reported significant improvements in academic achievement (Hedges' g = 0.34) and social outcomes like cooperation and reduced prejudice (g = 0.41), with effects robust across diverse educational settings.^[45] Recent replications in the 2020s, such as a 2025 quasi-experimental study in medical pathology education, confirmed enhanced learning outcomes and peer interdependence, while a modified jigsaw with digital aids in pharmacy training yielded gains in knowledge retention (p < 0.01) and student satisfaction.^[46]^[47] Cross-cultural applications in elementary and nursing contexts outside the U.S. have replicated cooperation boosts, with meta-analytic evidence from international samples showing consistent reductions in intergroup bias (g ≈ 0.30).^[48] The pratfall effect, demonstrating increased likability for competent individuals after minor blunders, has been replicated in field settings, with a 2011 study showing choice shares for "blemished" options rising by 15-20% over perfect alternatives in consumer decisions.^[49] Analogous effects persist in modern contexts, such as human-robot interactions where apologetic errors enhanced perceived warmth without undermining competence perceptions.^[50]

Limitations, Failed Replications, and Theoretical Challenges

Aronson's refinements to cognitive dissonance theory, emphasizing self-inconsistency as the core motivator for dissonance reduction, have faced challenges in replication efforts amid the broader social psychology replication crisis, where only about 25% of effects from the field replicated successfully in large-scale attempts as of 2015.^[51] Specific paradigms linked to dissonance processes, such as induced-compliance scenarios that Aronson explored, exhibited null results in multilab registered replications conducted between 2021 and 2024, failing to produce the expected attitude shifts despite high statistical power and methodological fidelity.^[52] These outcomes suggest that dissonance arousal and resolution may depend on unmodeled contextual variables or participant expectancies, attenuating effects in ecologically diverse or non-laboratory settings. The jigsaw classroom technique, designed to foster cooperation and reduce prejudice through interdependent learning, has shown inconsistent empirical support, particularly for long-term outcomes and academic gains. Five controlled experiments across diverse educational contexts, culminating in an internal meta-analysis, reported an effect size of 0.00 (95% CI [-0.10, 0.09]) for learning improvements compared to individualistic or direct instruction methods, indicating no reliable enhancement even under proficient implementation.^[53] Longitudinal assessments further revealed null impacts on self-regulation over two years, with effects potentially confined to short-term interpersonal dynamics rather than sustained behavioral change or organic prejudice reduction.^[54] Critiques highlight risks of masking underlying cultural or dispositional incompatibilities by enforcing artificial interdependence, alongside practical limitations like inadequate supervision leading to ineffective student involvement.^[55] Theoretical challenges to Aronson's frameworks, including gain-loss theory of attraction and the pratfall effect, stem from an overreliance on situational manipulations that undervalue dispositional and evolutionary influences on social behavior. Gain-loss predictions, positing amplified attraction from esteem fluctuations, hold in controlled esteem paradigms but lack robust demonstration in real-world relational dynamics, where baseline traits and genetic kin selection may override transient evaluative shifts.^[33] Similarly, the pratfall effect's competence-likability inversion appears boundary-bound to high-competence perceivers, with evolutionary perspectives arguing it reflects adaptive signaling of non-threatening fallibility rather than a universal interpersonal principle, potentially failing under scrutiny for ignoring innate aversion to incompetence cues.^[56] Aronson's situational emphasis in prejudice mitigation via jigsaw or dissonance overlooks biological substrates of intergroup bias, such as evolved coalitional instincts, privileging environmental interventions without causal accounting for heritable predispositions documented in behavioral genetics.^[57] These gaps underscore a causal realism deficit, where paradigms explain variance in lab analogs but falter against dispositional realism in predicting persistent human motivations.

Applications and Broader Impact

Educational and Policy Implementations

The Jigsaw method was initially implemented in Austin, Texas public schools starting in 1971, in response to heightened interracial tensions and violence following federal court-ordered desegregation and busing.^[58] Aronson consulted with the district, restructuring classrooms to promote interdependence among diverse students, which yielded observable reductions in absenteeism, enhanced student self-esteem, and greater overall liking for school compared to traditional competitive setups.^[40] These early applications demonstrated modest declines in intergroup hostility, including fewer instances of overt conflict, by shifting focus from zero-sum competition to mutual reliance for academic success.^[59] Post-1970s, the technique spread to other U.S. schools and influenced anti-bullying initiatives, with integrations into curricula aimed at curbing school violence and fostering cross-group friendships.^[5] Empirical evaluations, including longitudinal tracking in desegregated environments, reported sustained positive attitudes toward peers and reduced stereotyping, though direct metrics on violence showed only incremental improvements rather than elimination.^[60] Broader adoption in educational systems has linked Jigsaw to cooperative learning policies, but systematic reviews highlight variability in outcomes, with consistent benefits for self-reported empathy yet limited long-term prejudice attenuation.^[61] ^[45] In policy spheres, Jigsaw principles have echoed in diversity training programs for schools and workplaces, emphasizing structured interdependence to mitigate bias.^[62] However, replications and internal meta-analyses reveal no significant boosts to objective learning metrics and only transient effects on intergroup attitudes, underscoring empirical limits where interventions fail to override persistent incentives for conflict, such as resource scarcity or status hierarchies.^[63] ^[53] Such programs risk prioritizing performative cooperation over causal reforms addressing underlying group dynamics. Aronson's textbook The Social Animal, first published in 1972 and updated through its 12th edition in 2018, has served as a foundational resource in social psychology curricula, introducing generations of students to key concepts in social influence, attitude formation, and interpersonal dynamics through accessible narratives grounded in experimental evidence.^[22]^[3] Widely adopted in introductory courses, it emphasized rigorous empirical methods over speculative theorizing, thereby standardizing pedagogical approaches that prioritize causal inference from controlled studies on phenomena like conformity and prejudice.^[22] His advancements in cognitive dissonance theory, particularly the self-justification variant where inconsistencies threaten self-esteem rather than mere logical harmony, have permeated related fields by elucidating mechanisms of belief entrenchment and behavioral persistence.^[17] In behavioral economics, this framework informs models of decision-making anomalies, such as investors clinging to losing assets to avoid admitting error, echoing Aronson's early experiments on insufficient justification and extending to analyses of market inefficiencies driven by psychological aversion to inconsistency.^[64] Applications in politics highlight dissonance's role in sustaining partisan loyalties post-election, where individuals rationalize support for flawed policies to preserve self-consistency, as evidenced in studies of attitude reinforcement following voting decisions.^[65] Aronson's integration of experimental techniques with theoretical refinement enhanced causal realism in social psychology, enabling precise identification of situational triggers for influence without conflating correlation with causation.^[3] Nonetheless, his body of work contributed to the field's situationalist orientation, which attributes variance in behavior primarily to contextual pressures, a paradigm critiqued for methodological biases that undervalue dispositional traits and genetic factors in human agency.^[66]^[67] Such emphases have drawn scrutiny from perspectives integrating evolutionary biology, arguing they overlook stable individual differences in favor of malleable environmental explanations, potentially amplifying nurture-centric interpretations prevalent in academic institutions.^[66]

Recognition and Legacy

Awards and Honors Received

In 1973, Aronson received the American Psychological Association's (APA) award for distinguished writing in psychology.^[3] In 1980, he became the first individual in APA history to receive both its Distinguished Teaching of Psychology Award and a Distinguished Contributions to Research award in the same year, recognizing his empirical and pedagogical contributions.^[68]^[69] From 1981 to 1982, Aronson held a Guggenheim Fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, supporting advanced research in social psychology.^[70] In 1992, he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.^[14] He received the APA's Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions in 1999, honoring his theoretical and experimental advancements in dissonance and social influence.^[71]^[4] In 2006, Aronson was awarded the Association for Psychological Science's William James Fellow Award for lifetime contributions to basic science in psychological science.^[6] He also received the American Association for the Advancement of Science's Prize for Behavioral Science Research, acknowledging applied empirical work on prejudice reduction and energy conservation.^[68]

Enduring Influence and Contemporary Relevance

Aronson's formulation of cognitive dissonance theory continues to inform analyses of online polarization, where users encounter dissonant information but often resolve it through selective exposure or rationalization rather than belief revision, exacerbating echo chambers and partisan entrenchment.^[72] Recent examinations of political misinformation propagation highlight how dissonance-driven emotional responses predict endorsement of partisan falsehoods, reinforcing Aronson's emphasis on motivated reasoning as a barrier to cross-ideological dialogue in digital spaces.^[73] In the context of identity politics, the jigsaw classroom's cooperative interdependence model faces empirical scrutiny for inconsistent outcomes across diverse implementations, particularly where group assignments occur amid non-voluntary demographic shifts or deep-seated ideological animosities that undermine perceived equality among participants.^[45] Meta-analytic reviews indicate high variability in effect sizes, suggesting the technique's efficacy diminishes in environments lacking baseline trust or shared superordinate goals, as opposed to controlled settings with motivated interdependence.^[45] Aronson's broader oeuvre underscores the primacy of individual-level self-justification mechanisms in perpetuating social divisions, challenging overreliance on structural interventions by demonstrating how personal rationalizations sustain maladaptive behaviors amid contemporary crises like misinformation epidemics.^[74] This perspective aligns with causal analyses prioritizing intrapersonal dynamics over diffuse systemic attributions, informing 2020s debates on resilience to propaganda and the limits of top-down diversity mandates in fostering genuine intergroup harmony.^[75]

Personal Life and Perspectives

Family and Personal Relationships

Elliot Aronson married Vera Aronson (née Rabinek) shortly after receiving his bachelor's degree from Brandeis University in 1954.^[76] ^[77] The couple met while assisting Abraham Maslow with research and have maintained a partnership spanning over 65 years, with Aronson describing the marriage as his happiest life decision and Vera as his closest companion.^[24] ^[15] Aronson and Vera raised four children, all of whom graduated from the University of California, Santa Cruz, where Aronson held a professorship.^[76] ^[12] Among them is son Joshua Aronson, who pursued an academic career in social psychology, earning a doctorate and becoming an associate professor of applied psychology at New York University, where he directs the Mindful Education Lab and focuses on interventions for underprivileged students.^[78] ^[79] Another son, Neal, worked as a firefighter in Santa Cruz before retiring.^[24] The family provided mutual support through Aronson's nomadic academic career, which involved moves across institutions, with three children eventually settling in the Bay Area near Santa Cruz.^[24] In his later years, as Aronson navigated progressive vision loss from macular degeneration—relying on voice recognition software and a guide dog by 2010—family ties remained a source of closeness, with Aronson noting his children as enduring friends.^[80] ^[24]

Views on Society, Politics, and Human Nature

Aronson characterized human nature as fundamentally social, drawing on Aristotle's observation that individuals are inherently inclined toward group affiliation and interaction, yet prone to psychological tensions arising from inconsistencies between beliefs and actions. In his seminal work The Social Animal, he portrayed people as "rationalizing animals" more than purely rational ones, where cognitive dissonance—a state of discomfort from such inconsistencies—drives unconscious self-justification to preserve a positive self-image.^[81]^[3] This mechanism, he argued, underlies much of everyday behavior, from prejudice formation to obedience in authority contexts, reflecting a dual capacity for both harmful rationalizations and adaptive change.^[82] On society, Aronson expressed optimism about mitigating conflicts through targeted interventions that leverage dissonance productively, such as cooperative learning techniques to erode stereotypes and promote empathy among diverse groups. He contended that awareness of these psychological processes enables individuals to counteract innate tendencies toward ingroup bias and outgroup derogation, fostering more equitable social structures without relying on vague systemic reforms.^[3] However, his emphasis on personal dissonance resolution highlights individual agency in overcoming societal ills, prioritizing empirical self-examination over collective excuses for persistent divisions.^[82] In political contexts, Aronson applied dissonance theory to critique self-justification among leaders and adherents, as detailed in Mistakes Were Made (But Not by Me) co-authored with Carol Tavris, where he illustrated how decision-makers entrench flawed policies—such as escalating commitments to wars based on initial errors—to evade personal culpability.^[83] He observed acute polarization, noting that "Republicans and Democrats have become so polarized that neither side seems able to be persuaded by the other," attributing this to tribal self-justification that amplifies minor attitudinal differences into irreconcilable divides.^[84] Aronson advocated practical safeguards like surrounding oneself with dissenters, as Abraham Lincoln did, to disrupt this cycle and promote accountable governance rooted in causal self-awareness rather than partisan moral equivalence.^[83]^[3]

References

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Elliot Aronson | SPSP
Elliot Aronson is a renowned social psychologist known for his influential work on cognitive dissonance and the "jigsaw classroom" technique.
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Dr. Elliot Aronson - Social Psychology Network
Elliot is the only psychologist to have won APA's highest awards in all three major academic categories: For distinguished writing (1973), for distinguished ...
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Aronson is recognized for his achievements in applying social psychological wisdom to the areas of energy use, AIDS prevention, and prejudice reduction.<|separator|>
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The jigsaw classroom is a research-based cooperative learning technique invented and developed in the early 1970s by Elliot Aronson and his students at the ...More Information · Elliot Aronson · Overview · 10 Steps
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In the late 1960s, Aronson achieved the first of his several successes in applying social psychology to important societal problems. ... All of his theory, method ...
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Professor Emeritus Elliot Aronson, Psychology
Chosen by his peers as one of the most eminent psychologists of the twentieth century, Aronson is internationally recognized for his scientific research and his ...
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His work on cognitive dissonance has become a cornerstone of social psychology, influencing research on attitude change, decision-making, and self-perception.
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Psychology: A social animal revealed - Nature
Nov 3, 2010 · Aronson's achievements are remarkable given the family's poverty, the anti-Semitism and bullying he experienced, and his early mediocre academic ...
[12]
Eminent social psychologist Elliot Aronson publishes memoir - News
Sep 20, 2010 · In a candid and engaging new memoir, “Not by Chance Alone, My Life as a Social Psychologist” UCSC emeritus professor Elliot Aronson recounts the people who ...Missing: biography | Show results with:biography
[13]
Abe and Leon and Me (Chapter 5) - Pillars of Social Psychology
Sep 29, 2022 · ... Revere, a small city a few miles northeast of Boston. Ours was one of the few Jewish families in a virulently anti-Semitic neighborhood.
[14]
[PDF] 12/12/07 11:24 AM ELLIOT ARONSON Distinguished Professor ...
Dec 12, 2007 · Aronson, E. (2004) On Reducing prejudice and Building Compassion. In Miller, A. (ed.), The Social Psychology of Good and Evil. New York ...<|separator|>
[15]
Interview with Elliot Aronson, PhD - MentorCoach
He is the only person in the 110 year history of the American Psychological Association to have won all three of its major awards: Distinguished Research (1999) ...
[16]
Introduction to NOT BY CHANCE ALONE - MentorCoach
Elliot Aronson. To my most important mentors: Jason Aronson Abraham Maslow ... As an undergraduate at Brandeis, my mentor was Abraham Maslow. As an M.A. ...Missing: BA Allport
[17]
Cognitive Dissonance: Where We've Been and Where We're Going
Elliot Aronson was one of the founders of cognitive dissonance theory. As a graduate student working with Festinger, Aronson was involved in many of the ...
[18]
A Brief History of Social Psychology at UC Santa Cruz
Oct 28, 2024 · The program's founding faculty included David Marlowe, Theodore Sarbin, Barry McLaughlin, M. Brewster Smith, Frank Barron, and G. William ...
[19]
https://escholarship.org/content/qt175935jh/qt175935jh_noSplash_e954ef646392c1ee52e78b07a066cf16.pdf
[20]
UC Santa Cruz commencements are set for June 13-15 - News
May 29, 2014 · Aronson, son of UCSC emeritus professor of psychology Elliot Aronson, graduated in 1986 with a degree in psychology. Watsonville mayor and ...
[21]
Aronson, Elliot | Encyclopedia.com
Elliot Aronson is a prominent American social psychologist. Born in Revere, Massachusetts, on January 9, 1932, his career has spanned nearly fifty years. He is ...
[22]
The Social Animal, 12th Edition | Macmillan Learning US
Free delivery 21-day returnsThe Social Animal. Twelfth Edition ©2018 Elliot Aronson; Joshua Aronson Formats: E-book, Print. As low as $35.99.
[23]
Elliot Aronson wins UC distinguished emeriti award - News
Apr 7, 2011 · Aronson, 79, the eminent social psychologist who retired in 1994, is the fifth UCSC professor to win and the third in consecutive years.
[24]
My Work is My Hobby: An Interview with Elliot Aronson
May 13, 2013 · Elliot Aronson, Ph.D., is best known for his research on cognitive dissonance and the jigsaw classroom.
[25]
A Legacy of Social Psychology w/ Dr. Elliot Aronson & Dr. Joshua ...
Feb 13, 2025 · In this special episode, Scott is joined by two legendary figures in social psychology: Dr. Elliot Aronson and his son, Dr. Joshua Aronson.Missing: January 1932 immigrant
[26]
[PDF] Cognitive Dissonance - American Psychological Association
Alittle more than 60 years ago, Leon Festinger published A Theory of Cognitive ... In Chapter 7, Elliot Aronson presents his self- consistency interpretation ...Missing: collaboration | Show results with:collaboration
[27]
[PDF] THE EFFECT OF SEVERITY OF INITIATION ON LIKING FOR A ... - MIT
The specific hypothesis tested in the present study is that individuals who undergo an unpleasant initiation to become members of a group increase their liking ...
[28]
Effect of the severity of threat on the devaluation of forbidden behavior.
If a person is induced to cease performing a desired action through the threat of punishment, he will experience dissonance. His cognition that he is not ...
[29]
Long-term behavioral effects of cognitive dissonance - ScienceDirect
Children who resisted a toy under mild threat were less likely to play with it later, compared to those under severe threat. This supported the prediction.
[30]
Inducing Hypocrisy as a Means of Encouraging Young Adults to Use ...
Dissonance was created after a proattitudinal advocacy by inducing hypocrisy-having subjects publicly advocate the importance of safe sex and then ...
[31]
The Return of the Repressed: Dissonance Theory Makes a Comeback
Elliot Aronson. University of California, Santa Cruz. In 1957, Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance burst on the scene and revitalized social.Missing: collaboration | Show results with:collaboration
[32]
Gain and loss of esteem as determinants of interpersonal ...
Aronson, E., & Linder, D. (1965). Gain and loss of esteem as determinants of interpersonal attractiveness. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1(2), 156 ...
[33]
Gain and loss of esteem as determinants of interpersonal ...
The results were predicted and discussed in terms of a “gain-loss” notion of interpersonal attractiveness.Missing: original paper
[34]
[PDF] Gain and loss of esteem as determinants of interpersonal ...
Gain and loss of esteem as determinants of interpersonal attractiveness · E. Aronson, D. Linder · Published 1 May 1965 · Psychology · Journal of Experimental Social ...
[35]
Gain and loss of esteem as determinants of interpersonal attraction
Sep 27, 2025 · Gain and Loss of Esteem as Determinants of Interpersonal Attractiveness. Article. May 1965. Elliot Aronson · Darwyn Linder. In a laboratory ...Missing: original | Show results with:original
[36]
The effect of a pratfall on increasing interpersonal attractiveness 1
The effect of a pratfall on increasing interpersonal attractiveness 1. ELLIOT ARONSON, UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS. An experiment was performed which demonstrated that ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
[37]
https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fh0045917
[38]
[PDF] experimentation in social - Description
This can be done by providing a medical atmosphere, inventing a medical rationale for the experiment, having the experimenter appear in a white lab- oratory ...
[39]
https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=6upYdlAAAAAJ&citation_for_view=6upYdlAAAAAJ:u5HHmVD_uO8C
[40]
[PDF] Elliot Aronson - Webflow
THE JIGSAW PILOT STUDIES. To test the feasibility of the jigsaw method, our first step was to run a two-week exploratory study on two fifth-grade classes.Missing: trials | Show results with:trials
[41]
(PDF) Evaluation of Jigsaw, a cooperative learning technique
Aug 5, 2025 · ... Jigsaw classroom, like the traditional classroom, the. reward ... The present study examined whether working memory capacity, a key ...Missing: original | Show results with:original
[42]
Three Decades of Research on Induced Hypocrisy: A Meta-Analysis
Apr 13, 2019 · When drawing up the induced-hypocrisy paradigm, Aronson et al. (1991) suggested that hypocrisy has the potential to stimulate behavior change ...
[43]
When Replication Fails: What to Conclude and Not to Conclude?
Nov 14, 2024 · According to cognitive-dissonance theory, participants who write a counterattitudinal essay under high choice should experience more dissonance ...
[44]
Cross-cultural differences vs. universality in cognitive dissonance
This chapter discusses cognitive dissonance theory by providing a conceptual reanalysis of inconsistency processes that aims at specifying different sources of ...
[45]
Effects of the Jigsaw method on student educational outcomes - NIH
Only published or accepted peer-reviewed scientific education research ... The Jigsaw classroom under test: no effect on intergroup relations evident.
[46]
The impact of a modified jigsaw activity incorporating educational ...
Jul 6, 2025 · This study explores the impact of a modified jigsaw activity with educational YouTube reels on pharmacy students' learning outcomes.
[47]
Jigsaw large classroom teaching for medical students: An active ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Jigsaw large classroom teaching for medical students: An active. learning strategy for studying pathology ...
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[PDF] Learning With Jigsaw: A Systematic Review Gathering All the ... - HAL
Jul 2, 2024 · The Jigsaw Classroom is a cooperative learning method where students are assigned parts of content and become both learners and teachers.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[49]
When Blemishing Leads to Blossoming: The Positive Effect of ... - jstor
May 13, 2011 · Study 2 replicates the effect using actual choice data in a field setting. Study 3 measures individual differences in processing effort and ...
[50]
The Pratfall Effect and Interpersonal Impressions of a Robot that ...
Apr 18, 2019 · This study examines the pratfall effect and interpersonal impressions of how humans perceive robots that appear forgetful and apologetic regarding information ...
[51]
Children of the replication crisis | BPS - British Psychological Society
Jun 27, 2024 · Social psychology fared particularly badly, with only 25 per cent of effects replicating (Open Science Collaboration, 2015). Shockwaves ...
[52]
Multilab Replication Challenges Long-held Theories on Cognitive ...
Feb 14, 2024 · One of the foremost models that scientists use to measure the effects of cognitive dissonance may have some deficiencies, a new multilab registered replication ...
[53]
(PDF) Do Jigsaw Classrooms Improve Learning Outcomes? Five ...
Jan 14, 2022 · The present research showed that the “jigsaw classroom” did not yield any significant gain in learning outcomes as compared to “individualistic” or “teaching ...
[54]
Getting Bossy about Jigsaws; “Don't Fence Us In”
May 19, 2024 · The Jigsaw method does not impact students' self-regulation over two years. Collaborative methods are less favorable for students with lower ...
[55]
[PDF] Using the Jigsaw (Puzzle) Method in Academic Environments
Aronson, E. Jigsaw classroom: Overview of the technique. Social Psychology network. Sage Pub. Company; 2002. 9. Shakerian S, Khoshgoftar Z, Rezayof E,. Amadi ...
[56]
Evolutionary Social Psychology (Chapter 43) - Pillars of Social ...
The Emergence of Evolutionary Social Psychology. By far the most interesting and important modern theories in evolutionary biology center on social behavior.
[57]
The Evolutionary Roots of Human Decision Making - PMC - NIH
We review recent research on the origins of human decision making by examining whether similar choice biases are seen in nonhuman primates.
[58]
Jigsaw Classroom - Prejudice - psychology.iresearchnet.com
Social psychologist Elliot Aronson introduced the jigsaw classroom in 1971, while a professor at the University of Texas at Austin.
[59]
[PDF] The Jigsaw Classroom - CHADD
Jigsaw traces its roots to Austin, Texas, when in 1971, Aronson, then a professor at the University of Texas, was called upon to assist local schools to ...
[60]
The Jigsaw Classroom: An effective strategy to reduce violence? | IB ...
Sep 20, 2016 · Aronson's research showed that the jigsaw classroom method was effective in breaking down stereotypes between groups by improving friendships in ...
[61]
Learning With Jigsaw: A Systematic Review Gathering All the Pieces ...
Mar 4, 2024 · The jigsaw classroom is a cooperative learning method designed in the late 1970s to improve the academic performance of minority children.
[62]
Diverse Work Teams: Understanding the Challenges and ... - NCBI
For instance, the “Jigsaw Classroom” exercise was implemented as a cooperative teaching technique to help reduce racial bias among K–12 students in a school ...
[63]
Do jigsaw classrooms improve learning outcomes? Five ...
jigsaw classroom; cooperative learning; internal meta-analysis ... Academic performance, prejudice, and the Jigsaw classroom: New pieces to the puzzle.
[64]
[PDF] Explaining Attitudes from Behavior: A Cognitive Dissonance Approach
May 28, 2015 · “The Economic Consequences of. Cognitive Dissonance.” American Economic Review 72(3):307–319. Aronson, Elliot and Judson Mills. 1959. “The ...
[65]
Sticking with Your Vote: Cognitive Dissonance and Political Attitudes
Since the 1959 study, empiricists have explored the rel evance of cognitive dissonance to a large variety of contexts including socialization of children, ...
[66]
Situationism in psychology: An analysis and a critique. - APA PsycNet
Critically analyzes the current tendency to account for human behavior largely in terms of the situation in which it occurs.
[67]
The Fundamental Errors of Situationism - Psychology Today
Feb 1, 2017 · Social psychologists have argued that people tend to blame others, often unfairly, for their circumstances without proper consideration of ...
[68]
UCSC Professor Emeritus Elliot Aronson receives lifetime ...
Nov 13, 2006 · The William James Fellow Award is the latest honor bestowed upon Aronson, a professor emeritus of psychology at the University of California, Santa Cruz.
[69]
Elliot Aronson: American Psychological Foundation Awards for 1980
Provides the biography of Elliot Aronson and announces that he has received the American Psychological Foundation Distinguished Teaching in Psychology Award ( ...
[70]
Meet our Fellows - Guggenheim Fellowship
Elliot Aronson. 1981. Margaret Atwood. 1981. James L. Axtell. 1981. Edward Bakst. 1981. Rudolf Baranik. 1981. Pranab K. Bardhan. 1981. Edward Barnes. 1981 ...
[71]
Psychology's Biggest Prize To UCSC's Elliot Aronson - News
May 3, 1999 · In 1980, he became the first person in the history of the APA to receive both a distinguished teaching award and a distinguished research award.
[72]
Cognitive–motivational mechanisms of political polarization in social ...
Aug 1, 2022 · In this Review, we provide a conceptual framework to integrate scientific knowledge about cognitive–motivational mechanisms that influence political ...Missing: Elliot | Show results with:Elliot
[73]
Cognitive and emotional correlates of belief in political misinformation
Across two studies, we investigated how much cognitive variables and emotional dynamics anticipated endorsement of politically partisan misbeliefs.
[74]
The Role of Cognitive Dissonance in the Pandemic - The Atlantic
Jul 12, 2020 · The theory inspired more than 3,000 experiments that have transformed psychologists' understanding of how the human mind works. One of Aronson's ...
[75]
The current social dilemma: cognitive dissonance and its impact on ...
Sep 11, 2023 · Navigating Cognitive Dissonance in Politics: Cognitive dissonance is a complex phenomenon that plays a significant role in contemporary politics ...
[76]
Elliot Aronson - Campus Directory - UC Santa Cruz
Biography, Education and Training Aronson grew up during the great depression, in an impoverished family living in the slums of Revere Massachusetts.
[77]
Class of 1954 | Brandeis Magazine
Elliot Aronson and the former Vera Rabinek recently celebrated their 61st wedding anniversary. They have four children and seven grandchildren.
[78]
Joshua Aronson | NYU Steinhardt
Joshua Aronson directs the Mindful Education Lab, a group of psychologists and neuroscientists dedicated to using research to improve the environments and ...
[79]
A Legacy of Social Psychology w/ Dr. Elliot Aronson and Dr. Joshua ...
Feb 14, 2025 · In this special episode, Scott is joined by two legendary figures in social psychology: Dr. Elliot Aronson and his son, Dr. Joshua Aronson.
[80]
Elliot Aronson nominated for book, emeriti awards - News
Mar 30, 2011 · But Aronson recently was able to dispense with his cane, having acquired a guide dog, a yellow Labrador retriever, “Desilu,” after spending ...Missing: vision | Show results with:vision
[81]
The Social Animal Twelfth Edition - Amazon.com
The Social Animal is a masterpiece.” ... “The Aronsons write with an astonishing combination of passion, wisdom, and humor. The Social Animal is a great book. “
[82]
The psychology of self-persuasion with Elliot Aronson (Transcript)
Dec 5, 2023 · He's a pioneer of the study of cognitive dissonance, the uncomfortable tension we feel when our attitudes and actions conflict.
[83]
Why It's Hard to Admit to Being Wrong
### Summary of Elliot Aronson's Comments from NPR Interview
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Quote by Elliot Aronson: “Anyone who is awake nowadays knows ...
and neither side seems able to be persuaded by the other ...