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Endothermic process

An endothermic process is a thermodynamic process in which a system absorbs heat energy from its surroundings, leading to an increase in the system's internal energy or the performance of work, and is characterized by a positive change in enthalpy (ΔH > 0).^[1]^[2] These processes encompass both chemical reactions, where bonds in reactants are broken and new bonds in products form with net energy absorption, and physical changes, such as phase transitions that require heat input to overcome intermolecular forces.^[3]^[4] In chemical contexts, endothermic reactions often feel cold to the touch because heat is drawn from the environment, as seen in the mixing of barium hydroxide octahydrate and ammonium chloride, which drops the temperature significantly.^[3] Notable examples include photosynthesis in plants, where sunlight provides the energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen, storing chemical energy in a highly endothermic reaction requiring approximately 15 MJ of solar energy per kilogram of glucose produced.^[3] Physical endothermic processes are evident in everyday phenomena like the evaporation of sweat, which cools the body by absorbing heat from the skin, or the melting of ice, where heat is taken up to disrupt the solid lattice structure without a temperature change until complete.^[5] Endothermic processes play crucial roles in biological systems, energy storage, and practical applications, such as instant cold packs used for injury treatment, which rely on the dissolution of ammonium nitrate in water to absorb heat and provide localized cooling.^[2] In thermodynamics, they contrast with exothermic processes, which release heat to the surroundings and thereby increase the entropy of the surroundings; endothermic processes absorb heat, decreasing the entropy of the surroundings. This influences spontaneity as governed by the second law of thermodynamics.^[6] Understanding these processes is essential for fields like chemical engineering, where they inform energy-efficient designs in refrigeration and thermal management.^[3]

Fundamentals

Definition

An endothermic process is a thermodynamic process in which a system absorbs heat energy from its surroundings, resulting in a positive heat transfer to the system (q > 0), typically at constant pressure.^[7] This absorption leads to an increase in the system's internal energy or enthalpy, while the temperature of the surroundings decreases as heat is drawn away.^[8] Key characteristics of endothermic processes include the cooling effect on the immediate environment and their dependence on the second law of thermodynamics, which mandates that the total entropy of the universe must increase for the process to be spontaneous.^[9] Although the system's entropy may vary, the overall entropy change ensures compliance with thermodynamic principles, distinguishing endothermic processes from non-spontaneous events.^[10] The term "endothermic" was coined in 1865 by French chemist Marcellin Berthelot, alongside "exothermic," derived from the Greek roots "endo-" meaning "within" and "therme" meaning "heat."^[11] This nomenclature emerged during the development of thermochemistry in the 19th century to classify heat-absorbing and heat-releasing reactions.^[12] Heat absorption in endothermic processes is quantified using units such as joules (J) in the International System of Units (SI) or calories (cal) in older systems, where 1 cal equals approximately 4.184 J.^[7] Unlike adiabatic processes, which involve no heat exchange with the surroundings (q = 0), endothermic processes explicitly require heat inflow to proceed.^[13]

Thermodynamic Principles

The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in internal energy of a system, ΔU, equals the heat transferred to the system, q, plus the work done on the system, w: ΔU = q + w.^[14] In endothermic processes, heat is absorbed by the system from the surroundings, making q positive, while the work term w can vary depending on the process, such as expansion work in gases where the system does work on the surroundings (w negative).^[15] This conservation principle ensures that energy changes within the system arise solely from heat and work interactions.^[16] Enthalpy, H, defined as H = U + PV, provides a useful measure for processes at constant pressure, where the enthalpy change is ΔH = ΔU + Δ(PV).^[17] For constant pressure conditions, this simplifies to ΔH ≈ ΔU + PΔV, with PΔV representing pressure-volume work.^[17] Endothermic processes are characterized by a positive ΔH, indicating heat absorption at constant pressure, in contrast to exothermic processes where ΔH is negative.^[18] The second law of thermodynamics governs the spontaneity of endothermic processes, requiring that the total entropy change of the universe, ΔS_universe, be positive for any spontaneous process: ΔS_universe = ΔS_system + ΔS_surroundings > 0.^[9] For endothermic reactions, where heat absorption decreases the surroundings' entropy (ΔS_surroundings < 0), spontaneity often necessitates coupling with processes that increase the system's entropy sufficiently to make ΔS_universe positive overall.^[9] Under constant temperature and pressure, the Gibbs free energy change, ΔG = ΔH - TΔS, determines spontaneity, with ΔG < 0 indicating a spontaneous process.^[19] For endothermic processes (ΔH > 0), spontaneity requires a sufficiently large positive ΔS (entropy increase) or low temperature T to make -TΔS dominant and ΔG negative.^[9] The IUPAC standard sign convention in thermodynamics designates heat absorbed by the system (q > 0) and work done on the system (w > 0) as positive, aligning endothermic processes with positive ΔH.^[20] This differs from some older conventions, particularly in physics, where work done by the system is often taken as positive (w > 0 for expansion), leading to ΔU = q - w.^[21]

Chemical Applications

Reactions

An endothermic reaction is a chemical process in which the energy required to break bonds in the reactant molecules exceeds the energy released when new bonds form in the product molecules, resulting in a net absorption of heat from the surroundings and a positive change in enthalpy (ΔH > 0).^[22] This absorption cools the surrounding environment as the system draws in thermal energy to drive the reaction forward./07%3A_Chemical_Reactions_-_Energy_Rates_and_Equilibrium/7.03%3A_Exothermic_and_Endothermic_Reactions) Endothermic reactions encompass several types, including decomposition reactions, where a single compound breaks down into simpler substances while absorbing heat. A classic example is the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate:

\mathrm{CaCO_3(s) \rightarrow CaO(s) + CO_2(g)} \quad \Delta [H](/page/H+) > 0

This process requires significant heat input to overcome the stability of the carbonate structure./07%3A_Chemical_Reactions_-_Energy_Rates_and_Equilibrium/7.03%3A_Exothermic_and_Endothermic_Reactions) Another type is dissociation, in which a compound separates into its constituent ions or molecules, often in the gas phase or solution, absorbing energy in the process. For instance, solid ammonium chloride dissociates endothermically:

\mathrm{NH_4Cl(s) \rightarrow NH_3(g) + HCl(g)} \quad \Delta H > 0

This reaction is commonly observed as sublimation, where heat is taken up to separate the molecules. Certain synthesis reactions can also be endothermic under specific conditions, such as the formation of nitric oxide from nitrogen and oxygen:

\mathrm{N_2(g) + O_2(g) \rightarrow 2NO(g)} \quad \Delta H > 0

Here, the high stability of the N≡N and O=O bonds necessitates energy input to form the weaker N=O bonds.^[23] Endothermic reactions generally exhibit high activation energies (E_a), as the transition state lies at an energy level above both reactants and products, creating a substantial energy barrier that must be surmounted for the reaction to proceed. This high E_a often necessitates the use of catalysts, which lower the barrier by providing an alternative pathway, or elevated temperatures to increase the fraction of molecules with sufficient kinetic energy.^[24] Without such interventions, the reaction rate remains low due to infrequent successful collisions.^[25] In reversible endothermic reactions at equilibrium, Le Chatelier's principle predicts that increasing the temperature shifts the equilibrium toward the products, as the added heat favors the endothermic direction to absorb the excess energy./11%3A_Chemical_Equilibrium/11.02%3A_Le_Chatelier%27s_Principle) Conversely, cooling shifts it toward the reactants. This temperature dependence is a key tool for controlling yields in industrial processes involving endothermic steps.^[26] The enthalpy change (ΔH_rxn) for endothermic reactions is measured experimentally using calorimetry, which quantifies heat transfer during the process. Solution calorimeters, operating at constant pressure, directly provide ΔH by monitoring temperature changes in a reactant solution within an insulated vessel.^[27] Bomb calorimeters, used at constant volume, measure internal energy changes (ΔU) that can be converted to ΔH via the relation ΔH = ΔU + Δn_g RT, where Δn_g is the change in moles of gas; these are suitable for gas-phase or solid reactions but less common for solution-based endothermic processes.^[28] Precise temperature monitoring and calibration ensure accurate determination of the heat absorbed.^[29]

Phase Changes

Phase changes represent endothermic processes where a substance absorbs heat to transition between states of matter without a change in temperature, a phenomenon known as latent heat. This energy is required to overcome intermolecular forces holding the particles in their current arrangement, allowing reorganization into a higher-entropy state such as from solid to liquid or liquid to gas.^[30]^[31] In melting, or fusion, a solid absorbs the heat of fusion (\Delta H_\text{fus} > 0) to become a liquid at the melting point. For water, this transition from ice to liquid at 0°C requires 334 J/g, illustrating how the energy disrupts the ordered crystal lattice while maintaining constant temperature.^[32]^[33] Vaporization involves a liquid absorbing the heat of vaporization (\Delta H_\text{vap} > 0) to form a gas at the boiling point. For water at 100°C, this requires 2260 J/g, as the energy separates molecules against cohesive forces into the vapor phase.^[32]^[34] Trouton's rule provides an approximation for many liquids, stating that \Delta H_\text{vap} / T_b \approx 85-90 J/mol·K, where T_b is the normal boiling point in kelvin, reflecting similar entropy changes during vaporization.^[35] Sublimation is the direct endothermic transition from solid to gas, with the enthalpy of sublimation (\Delta H_\text{sub}) equaling \Delta H_\text{fus} + \Delta H_\text{vap}, as derived from Hess's law for the stepwise path through the liquid state.^[36] The magnitude of these latent heats depends on intermolecular forces; stronger attractions, such as hydrogen bonding in water, demand greater energy input for phase transitions.^[33] Pressure also influences transition temperatures and enthalpies, as described by the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, which relates changes in vapor pressure to temperature along the phase boundary.^[37]

Physical and Engineering Contexts

Heat Absorption in Systems

In physical systems, endothermic processes involve the absorption of heat from the surroundings to facilitate energy transfer or work, often governed by the first law of thermodynamics, which states that the change in internal energy equals heat added plus work done on the system. This heat absorption, denoted as positive q, distinguishes endothermic processes from those where no heat exchange occurs. Such processes are crucial in engineering contexts for managing temperature and energy flow. A classic example of heat absorption in gas expansion is the isothermal expansion of an ideal gas, where the temperature remains constant through thermal contact with a heat reservoir. For an ideal gas, the internal energy depends only on temperature, so \Delta U = 0, and from the first law, q = -w. During expansion, the system performs work on the surroundings (w < 0), requiring heat absorption (q > 0) to maintain constant temperature. This process illustrates how endothermic heat uptake compensates for mechanical work output.^[38]^[39] In real gases, the Joule-Thomson effect demonstrates another mechanism of endothermic cooling during expansion through a throttle or porous plug under isenthalpic conditions. For most real gases below their inversion temperature—typically around 600 K for nitrogen or 200 K for hydrogen—the intermolecular forces cause a temperature drop as the gas expands, since the increase in intermolecular potential energy occurs at the expense of the gas's kinetic energy. This effect arises because the Joule-Thomson coefficient \mu_{JT} = \left( \frac{\partial T}{\partial P} \right)_H > 0 below the inversion point, leading to cooling. It is widely applied in gas liquefaction processes. Heat absorption also occurs when raising the temperature of solids or liquids without phase change, quantified by specific heat capacity. The heat required is given by q = m c \Delta T > 0, where m is mass, c is the specific heat capacity (e.g., 4.18 J/g·°C for water), and \Delta T > 0 is the temperature increase. This endothermic process stores thermal energy as increased molecular kinetic energy, essential for heating materials in thermal systems. For instance, warming a metal block in contact with a heat source exemplifies this straightforward energy transfer.^[40]^[41] It is important to distinguish endothermic processes from adiabatic ones: endothermic processes require heat exchange with the surroundings (q > 0), whereas adiabatic processes occur in isolation with no heat transfer (q = 0). An endothermic process cannot be truly adiabatic, as the absence of heat input would force the system to draw from internal energy, often leading to cooling without external absorption. This contrast highlights that endothermic behavior depends on environmental interaction.^[42]^[43]

Refrigeration and Cooling

In refrigeration systems, endothermic processes are central to achieving cooling by absorbing heat from a target environment. The vapor-compression cycle, widely used in household refrigerators and air conditioners, relies on the endothermic evaporation of a refrigerant liquid at low pressure within the evaporator coil.^[44] This phase change absorbs heat from the interior space, lowering its temperature while the refrigerant vaporizes into a gas, which is then compressed, condensed, and expanded to repeat the cycle. The endothermic nature of evaporation ensures efficient heat transfer without direct contact between the refrigerant and the cooled medium. Absorption refrigeration offers an alternative, heat-driven approach, particularly suitable for applications where electricity is limited, such as recreational vehicles or industrial settings. In the ammonia-water system, the cycle involves endothermic desorption of ammonia from water in the generator, where external heat input separates the refrigerant vapor from the absorbent solution.^[45] The ammonia vapor then evaporates endothermically in the evaporator to absorb cooling heat, before being reabsorbed exothermically by water in the absorber.^[46] This configuration achieves cooling with a thermal energy source like natural gas or waste heat, contrasting with mechanical compression methods. Portable endothermic chemical coolants provide instant, localized cooling without complex machinery. Instant cold packs commonly utilize the dissolution of ammonium nitrate (NH₄NO₃) in water, an endothermic process that absorbs approximately 25 kJ/mol of heat, rapidly dropping the solution temperature to near 0°C.^[47] Upon activation, the inner pouch breaks, allowing water to mix with the solid salt, facilitating the heat-absorbing hydration of ions.^[48] The efficiency of these endothermic cooling systems is quantified by the coefficient of performance (COP), defined as COP = \frac{Q_{cold}}{W_{input}}, where Q_{cold} is the heat absorbed from the cold reservoir and W_{input} is the work or heat input required. For ideal reversible refrigerators, the Carnot limit sets the maximum COP as COP_{Carnot} = \frac{T_{cold}}{T_{hot} - T_{cold}}, with temperatures in Kelvin; practical systems achieve 40-60% of this limit due to irreversibilities like friction and heat losses.^[49] Environmental considerations have driven significant shifts in refrigerant selection to mitigate ozone depletion and global warming. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), phased out globally under the 1987 Montreal Protocol by 1996 due to their role in stratospheric ozone destruction, were replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) as non-ozone-depleting alternatives.^[50] However, HFCs' high global warming potentials—up to thousands of times that of CO₂—have prompted further transitions to low-impact natural refrigerants like carbon dioxide (CO₂) in transcritical cycles, reducing overall greenhouse gas emissions in modern systems. As of 2025, the U.S. phasedown under the AIM Act restricts high-GWP HFCs in new refrigeration equipment starting January 1, accelerating adoption of alternatives like CO₂.^[51]^[52]

Biological Aspects

Processes in Organisms

In biological systems, endothermic processes play a crucial role in energy acquisition, storage, and utilization, enabling organisms to harness and manage thermal energy for survival and function. One of the most prominent examples is photosynthesis, a light-driven endothermic reaction that occurs in plants, algae, and certain bacteria, where solar energy is absorbed to synthesize glucose from carbon dioxide and water. The overall reaction is represented as:

$6\mathrm{CO_2} + 6\mathrm{H_2O} \xrightarrow{\text{light}} \mathrm{C_6H_{12}O_6} + 6\mathrm{O_2}

with an enthalpy change \Delta H \approx +2800 kJ/mol, indicating significant heat absorption to drive the synthesis of high-energy organic compounds. This process stores solar energy in chemical bonds, providing a foundational energy reserve for ecosystems.^[53]^[54] In animal physiology, endothermic processes contribute to muscle function, particularly during contraction and recovery. While ATP hydrolysis powering the crossbridge cycle is generally exothermic, specific steps such as ATP hydrolysis coupled to crossbridge attachment and force generation exhibit endothermic characteristics, absorbing heat to facilitate mechanical work in isometric and shortening muscle fibers. During recovery phases following contraction, ion pumping via the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase helps restore membrane potentials and requires metabolic energy input, contributing to overall heat management in the muscle though the pump itself operates through exothermic ATP breakdown. These endothermic elements allow muscles to adapt to thermal variations, enhancing force production at higher temperatures.^[55] Endothermic processes also support thermoregulation in endothermic organisms, such as mammals and birds, by facilitating heat dissipation. Evaporative cooling through sweating absorbs heat via the latent heat of vaporization of water, removing excess thermal energy from the body surface and preventing overheating during activity or in warm environments; this mechanism accounts for a substantial portion of heat loss, up to 22% of total body heat under certain conditions. Vasodilation complements this by increasing blood flow to the skin, promoting convective heat transfer, though the absorption occurs primarily through evaporation. These processes maintain optimal body temperatures without relying solely on metabolic heat production.^[56] From an evolutionary perspective, endothermic processes like anabolism in photosynthesis and other synthetic pathways provide key advantages by enabling the storage of energy in complex molecules, which can be mobilized later through exothermic catabolic reactions such as cellular respiration. This separation allows organisms to buffer against environmental fluctuations, support growth, and sustain activity bursts, contrasting with purely exothermic breakdown that releases energy immediately but limits long-term storage and flexibility in energy use. Such capabilities have been conserved across diverse taxa, underscoring their adaptive value in enhancing metabolic efficiency and survival.^[57] To quantify endothermic processes in organisms, techniques like direct calorimetry measure heat absorption by monitoring temperature changes in isolated tissues or whole animals, providing direct enthalpy data for reactions like photosynthesis or muscle recovery. Respirometry complements this by assessing oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production, indirectly estimating energy input for endothermic metabolism through metabolic rate calculations. These methods are essential for studying thermal dynamics in vivo, revealing how organisms balance heat absorption with overall energetics.^[58]

Distinction from Endothermy

Endothermy refers to a physiological strategy in animals, primarily mammals and birds, that enables the maintenance of a relatively constant internal body temperature through the endogenous production of heat via metabolic processes, which are predominantly exothermic reactions generating thermal energy.^[59] This internal heat generation allows endotherms to achieve body temperatures typically ranging from 36–42°C, independent of external environmental fluctuations, supporting sustained high metabolic rates and activity levels.^[60] In evolutionary terms, endothermy has arisen multiple times in vertebrates, facilitating adaptations such as expanded ecological niches and enhanced parental care.^[59] A fundamental distinction exists between an endothermic process and endothermy: the former describes any thermodynamic event—whether chemical, physical, or biological—that absorbs heat from its surroundings (ΔH > 0), thereby cooling the system, while endothermy is a regulatory trait involving the net balance of heat production (from exothermic metabolism) and occasional heat absorption to sustain thermal homeostasis.^[61] For instance, in endothermic animals, processes like the evaporation of sweat represent endothermic events that dissipate excess heat, but the overall endothermic strategy relies on continuous internal heat generation to counteract such losses and maintain core temperature.^[62] This biological usage of "endothermic" emphasizes the internal origin of regulatory heat, contrasting with the purely energetic absorption in non-biological contexts, and highlights a common terminological overlap that can lead to misconceptions.^[63] Terminology surrounding these concepts often causes confusion, particularly the misuse of "endothermic animal" to describe warm-blooded organisms; the precise term is "endotherm," referring to the organism as a whole, rather than implying the process itself is heat-absorbing.^[61] In contrast, ectothermy describes animals that primarily derive body heat from external environmental sources, such as reptiles and most fish, resulting in body temperatures that closely track ambient conditions.^[64] Relatedly, poikilothermy denotes a condition where an organism's body temperature varies significantly with the environment, often overlapping with ectothermy but applicable to both endotherms and ectotherms during periods of non-regulation, such as hibernation.^[65] These distinctions underscore that endothermy is not synonymous with heat absorption but rather a dynamic physiological adaptation for thermal stability.^[60]

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In response to the phaseout of CFCs and the ongoing phaseout of HCFCs, refrigeration equipment manufacturers have transitioned to using non-ozone depleting ...Missing: phase- out shift
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Ozone-Depleting Substances | US EPA
Mar 25, 2025 · These gases are being replaced by other compounds: hydrochlorofluorocarbons, an interim replacement for CFCs that are also covered under the ...Missing: shift | Show results with:shift
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From natural to artificial photosynthesis - PMC - NIH
A typical product of carbon fixation is glucose (C6H12O6) whose energy content is 673 kcal per quantum mole (2805 kJ mole−1) when burnt in a calorimeter. To ...
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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507838/
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The endothermic ATP hydrolysis and crossbridge attachment steps ...
The endothermic ATP hydrolysis and crossbridge attachment steps drive the increase of force with temperature in isometric and shortening muscle.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Physiology, Temperature Regulation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jul 30, 2023 · Heat loss via evaporation of sweat is regulated by the amount and rate of sweating and accounts for approximately 22% of total body heat loss. ...
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4.1 Energy and Metabolism – Concepts of Biology
Catabolic reactions break down complex chemicals into simpler ones and are associated with energy release.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Calorimetric Measurements of Biological Interactions and Their ...
Apr 16, 2022 · Calorimetry is utilized to measure the thermodynamic properties such as enthalpy, entropy, and Gibbs free energy in biological and chemical ...
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The evolution of mechanisms involved in vertebrate endothermy - NIH
Endothermy, i.e. the ability for an organism to generate body heat through a specifically dedicated metabolic activity, is considered to have appeared at least ...
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EEB 4260: Endothermy and Thermoregulation - Rubega Lab
Endothermic means that they can maintain their (high) body temperature by creating heat through metabolic means. Note that the terms “warm-blooded” and “cold- ...
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Warm-Blooded Mammals: An Enduring Misconception
Dec 1, 2022 · Similarly, “warm-blooded” animals, better called endotherms, are often considered to maintain a relatively constant body temperature (i.e., are ...If Not Warm-Blooded, Then... · Mammalian Body Temperatures... · The Many Faces Of Endothermy
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Python Thermoregulation | Ask A Biologist - Arizona State University
For example, sweating and panting allows animals to cool off by dumping the heat into water that is then evaporated into the air. Burmese python Pythons are ...
[65]
Chemical Reactions and Energy - Advanced | CK-12 Foundation
Nov 1, 2025 · In this case the term endothermic refers to them generating heat internally. The opposite of endothermy is ectothermy. Ectothermic animals (cold ...Missing: distinction | Show results with:distinction<|separator|>
[66]
Plant and Animal Responses to the Environment | Organismal Biology
Endotherms typically have high metabolic rates (and thus high nutritional needs), and any given endothermic species generally has a relatively narrow range of ...
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TPWD: Warm- and Cold-Blooded Animals -- Young Naturalist
Animals that cannot generate internal heat are known as poikilotherms (poy-KIL-ah-therms), or cold-blooded animals. Insects, worms, fish, amphibians, and ...