Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Epithelial polarity

Epithelial polarity is the asymmetric organization of epithelial cells along the apical-basal axis, dividing the plasma membrane into distinct apical (luminal-facing), lateral (cell-cell contact), and basal (basement membrane-facing) domains, which is essential for tissue barrier function, directional transport, and morphogenesis.^[1] This polarity is established and maintained through conserved protein complexes and polarized vesicular trafficking, enabling epithelial sheets to form organized structures in organs like the skin, lungs, and intestines.^[2] The establishment of epithelial polarity begins during epithelialization, where extrinsic cues from the extracellular matrix and cell-cell adhesions trigger the recruitment of polarity regulators to specific membrane sites.^[1] Key protein complexes include the PAR complex (comprising PAR-3, PAR-6, and atypical PKC), which localizes to junctions and initiates domain separation; the Crumbs complex (Crumbs, PALS1, and PATJ), which promotes apical membrane expansion; and the Scribble complex (Scribble, Discs large, and Lethal giant larvae), which restricts basolateral identity.^[2] These complexes interact dynamically with the cytoskeleton, including actin and microtubules, and trafficking machinery involving Rab GTPases and the exocyst complex to sort proteins and lipids directionally.^[2] Tight junctions, formed by proteins like claudins and occludin, act as barriers separating apical and basolateral domains, preventing paracellular leakage.^[1] Epithelial polarity is crucial for physiological processes, including nutrient absorption in the gut, secretion in glands, and sensory functions in epithelia like the retina.^[1] Disruptions in polarity contribute to diseases such as cancers of epithelial origin, where loss of asymmetry promotes invasion via epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and ciliopathies due to defective apical specialization.^[2] Research continues to uncover how polarity adapts across species and tissues, from Drosophila to mammals, highlighting its evolutionary conservation and therapeutic potential, including recent advances in drugs that induce polarity to enhance chemotherapy responses in colorectal cancer and roles in breast cancer progression as of 2025.^[1]^[3]^[4]

Overview

Definition and importance

Epithelial polarity refers to the asymmetric subdivision of the plasma membrane in epithelial cells into distinct apical, lateral, and basal domains, each characterized by unique compositions of proteins and lipids. The apical domain faces the lumen or external environment, the lateral domain mediates cell-cell contacts, and the basal domain adheres to the underlying basement membrane.^[5] This organization ensures functional specialization, with the lateral and basal domains often collectively termed the basolateral domain to highlight their shared roles in intercellular and substratum interactions.^[6] The establishment of epithelial polarity is vital for enabling vectorial transport, where substances are directionally moved across the epithelium, as well as for forming selective barriers and organizing tissue architecture. In physiological contexts, this polarity directs processes such as secretion and absorption; for instance, in the kidney's proximal tubule, it facilitates the reabsorption of filtered proteins and solutes from the luminal filtrate to the bloodstream via apical receptors like megalin.^[7] Similarly, in the intestine, polarity supports nutrient uptake by positioning absorptive transporters on the apical surface of enterocytes, allowing efficient transfer from the gut lumen to the circulation.^[7] Epithelial polarity is evolutionarily conserved across all metazoans, appearing as a fundamental feature in early multicellular organisms such as sponges and placozoans, where it underpins the formation of simple polarized tissues.^[8] This conservation underscores its essential role in the transition to organized multicellularity, enabling the development of complex tissue structures and functions that distinguish metazoan biology.^[8]

Historical context

The concept of epithelial polarity emerged from early microscopic observations in the 19th century, when scientists began identifying the asymmetric organization of cells within epithelial tissues. Theodor Schwann, utilizing advanced light microscopy, described the cellular structure of animal tissues, including epithelia, noting distinct surface features and intercellular connections that hinted at functional asymmetry between cell sides.^[9] These findings, detailed in his 1839 work Mikroskopische Untersuchungen über die Übereinstimmung in der Struktur und dem Wachstum der Tiere und Pflanzen, laid foundational groundwork for recognizing epithelia as sheets of polarized cells with specialized domains. Advancements in the mid-20th century, particularly through electron microscopy, provided clearer evidence of domain separation in epithelial cells. In the 1960s, Marilyn G. Farquhar and George E. Palade examined kidney tubule epithelia and identified tight junctions as structures sealing adjacent cells, preventing free diffusion between apical and basolateral domains. Their seminal 1963 study in the Journal of Cell Biology analyzed various epithelia, including renal proximal tubules, revealing the tight junction (zonula occludens) as a key barrier that maintains polarity by compartmentalizing membrane proteins and lipids. This work, building on earlier light microscopy, established the structural basis for epithelial asymmetry and influenced subsequent permeability studies.^[10] The 1970s marked a pivotal shift toward in vitro models for studying polarity dynamics. Researchers developed the Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cell line, originally isolated in 1958 but adapted for polarity research, enabling the observation of epithelial monolayer formation and domain segregation in culture. Key experiments by Misfeldt et al. in 1976 demonstrated transepithelial electrical resistance in MDCK cells, confirming the establishment of a polarized barrier akin to in vivo epithelia.^[11] By 1978, Cereijido and colleagues further characterized how MDCK cells develop apical-basolateral asymmetry through cell-cell contacts, providing a tractable system for dissecting polarity mechanisms.^[12] Entering the molecular era in the 1980s and 1990s, genetic screens in model organisms uncovered key regulators of epithelial polarity. In Drosophila, mutations disrupting epithelial organization led to the identification of polarity genes, including bazooka, the homolog of mammalian Par-3, cloned in 1998 and shown to localize to apical junctions.^[13] These discoveries, stemming from embryonic screens, revealed conserved protein complexes essential for domain specification, with mammalian homologs soon identified and linked to similar roles in vertebrate epithelia. Vesicular trafficking emerged as a supporting mechanism in these studies, directing protein sorting to maintain asymmetry.^[2]

Cellular domains

Apical domain

The apical domain of polarized epithelial cells forms the luminal surface, facing the external environment or organ cavity, and is characterized by specialized structures that enhance surface area and functionality. This domain typically features microvilli, which are actin-based, finger-like protrusions that increase absorptive capacity, as well as cilia in certain epithelia for motility or sensing, and a glycocalyx composed of glycoproteins and proteoglycans that provides a protective barrier.^[14] The apical domain is distinctly separated from the basolateral domain by tight junctions, which act as a diffusion barrier to maintain compartmentalization.^[14] In terms of composition, the apical membrane is enriched in specific lipids, particularly glycosphingolipids and cholesterol, which cluster into lipid rafts that facilitate the sorting and stability of apical proteins.^[15]^[16] Protein-wise, it is populated with ion channels such as the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC), which regulates sodium absorption, and transporters like the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), a chloride channel critical for ion and fluid balance.^[17]^[18] Functionally, the apical domain is optimized for secretion and absorption processes tailored to the tissue type. In intestinal epithelia, for instance, the brush border—formed by densely packed microvilli—houses hydrolytic enzymes such as disaccharidases and peptidases that break down carbohydrates and proteins for nutrient uptake.^[19] Defects in apical components, such as mutations in CFTR, underlie diseases like cystic fibrosis, where impaired chloride secretion leads to thickened mucus and obstructed airways or ducts.^[20]

Basolateral domain

The basolateral domain of epithelial cells encompasses the basal and lateral membrane regions, where the basal surface contacts the underlying basement membrane and the lateral surface interfaces with adjacent cells. This domain forms a continuous membrane expanse, except where it is demarcated from the opposing apical domain by tight junctions and other cell-cell junctions that maintain compartmentalization.^[21] In terms of composition, the basolateral membrane is enriched with specific proteins and lipids that support its specialized roles, including a high concentration of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase pumps that establish essential ion gradients across the epithelium. Proteins destined for this domain are targeted via basolateral sorting signals, such as tyrosine-based motifs (e.g., YxxΦ) and dileucine-based sequences, which interact with adaptor complexes like AP-1B to direct vesicular trafficking from the Golgi or endosomes.^[22]^[23] Functionally, the basolateral domain facilitates nutrient uptake from the bloodstream at the basal surface, enabling vectorial transport across the epithelium, while the lateral region supports cell adhesion through integrins and cadherins, as well as intercellular signaling that coordinates tissue organization. Collectively, these properties contribute to the overall integrity of the epithelial sheet, preventing leakage and ensuring barrier function.^[24]^[21]

Establishment of polarity

Polarity protein complexes

Epithelial polarity is primarily established and maintained through the coordinated action of three conserved protein complexes: the PAR complex, the Crumbs complex, and the Scribble complex. These complexes define distinct membrane domains by promoting asymmetric protein localization and mutually excluding one another to segregate apical and basolateral identities. The PAR and Crumbs complexes localize to the apical region, specifying the apical membrane and tight junctions, while the Scribble complex restricts to the basolateral domain, ensuring proper compartmentalization.^[25] The PAR complex, consisting of partitioning defective 3 (PAR-3), PAR-6, and atypical protein kinase C (aPKC), plays a central role in apical domain specification through its asymmetric localization at the apical-lateral border. PAR-3 acts as a scaffold, recruiting PAR-6 and aPKC via protein-protein interactions, while aPKC phosphorylates downstream targets to reinforce apical identity and exclude basolateral components. This complex was first characterized in C. elegans for asymmetric cell division but is conserved in mammalian epithelia, where it organizes tight junctions and apical membrane expansion during polarization.^[26]00244-6) The Crumbs complex, comprising the transmembrane protein Crumbs (e.g., Crumbs3 in mammalian epithelia), PALS1 (protein associated with LIN-7 1), and PATJ (PALS1-associated tight junction protein), stabilizes the apical membrane and promotes tight junction maturation. Crumbs3, the predominant isoform in many vertebrate tissues, anchors the complex at the plasma membrane, recruiting PALS1 via its PDZ-binding motif and PATJ through PALS1's PDZ domain. This assembly expands the apical surface and links polarity to cytoskeletal elements indirectly, with loss of function leading to disrupted apical domains and junctional barriers. Originally identified in Drosophila mutants with polarity defects, the complex's core interactions are evolutionarily preserved.^[27] In contrast, the Scribble complex, including Scribble, lethal giant larvae (Lgl), and discs large (Dlg), localizes to the basolateral membrane to restrict apical determinants and maintain lateral identity. Scribble serves as a scaffold, binding Lgl and Dlg through PDZ and L27 domains, which in turn recruit additional regulators to exclude apical proteins from the basolateral domain. Disruptions in this complex, as seen in Drosophila lethality studies, result in apical expansion at the expense of basolateral domains. In mammals, human homologs like hScrib and hDlg perform analogous roles in epithelial barriers.^[28] These complexes interact through mutual antagonism to sharpen domain boundaries: the apical PAR and Crumbs complexes exclude Scribble components via aPKC-mediated phosphorylation of Lgl, which displaces it from the apical region, while basolateral Scribble reciprocally inhibits apical expansion by sequestering PAR proteins. This cross-regulation ensures robust segregation, with vesicular trafficking delivering complex components to their domains as a supportive mechanism. Such antagonism is evident in vertebrate models where mislocalization of one complex perturbs overall polarity.^[25]00244-6)

Vesicular trafficking mechanisms

Vesicular trafficking mechanisms play a crucial role in establishing epithelial polarity by directing the selective transport of membrane proteins and lipids from intracellular compartments to the apical or basolateral domains.^[29] These processes involve the recognition of specific sorting signals on cargo proteins, which guide their packaging into distinct vesicle populations originating primarily from the trans-Golgi network (TGN) or endosomal compartments.^[29] Apical sorting signals include glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors, which mediate the incorporation of proteins into lipid rafts for delivery to the apical surface, as seen in proteins like decay-accelerating factor.^[29] N-glycans also function as apical targeting determinants, interacting with lectins such as galectin-3 to facilitate raft-independent sorting of glycoproteins like clusterin (gp80).^[29] In contrast, basolateral sorting relies on cytoplasmic motifs, including tyrosine-based signals (e.g., YxxΦ or NPxY) recognized by clathrin adaptors like AP-1B, as exemplified by the low-density lipoprotein receptor, and dileucine motifs (e.g., D/ExxxLL) that direct proteins such as the Fc receptor FcRII-B2 to the basolateral membrane independently of AP-1B.^[29] The primary pathways for polarized delivery begin with biosynthetic sorting at the TGN, where exocytic vesicles bud off to carry cargo directly to the plasma membrane or via intermediate endosomal stations.^[29] Endocytic recycling from the plasma membrane involves sorting in early endosomes, with apical recycling endosomes (AREs) directing proteins back to the apical domain and basolateral recycling endosomes handling lateral return.^[30] Transcytosis provides a corrective route for missorted proteins, enabling vectorial transport across the cell, such as apical-to-basolateral movement of polymeric immunoglobulin A receptor (pIgA-R), though this is less prominent in renal epithelia compared to hepatic cells.^[29] Key regulators of these pathways include Rab GTPases, with Rab11 specifically orchestrating apical trafficking by coordinating vesicle movement through the ARE in polarized cells.^[30] The exocyst complex, an octameric tethering factor, ensures site-specific docking of vesicles to the plasma membrane by binding phospholipids like PtdIns(4,5)P2 and interacting with Rab11 or polarity proteins to target cargo such as E-cadherin to basolateral sites or podocalyxin to the apical domain.^[31] Experimental evidence from Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells, a standard model for epithelial polarity, demonstrates domain-specific delivery: for instance, GPI-anchored proteins and N-glycan-bearing endolyn are sorted apically via TGN or endosomal routes, while tyrosine- and dileucine-motif proteins like E-cadherin traffic basolaterally, with disruptions in Rab11 or exocyst components impairing this segregation and lumen formation.^[29]^[30] These polarity proteins serve as key cargo targets in these trafficking events.^[29]

Maintenance of polarity

Cell-cell junctions

Cell-cell junctions are critical structures in epithelial tissues that establish and maintain apicobasal polarity by providing mechanical adhesion, acting as diffusion barriers between apical and basolateral membrane domains, and serving as platforms for signaling cascades that reinforce polarity. These junctions form a belt-like network around the lateral surfaces of epithelial cells, coordinating cell-cell interactions and preventing the intermixing of membrane components.^[32] Tight junctions, located at the apical-most region of the lateral membrane, form a selective barrier that functions both as a fence to restrict the diffusion of lipids and proteins between the apical and basolateral domains and as a gate to regulate paracellular transport of ions and solutes. Their core composition includes transmembrane proteins such as occludin, which enhances the complexity of tight junction strands and contributes to barrier integrity, and the claudin family (over 20 members in mammals), which assembles into tetraspanin strands that determine charge- and size-selective permeability pathways, typically allowing passage of molecules up to 5-10 Å in diameter. Cytoplasmic scaffolding proteins like ZO-1 (zonula occludens-1) link these transmembrane components to the actin cytoskeleton, facilitating claudin polymerization and overall junction assembly; ZO-1 depletion disrupts tight junction formation and epithelial barrier function in model systems such as MDCK cells.^[32]^[33] Adherens junctions, positioned just basal to tight junctions, mediate calcium-dependent cell-cell adhesion and reinforce polarity by stabilizing the lateral membrane domain through linkage to the actin cytoskeleton. At their core is the E-cadherin-catenin complex, where the extracellular domain of E-cadherin forms homophilic interactions with adjacent cells, while its cytoplasmic tail binds β-catenin, which in turn associates with α-catenin to connect to F-actin filaments, thereby transmitting mechanical forces and promoting junction maturation. This complex not only provides robust lateral adhesion essential for tissue integrity during morphogenesis but also acts as a polarity cue by recruiting regulatory proteins that exclude basolateral components from the apical surface; for instance, disruption of E-cadherin in epithelial sheets leads to loss of adherens junction integrity and polarity defects.^[34]^[35] Desmosomes, distributed along the lateral membrane below adherens junctions, provide mechanical resilience to epithelial sheets by anchoring intermediate filaments (primarily keratins in epithelial cells) to sites of strong cell-cell adhesion, thereby distributing tensile forces across tissues subjected to shear stress, such as the epidermis. Composed of desmosomal cadherins (desmogleins and desmocollins) that form intercellular bridges, plaque proteins like plakoglobin and plakophilins, and desmoplakin, which directly tethers keratin filaments to the plasma membrane, desmosomes ensure structural cohesion without directly influencing apicobasal polarity but supporting overall epithelial architecture. Mutations in desmoplakin or keratin genes result in fragile tissues and polarity perturbations due to weakened anchorage, as observed in pemphigus and epidermolysis bullosa models.^[36]^[37] Beyond adhesion, cell-cell junctions serve as signaling hubs that recruit and organize polarity protein complexes to sustain epithelial organization. For example, ZO-1 at tight junctions directly interacts with the PAR complex (including PAR-3, PAR-6, and atypical PKC) via associations with junctional adhesion molecule (JAM), facilitating the apical recruitment of polarity regulators and coordinating tight junction assembly with polarity establishment; inhibition of PAR components disrupts ZO-1 localization and leads to barrier defects in mammalian epithelia. Adherens junctions similarly integrate polarity signals through E-cadherin-mediated recruitment of PAR proteins, linking adhesion to cytoskeletal dynamics that reinforce domain separation.^[38]^[39]

Cytoskeleton involvement

The actin cytoskeleton plays a crucial role in maintaining epithelial polarity by providing structural support to distinct membrane domains. In the apical domain, bundles of parallel actin filaments form the core of microvilli, which are finger-like projections that increase the surface area for absorption and secretion; these filaments are cross-linked by proteins such as villin, espin, and fimbrin, and anchored to the plasma membrane via ezrin-radixin-moesin (ERM) proteins, ensuring their stability and restriction to the apical surface. Laterally, the actin cytoskeleton organizes into a circumferential belt of contractile actomyosin fibers at the zonula adherens, which supports junctional integrity and enables dynamic contraction to regulate cell shape and barrier function during tissue homeostasis. This organization is regulated by Rho GTPases, particularly RhoA, which activates formins and ROCK to promote linear actin assembly and myosin II phosphorylation, thereby sustaining the perijunctional actomyosin ring essential for polarity maintenance. Microtubules contribute to polarity maintenance through their polarized orientation and role in directed transport. In polarized epithelial cells, non-centrosomal microtubules align along the apicobasal axis with minus ends oriented toward the apical surface and plus ends toward the basal side, a configuration stabilized by proteins like CAMSAP3 that anchor minus ends apically. This orientation facilitates vectorial vesicle trafficking, where motor proteins such as dynein (moving toward minus ends) and kinesins (e.g., KIF3A/B and KIF17, moving toward plus ends) transport polarity determinants and membrane cargoes; for instance, dynein delivers apical components like Rab11-positive endosomes to the apical domain, while kinesins direct basolateral proteins such as E-cadherin to lateral membranes, ensuring asymmetric protein distribution. The cytoskeleton dynamically remodels during epithelial morphogenesis, such as in epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), where actin stress fibers form and microtubules stabilize protrusions to drive cell migration and loss of apicobasal polarity, a process often dysregulated in cancer progression. In EMT, increased γ-actin expression and microtubule detyrosination promote invasive morphologies, linking cytoskeletal changes to polarity disruption and metastasis in epithelial-derived tumors. Additionally, the cytoskeleton interacts with polarity proteins to reinforce asymmetry; for example, PAR-3 associates with dynein via its light intermediate chain to regulate local microtubule pausing and anchoring at cell contacts, thereby stabilizing PAR complex localization and overall polarity. These cytoskeletal elements attach to cell-cell junctions as sites for force transmission, further integrating structural dynamics with intercellular adhesion.

Specialized aspects

Basal versus lateral distinctions

The basolateral domain of epithelial cells encompasses two interconnected subdomains—the basal and lateral membranes—that differ in composition and function, despite lacking a strict diffusion barrier akin to the tight junctions separating the apical and basolateral domains. This continuity allows shared lipid and protein components, but specialized features ensure distinct roles in adhesion, signaling, and transport. The basal membrane directly contacts the extracellular matrix (ECM) via integrins, forming focal adhesions that provide mechanical anchorage to the basement membrane. These integrin-ECM interactions, particularly with laminin, trigger signaling cascades involving focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and Rho GTPases, which reinforce polarity and regulate cell proliferation. Nutrient exchange is a key basal function, exemplified by basolateral glucose transporters such as GLUT2 in intestinal and renal epithelia, which facilitate glucose uptake from the bloodstream into cells for metabolic needs or trans-epithelial transport. The lateral membrane, in contrast, specializes in intercellular cohesion and communication, featuring adherens junctions rich in E-cadherin and catenins that link adjacent cells. Gap junctions, composed of connexin proteins, span the lateral membrane to enable the passage of ions, metabolites, and signaling molecules between neighboring cells, supporting coordinated tissue responses. It is also enriched in basolateral-specific ion channels, such as ClC-2 chloride channels in distal nephron epithelia, which contribute to chloride reabsorption and membrane potential maintenance. These distinctions highlight the basal subdomain's emphasis on substrate adhesion and ECM-mediated signaling versus the lateral subdomain's focus on cell-cell cohesion and intercellular exchange, with no impermeable barrier allowing functional integration within the basolateral domain. In kidney proximal tubule epithelia, for instance, Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase localizes primarily to the lateral membrane for active ion extrusion, while basal integrins handle ECM attachment, illustrating subdomain-specific contributions to vectorial transport.^[40]

Epithelial cadherin roles

E-cadherin, a key transmembrane glycoprotein in epithelial cells, features five extracellular cadherin (EC) repeats that facilitate calcium-dependent homophilic adhesion between adjacent cells, enabling the formation of stable cell-cell contacts.^[41] The extracellular domain relies on Ca²⁺ ions to promote trans-homodimerization, primarily through the EC1 motif in vertebrates, which is essential for adherens junction assembly.^[41] Intracellularly, the cytoplasmic tail of E-cadherin binds to β-catenin and p120-catenin, linking the adhesion complex to the actin cytoskeleton via α-catenin and thereby integrating mechanical forces across the epithelium.^[41] In epithelial polarity, E-cadherin is selectively recruited to lateral membranes, where it stabilizes adherens junctions and serves as a landmark for basolateral domain specification.^[42] This recruitment involves interactions with polarity regulators, including feedback mechanisms with apical complexes; for instance, the Crumbs complex protein PALS1 modulates E-cadherin trafficking to the plasma membrane, ensuring proper junctional localization and polarity establishment.^[43] Such dynamics reinforce the segregation of apical and basolateral domains by restricting diffusion of membrane components. E-cadherin functions critically in maintaining epithelial integrity by anchoring cells together and preventing the intermixing of apical and basolateral lipids and proteins, thus upholding the fence-like barrier of adherens junctions.^[44] Disruptions in E-cadherin, such as through mutations, lead to polarity defects, compromised tissue architecture, and increased cell motility, which are hallmarks of epithelial-derived cancers like gastric carcinoma.^[45] For example, loss-of-function mutations in the CDH1 gene encoding E-cadherin promote tumor invasion by destabilizing junctions and altering polarity signaling.^[46] While the focus here is on epithelial contexts, other cadherins like VE-cadherin play analogous roles in endothelial cells, where it mediates homophilic adhesion and interacts with polarity proteins to regulate vascular lumen formation and barrier function.^[47]

Influence on cell shape

Epithelial polarity profoundly dictates cell morphology by establishing distinct apical, lateral, and basal domains that generate asymmetric forces and tensions, leading to characteristic shapes such as cuboidal or columnar forms. In cuboidal epithelia, balanced domain sizes result in cells with roughly equal apical and basal surfaces, maintaining a compact, barrier-like structure typical of simple sheets, whereas columnar epithelia feature elongated basal-to-apical heights due to expanded lateral domains and restricted apical surfaces, facilitating functions like absorption or secretion. These shape variations arise from polarity-regulated adjustments in domain dimensions, where the apical domain is minimized through constriction to promote wedging, and the basal domain expands along the basement membrane to anchor and elongate cells.^[48]^[49] A key determinant of cell shape is apical constriction mediated by actomyosin contractility, which is spatially restricted to the apical domain by polarity complexes such as the Crumbs complex, transforming columnar cells into wedge-shaped structures that drive tissue bending and invagination. This process reduces the apical surface area while preserving cell volume, often coupled with basal elongation where cells extend along the basement membrane, enhancing tissue spreading and stability during morphogenesis. Domain-specific tensions further refine shape; for instance, lateral adherens junctions generate flattening forces that counteract apical constriction, ensuring coordinated sheet morphology, while polarity proteins like PAR-3 and aPKC reinforce these tensions through reciprocal exclusion mechanisms that segregate contractile elements.^[49]^[50]^[51] Polarity also provides feedback loops that sustain shape changes, particularly in lumen formation within cystic structures, where apical domain specification by Crumbs and PAR complexes directs membrane remodeling to create hollow interiors, as seen in MDCK cell cysts where oriented vesicle trafficking maintains domain integrity. Loss of polarity disrupts this feedback, leading to aberrant shapes; for example, in metaplasia, polarity cues fail, causing glandular epithelia to adopt squamous morphologies with flattened, stratified appearances as an adaptive response to chronic injury, predisposing tissues to precancerous states.^[51]^[52]^[53] In developmental contexts, polarity-driven shape changes are essential for gastrulation and organogenesis; during gastrulation, apical constriction in ventral epithelial cells facilitates mesoderm invagination in Drosophila and neural tube hinge formation in vertebrates, enabling tissue internalization. In organogenesis, such as kidney tubulogenesis or mammary gland branching, polarity coordinates transient shape shifts—like from cuboidal to elongated forms—via apical-basal axis reorientation, ensuring robust tissue architecture without loss of epithelial integrity.^[49]^[51]30013-4)

References

[1]
Apical–basal polarity and the control of epithelial form and function
Apical–basal polarity is essential for epithelial cell form and function, as it determines the localization of the adhesion molecules that hold the cells ...Missing: article | Show results with:article
[2]
Organization and execution of the epithelial polarity programme
In this Review, we discuss the interactions of the EPP and the polarized trafficking machinery and how, in turn, vesicular trafficking ...Missing: article | Show results with:article
[3]
https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-08699-0
[4]
Membrane Lipids in Epithelial Polarity: Sorting out the PIPs - PMC
May 31, 2022 · Epithelial polarity is defined by the development of distinct plasma membrane domains: the apical membrane interfacing with the exterior lumen ...
[5]
Organization and execution of the epithelial polarity programme - PMC
Epithelial cells require apical–basal plasma membrane polarity to perform crucial vectorial transport functions and cytoplasmic polarity to generate different ...
[6]
The Evolutionary Origin of Epithelial Cell-Cell Adhesion Mechanisms
A simple epithelium forms a barrier between the outside and the inside of an organism, and is the first organized multicellular tissue found in evolution.
[7]
Defining junctional complexes - PMC - NIH
Mar 28, 2005 · Farquhar and Palade (1963) defined three of them. The history of cell–cell contacts goes all the way back to the 1830s. For much of the 19th ...
[8]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4118598/
[9]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2254751/
[10]
https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.17.2.375
[11]
The PAR Proteins: Fundamental Players in Animal Cell Polarization
In 1998, the fly cell polarization gene bazooka was cloned and was found ... epithelial polarity during Drosophila embryogenesis. Dev Cell. 2004;6:845 ...
[12]
Apical protein transport and lumen morphogenesis in polarized ...
This review focuses on apical protein transport and lumen morphogenesis in polarized epithelial cells, which are crucial for tissue function.
[13]
Mechanisms behind the polarized distribution of lipids in epithelial ...
The apical plasma membrane domain of epithelial cells is typically enriched in (glyco) sphingolipids (GSL) and cholesterol (Fig. 3; Table 1). Such lipid ...
[14]
Sorting of newly synthesized galactosphingolipids to the two surface ...
The high concentration of glycosphingolipids on the apical surface of epithelial cells may be generated by selective transport from their site of synthesis ...
[15]
Role of CFTR in epithelial physiology - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
... ENaC is also expressed with CFTR at the apical membrane. ... epithelial cells express a constitutively active CFTR on both apical and basolateral membranes.Missing: lipids glycosphingolipids
[16]
Apical CFTR Expression in Human Nasal Epithelium Correlates with ...
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is caused by mutations of the CFTR gene that encodes a chloride channel predominantly expressed at the apical membrane of epithelial cells ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[17]
Proteomic analysis of the enterocyte brush border - PMC - NIH
One of the most striking features of the enterocyte brush border is the high density of microvilli that extend off the apical surface into the intestinal lumen.
[18]
Recent advances in understanding and managing cystic fibrosis ...
Mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene affect multiple organs, including the intestine, sweat glands, pancreas and ...Cftr Mutations · Table 1. Cftr Gene Mutation... · New Treatments
[19]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3094140/
[20]
Polarized sorting and trafficking in epithelial cells - Nature
Apr 24, 2012 · This review will describe the molecular mechanisms of polarized sorting by which epithelial surface polarity is established and maintained.Trafficking Routes In... · Apical Sorting Mechanisms · Generation Of Apical...
[21]
The building blocks for basolateral vesicles in polarized epithelial cells
AP-1B decodes a subclass of basolateral sorting signals and localizes to the recycling endosomes as opposed to the trans-Golgi network, suggesting that this is ...
[22]
https://www.nature.com/articles/cr201264
[23]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15817379/
[24]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31208048
[25]
https://doi.org/10.1152/ajprenal.00615.2010
[26]
https://doi.org/10.1038/35019582
[27]
Trafficking to the Apical and Basolateral Membranes in Polarized ...
This review summarizes our current understanding of apical and basolateral trafficking routes in polarized epithelial cells.
[28]
Polarized endocytic transport: The roles of Rab11 and Rab11-FIPs ...
This mini-review describes the recent advances in identifying and characterizing the role of Rab11 and its effector proteins that play important roles in ...
[29]
Regulation of Cell Polarity by Exocyst-Mediated Trafficking - PMC
In this review, we will focus on the role and regulation of the exocyst complex in targeted vesicular trafficking as related to the establishment and ...
[30]
A short guide to the tight junction - PMC - PubMed Central
May 7, 2024 · Tight junctions (TJs) are specialized regions of contact between cells of epithelial and endothelial tissues that form selective semipermeable paracellular ...
[31]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5587355/
[32]
Dynamics of adherens junctions in epithelial establishment ...
Mar 21, 2011 · The epithelial cadherin (E-cadherin)–catenin complex binds to cytoskeletal components and regulatory and signaling molecules to form a ...
[33]
E‐Cadherin/β‐Catenin Complex and the Epithelial Barrier - Tian
This paper focuses on the role of E-cadherin/β-catenin protein complexes in forming the epithelial barrier and discusses the effects of dysregulating the ...
[34]
Desmosomes and Intermediate Filaments: Their Consequences for ...
The desmosome–keratin scaffold provides robust mechanical stability to epithelial tissues. It may be actively involved in mechanosensing and in the conversion ...
[35]
Full article: Structural and Functional Diversity of Desmosomes
Abstract. Desmosomes anchor intermediate filaments at sites of cell contact established by the interaction of cadherins extending from opposing cells.
[36]
Polarity proteins regulate mammalian cell-cell junctions and cancer ...
Par complex proteins also interact with the basolateral polarity proteins. For example, aPKC phosphorylates and inactivates Lgl [8-10] and Lgl is required for ...Missing: seminal | Show results with:seminal
[37]
Requirement of ZO-1 for the formation of belt-like adherens junctions ...
Mar 12, 2007 · We propose that ZO-1 is directly involved in the establishment of two distinct junctional domains, belt-like AJs and TJs, during epithelial polarization.
[38]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2760155/
[39]
Dynamics and functions of E-cadherin complexes in epithelial cell ...
Nov 24, 2023 · E-cadherin–catenin complexes mediate Ca2+-dependent trans-homodimerization and constitute the kernel of adherens junctions.
[40]
Cell polarity triggered by cell-cell adhesion via E-cadherin - PMC
Epithelial cell-cell contact that is mediated by epithelial (E)-cadherin is required for proper establishment of apical-basal polarity (Wang et al., 1990 ...
[41]
PALS1 Regulates E-Cadherin Trafficking in Mammalian Epithelial ...
We think the depletion of PALS1 disrupted the trafficking of E-cadherin to the cell periphery. This is the first report that PALS1 is involved in the regulation ...
[42]
Adherens Junction and E-Cadherin complex regulation by epithelial ...
We propose that by regulating key phosphorylation events on the core E-Cadherin complex components, Par3 and epithelial polarity promote meta-stable protein ...
[43]
Epithelial cell polarity and tumorigenesis: new perspectives for ...
Apr 18, 2011 · The characteristic polarization of epithelial cells is obtained by an asymmetric distribution of cellular components along the internal ...
[44]
Large-scale analysis of CDH1 mutations defines a distinctive ...
Sep 30, 2024 · Loss of E-cadherin expression is associated with enhanced cellular migration, leading to rapid dissemination of cancer cells in the early stages ...
[45]
The role of VE-cadherin in vascular morphogenesis and ... - PubMed
VE-cadherin is an endothelial-specific cadherin that is essential for the formation and regulation of endothelial cell junctions.
[46]
Interplay of cell shapes and oriented cell divisions promotes robust ...
Epithelial cells acquire functionally important shapes (e.g., squamous, cuboidal, columnar) during development. Here we combine theory, quantitative imaging, ...
[47]
Epithelial polarity and morphogenesis - ScienceDirect.com
In this review, we consider the relationship between epithelial polarity factors and the cell shape changes underlying morphogenesis.
[48]
Apical domain polarization localizes actin-myosin activity to ... - NIH
Apical constriction bends epithelia by transforming columnar cells to a wedge shape. During Drosophila gastrulation, the apical constriction of presumptive ...
[49]
Polarity in Mammalian Epithelial Morphogenesis - PubMed Central
Cell polarity is fundamental for the architecture and function of epithelial tissues. Epithelial polarization requires the intervention of several fundamental ...
[50]
Aberrant epithelial polarity cues drive the development of ... - PNAS
Apr 26, 2021 · Our study demonstrates that loss of airway epithelial polarity is a driver of the precancerous state, and we identify intrinsic and paracrine ...
[51]
Squamous Cell Metaplasia - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Squamous cell metaplasia is defined as the process in which glandular epithelium transforms into squamous epithelium, typically occurring in the ...