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Exorcist

An exorcist is a cleric, typically a priest within the Catholic Church, tasked with performing the sacramental rite of exorcism to expel demons or evil spirits from individuals believed to be possessed by malevolent supernatural forces.^[1] This role involves invoking the authority of Jesus Christ through structured prayers and rituals aimed at liberating the afflicted person from demonic influence.^[2] In the Catholic tradition, the appointment to the office of exorcist is made by the diocesan bishop, who may designate a priest either on a stable basis or for a specific instance (ad actum).^[1] Historically, the exorcist was one of the four minor orders of the Church, with the earliest documented reference appearing in a c. 251 AD letter from Pope Cornelius to Fabius of Antioch, which noted the presence of exorcists among the Roman clergy, with exorcists, lectors, and doorkeepers numbering fifty-two in total.^[3] This minor order, alongside porter, lector, and acolyte, served as a step in clerical formation, where the exorcist was empowered to perform minor exorcisms, such as those during baptisms, to renounce Satan.^[4] Following the Second Vatican Council, Pope Paul VI suppressed the minor orders in 1972 via the motu proprio Ministeria quaedam, transforming them into lay ministries of lector and acolyte, while the exorcist role shifted to an episcopal appointment reserved for priests to ensure proper oversight and expertise.^[5] The modern Rite of Exorcism, formally revised and approved by the Catholic Church in 1999, provides a detailed protocol that emphasizes discernment, requiring exorcists to collaborate with medical and psychological professionals to rule out natural causes like mental illness before proceeding.^[6] Exorcists undergo specialized training, often through organizations like the International Association of Exorcists founded in 1994, and approach their ministry with serenity and confidence in divine power, countering popular media depictions of fear and drama.^[7] While most prominent in Catholicism, similar practices exist in other Christian denominations, such as Anglican and Orthodox traditions, as well as in non-Christian religions like Islam (ruqyah) and Judaism (historical incantations), though the Catholic framework remains the most codified and publicly documented.^[1]

Overview and History

Definition and Role

An exorcist is a specialist in religious or spiritual traditions who is trained or appointed to conduct exorcisms, which are rituals designed to expel malevolent spirits, demons, or other supernatural entities from afflicted individuals, locations, or objects. This role presupposes a belief in spiritual possession as a real phenomenon, where harmful forces invade and disrupt the natural order, necessitating intervention through sacred authority. Across various cultures, the exorcist serves as a mediator between the physical world and the spiritual realm, invoking divine power to restore harmony and protect the vulnerable.^[8] The primary responsibilities of an exorcist include diagnosing potential possession—often distinguishing it from medical or psychological conditions—preparing ritually for the confrontation, and executing commands, prayers, or invocations to compel the entity to depart. Emphasis is placed on the exorcist's personal qualities, such as unwavering faith, moral purity, and spiritual resilience, which are seen as essential for safeguarding both the practitioner and the possessed during the process. In many traditions, the exorcist also provides ongoing protection and counsel to prevent recurrence, underscoring their role not only as a healer but as a guardian of communal spiritual well-being.^[1] Exorcists can be formal religious officials, such as appointed priests in Christianity who require episcopal authorization for major rites, raqis (practitioners of ruqyah) in Islam who recite Quranic verses to expel jinn, or shamans in indigenous and folk traditions who enter trances to negotiate with or banish spirits. Lay individuals may also assume this role in some contexts, particularly where formal clergy are unavailable. Distinctions exist between major exorcisms, addressing full demonic possession, and minor ones, involving blessings or preventive prayers against evil influences. Universal prerequisites include a divine calling, rigorous training, or initiation rites to ensure efficacy and safety.^[1]^[9]^[10]

Historical Origins

The term "exorcist" derives from the Greek word exorkistḗs, meaning "one who binds by oath," referring to the practice of adjuring evil spirits through divine names or oaths to compel their departure.^[11] This etymology underscores the ritual's emphasis on authoritative invocation rather than mere expulsion, a concept rooted in ancient oaths and magical bindings. The earliest documented practices resembling exorcism appear in Mesopotamian texts from around 2000 BCE, where incantations and rituals were used by āšipu priests to counteract demons causing illness or misfortune, as seen in cuneiform tablets detailing apotropaic spells against malevolent entities like Lamashtu.^[12] Similarly, ancient Egyptian sources from the same period, such as the Pyramid Texts and medical papyri, describe exorcistic rites involving amulets, spells, and invocations to deities like Bes and Taweret to ward off or expel demons afflicting the body or household.^[13] In the Greco-Roman world, figures like the semi-legendary Cretan sage Epimenides (c. 6th century BCE) performed purification rituals in Athens to end a plague attributed to spiritual pollution, using sacrifices and oaths to cleanse the city, as recorded by later historians. Biblical texts provide foundational examples in the Abrahamic tradition. In the Old Testament, 1 Samuel 16:14-23 describes an evil spirit tormenting King Saul, which is alleviated by David's harp music, interpreted by some scholars as an early form of exorcistic soothing. The New Testament amplifies this with accounts of Jesus casting out demons, such as the unclean spirit in a Capernaum synagogue in Mark 1:23-27, and the apostles continuing these acts, establishing exorcism as a sign of divine authority. By the 3rd century CE, early Christian communities formalized exorcism within church rituals, particularly during baptismal preparations to renounce pagan influences, drawing from Jewish apotropaic traditions like protective incantations in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Hellenistic mystery cults' use of divine names for spirit control.^[14]^[15] In medieval Europe, the role expanded institutionally amid recurring plagues and the 15th-17th century witch hunts, where exorcists were appointed to combat perceived demonic possessions linked to societal crises; this culminated in the 1614 Rituale Romanum, which standardized Catholic exorcistic procedures under Pope Paul V to ensure uniformity and ecclesiastical oversight.^[15]

Exorcists in Abrahamic Religions

Christianity

In Christianity, the theological basis for exorcism stems from Jesus Christ's authority over demons, as evidenced in the New Testament where he commissioned his apostles to cast out unclean spirits, such as in Matthew 10:1, which states, "And he called to him his twelve disciples and gave them authority over unclean spirits, to cast them out, and to heal every disease and every affliction." This authority is understood to extend to the Church, viewing demonic possession primarily as oppression or influence by evil spirits rather than always a complete indwelling, distinguishing it from mental or physical ailments that must first be ruled out.^[1]^[16] Within Catholicism, exorcists are formally appointed by diocesan bishops, and solemn exorcisms are restricted to trained priests who have received explicit permission, following a mandatory psychological and medical evaluation to exclude natural causes of distress.^[1]^[17] A prominent historical figure in this tradition is Father Gabriele Amorth (1925–2016), the chief exorcist of the Diocese of Rome, who claimed to have conducted over 70,000 exorcisms during his ministry, emphasizing the rarity of genuine possession cases.^[18] In Eastern Orthodoxy, exorcisms are performed by priests using established prayers to invoke Christ's power against evil, often incorporating the Great Blessing of Water—a rite dating to the third century that sanctifies water for baptismal and protective use against demonic influence.^[19] This practice aligns with Orthodox theology's focus on theosis, the process of human deification through union with God, which frames exorcism as part of broader spiritual warfare to restore divine likeness disrupted by the Fall.^[19]^[20] Protestant denominations generally lack formal exorcists, opting instead for deliverance through prayer; for instance, Lutherans and Anglicans emphasize supplicatory prayers led by clergy or trained laity to confront demonic oppression, drawing from scriptural precedents without elaborate rituals.^[21]^[22] In contrast, Pentecostal and charismatic groups highlight lay-led deliverance ministries, where believers actively engage in casting out spirits via direct commands in Jesus' name, viewing it as an accessible extension of apostolic ministry.^[23] Key organizations supporting Christian exorcists include the International Association of Exorcists, founded in 1994 by Father Gabriele Amorth and other priests to foster training and collaboration among practitioners.^[24] Complementing this, the Vatican's 1999 guidelines revised the 1614 Roman Ritual, modernizing prayers and procedures while reaffirming the Church's authority over evil, ensuring exorcisms remain a liturgical act under episcopal oversight.^[25]

Islam

In Islamic tradition, exorcism is primarily conducted through ruqyah, a form of spiritual healing involving the recitation of specific Quranic verses and supplications to seek protection from or expulsion of jinn, supernatural beings believed capable of possessing humans. The term raqi refers to the practitioner who performs ruqyah, acting as a reciter of divine words rather than an intermediary with special powers. This practice is rooted in the example of Prophet Muhammad, who performed exorcisms by reciting verses such as those from Surah Al-Falaq (113) and Surah An-Nas (114), which invoke refuge in God from evil whispers and harms, including those from jinn.^[26]^[27] The role of a raqi emphasizes accessibility, as any devout Muslim with sufficient knowledge of the Quran and Hadith can perform ruqyah, though specialists—often trained imams or scholars—handle complex cases after formal study in Islamic seminaries. Qualifications prioritize piety, strong faith in tawhid (the oneness of God), and avoidance of shirk (polytheism), ensuring the practice counters possessions influenced by jinn drawn to deviations from monotheism. Unlike hierarchical systems in other faiths, ruqyah democratizes healing, with the raqi serving as a facilitator of God's mercy rather than an authoritative exorcist.^[28]^[29]^[30] Historically, ruqyah emerged in 7th-century Arabia during the Prophet's time, where it addressed afflictions like evil eye and jinn interference through scriptural recitation, as documented in Hadith collections. By the medieval period, scholars like Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980–1037 CE) approached conditions potentially attributed to jinn through medical lenses in works such as Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb, treating them as psychological or physiological issues with herbal remedies and philosophical counseling to restore balance, reflecting Islam's holistic view of health while emphasizing rational explanations over supernatural causes.^[27]^[31]^[32] In modern contexts, ruqyah remains prevalent across Muslim-majority countries, from Indonesia to Morocco, where clinics and centers offer it as complementary therapy for spiritual and physical ailments. Organizations such as the Darussyifa' Islamic Treatment Center in Malaysia provide structured ruqyah services, training raqi's and documenting cases to promote ethical practices. Ongoing debates among scholars and health professionals focus on differentiating jinn possession—marked by sudden behavioral changes unresponsive to medicine—from mental illnesses like schizophrenia, advocating integrated care that combines ruqyah with psychiatric evaluation to avoid misdiagnosis.^[33]^[34]^[35] Key ruqyah practices center on non-violent recitation of Quranic ayat (verses), such as Ayat al-Kursi (Quran 2:255), and dhikr (remembrance of God through phrases like "La ilaha illallah"), often performed over water, oil, or directly on the afflicted person to invoke divine protection. These methods explicitly prohibit physical harm, beating, or coercive tactics, aligning with prophetic guidance that healing derives solely from God's words, fostering a gentle, faith-based resolution to possession.^[36]^[37]^[27]

Judaism

In Jewish mysticism, spirit possession is primarily understood through the concepts of the dybbuk, a restless soul of the deceased seeking refuge due to unresolved sins or incomplete atonement, and shedim, malevolent demons that can afflict the living.^[38] The dybbuk originates from Kabbalistic notions of gilgul (reincarnation or soul transmigration), where a sinful soul clings to a living host, as elaborated in the Zohar, the foundational text of Kabbalah.^[39] Talmudic references to shedim underscore their presence in the world, warning of their influence during vulnerable times, such as at night or in pairs, as discussed in the Babylonian Talmud, Pesachim 110a.^[40] Historically, exorcisms were conducted by ba'alei shem (masters of the divine name), Jewish mystics skilled in practical Kabbalah who wielded spiritual authority against possessions.^[41] A prominent figure was Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm (c. 1550–1630), renowned for his use of sacred names to expel spirits and protect communities from supernatural threats.^[42] In the 16th century, kabbalists in Safed, such as Isaac Luria and Hayyim Vital, documented and performed dybbuk exorcisms, viewing them as opportunities for the possessing soul's redemption through ritual intervention.^[43] The role of the Jewish exorcist, often a rabbi or kabbalist, involves invoking divine names from sacred texts, employing amulets (kameot) inscribed with protective inscriptions, and reciting incantations to weaken the spirit's hold.^[44] The process typically includes questioning the possessing entity to ascertain its identity and motives—whether a dybbuk or shedim—before commanding its expulsion, emphasizing compassion to facilitate the spirit's ascent rather than mere destruction.^[38] This ethical approach aims at the soul's tikkun (rectification), distinguishing Jewish practice from more adversarial confrontations in other traditions. Key texts like Sefer Raziel HaMalakh, a medieval grimoire attributed to angelic transmission, provide formulas for amulets and invocations used in protective rituals against demonic forces.^[45] These elements underscore the kabbalistic focus on harnessing divine power for both expulsion and spiritual healing. In modern times, dybbuk exorcisms are rare in Reform Judaism, which largely rejects supernatural explanations in favor of psychological interpretations.^[46] They persist more frequently in Orthodox and Hasidic communities, where rabbis continue traditional rituals.^[47] In Israel, some practitioners integrate these ceremonies with psychotherapy, addressing potential mental health factors while honoring cultural beliefs.^[48]

Exorcists in Other Religious Traditions

Hinduism

In Hindu traditions, possession is conceptualized as the influence of malevolent entities such as bhūtas (ghosts), pretas (unquiet or hungry spirits), piśācas (flesh-eating demons), and asuras (demons or anti-gods), which disrupt human life due to unresolved karma or improper post-death rites.^[49] These beliefs are rooted in ancient Vedic texts and later Puranic literature, where the Atharvaveda includes charms against demonic forces causing illness and unrest, while the Garuḍa Purāṇa details the afterlife journey and the formation of restless spirits from unfulfilled obligations or sinful actions, leading to possession if ancestral rites (śrāddha) are neglected.^[50]^[51] The role of exorcists traces back to the Atharvaveda (circa 1200–1000 BCE), where atharvan priests specialized in protective rituals and spells to expel harmful spirits and restore balance, viewing possession as a form of supernatural affliction intertwined with physical and moral disorder.^[52] By the medieval period, tantric traditions expanded these practices through esoteric texts like the Mantra Mahodadhi (16th century CE), a comprehensive Sanskrit work by Mahidhara that outlines mantra-based methods for countering demonic influences, emphasizing the practitioner's ritual purity and invocation of deities to neutralize possessing entities.^[53] Exorcists in Hinduism, known as tantrikas (tantric specialists trained in esoteric rites), ojhās (folk healers using herbal and invocatory techniques), and pandits (Vedic scholars performing scriptural rituals), address possession through deity-mediated interventions that aim to appease or banish spirits based on karmic resolutions.^[54] In rural areas, women often serve as mediums or healers, channeling divine energy to confront spirits, reflecting a gendered dimension where female practitioners draw on śākta (goddess-centered) traditions for empowerment in exorcistic roles.^[55] Practices vary regionally and by caste, with southern traditions like Kerala's tantric pūjās—performed by nambūtiri Brahmin priests in temple settings—focusing on elaborate śākta rituals to invoke fierce deities for spirit expulsion, distinct from the more folk-oriented approaches in other areas.^[56] In eastern regions such as Bengal, tantric exorcisms integrate local cosmology with rituals addressing bhūta influences, often involving community appeasement ceremonies that differ from the dramatic possession dances (kōla) seen in Tulu Nadu's bhūta cults, highlighting caste-specific adaptations like lower-caste shamans in rural performances versus elite pandit-led rites.^[57]^[58] In modern contexts, Hindu exorcistic practices increasingly blend with Ayurveda, where possession symptoms are treated holistically through herbal remedies and lifestyle adjustments alongside spiritual rites, viewing afflictions as imbalances in doshas exacerbated by supernatural factors.^[59] Urbanization has contributed to a decline in these traditions among city dwellers, who favor scientific explanations and medical interventions, yet they persist in rural villages where faith healing remains integral to community life and cultural identity.^[60]

Buddhism

In Buddhist doctrine, possession is often interpreted as an illusory influence stemming from Mara, the personification of temptation, doubt, and mental defilements that obstruct enlightenment, or from pretas, known as hungry ghosts, who may enter human bodies and induce madness or distress due to their insatiable cravings.^[61]^[62] Unlike confrontational approaches, Buddhism emphasizes mindfulness and insight meditation to transcend these influences, viewing them as manifestations of karma and inner turmoil rather than external entities requiring forceful expulsion.^[63] Practitioners serving as exorcists in Buddhist traditions include monks and lamas in Theravada and Vajrayana contexts, who conduct protective rites to alleviate spiritual afflictions. In Tibetan Vajrayana, ngakpas—non-monastic tantric yogins—specialize in performing rituals to pacify or transform harmful spirits, drawing on esoteric practices to benefit afflicted individuals.^[64] These roles stem from shared Indic roots with Hinduism but prioritize non-dual awareness and compassion over ritualistic appeasement.^[65] Historically, such practices trace back to the 8th century when Padmasambhava, invited to Tibet, subdued local malevolent spirits and bound them as protectors of the Dharma, facilitating the establishment of Buddhism in the region.^[66] This event exemplifies early Vajrayana efforts to integrate and transform pre-existing spiritual forces rather than eradicate them. Key practices include the Chöd ceremony in Vajrayana, where practitioners visualize offering their own bodies as a feast to spirits and demons, severing ego-clinging and fulfilling the ghosts' needs through profound generosity.^[67] In Theravada traditions, paritta chanting—recitation of protective discourses from the Pali Canon—invokes blessings to shield against malevolent influences, often performed in communal settings to foster safety and mental clarity.^[68] In contemporary settings, Buddhist exorcistic rites remain active in Sri Lanka, where monks integrate possession rituals with counseling to address mental health issues influenced by cultural beliefs in spirits.^[69] Similarly, in Thailand, former monks conduct spirit expulsion ceremonies for those attributing illness to supernatural causes, blending traditional healing with modern psychological support. The Dalai Lama has noted that while spirits may disrupt wind energy leading to illness, such disturbances often reflect karmic patterns best resolved through ethical living and meditation, underscoring a psychological dimension.^[70]^[71]

Indigenous and Folk Practices

In indigenous and folk traditions worldwide, shamans act as intermediaries between the physical and spiritual realms, often performing exorcistic rites to diagnose and expel harmful spirits believed to cause illness, misfortune, or social discord. These practitioners, varying by cultural context, rely on oral knowledge passed through generations rather than formalized scriptures, emphasizing direct communion with ancestors and nature spirits. In Siberian and Central Asian shamanism, figures known as kam or baksy enter altered states of consciousness to confront and remove intrusive entities from the afflicted, restoring balance to the community.^[72] Similarly, among Native American tribes such as the Navajo and Lakota, shamans conduct extraction rituals to purge malevolent spirits or objects inserted via sorcery, using songs, herbs, and symbolic tools to facilitate soul retrieval and healing.^[73] In African contexts, Zulu sangomas exemplify this role through their ukuthwasa initiation process, a transformative ordeal where initiates learn to channel ancestral spirits (amadlozi) and perform divinations to identify possessions, followed by rituals involving herbs, incantations, and communal dances to expel disruptive entities.^[74] Among the Yoruba of Nigeria, babalawos employ the Ifá divination system—recognized by UNESCO for its role in guiding life decisions—to detect abiku spirits, restless child entities that repeatedly reincarnate and die young, prescribing ebo sacrifices and protective charms to sever their cycle and prevent further harm.^[75] In the Philippines, albularyo healers blend pre-colonial animism with Catholic influences, using herbal poultices, whispered orasyon prayers, and ritual manipulations to drive out usog (evil eye spirits) or other supernatural afflictions during community-gathered ceremonies.^[76] Australian Aboriginal clever men (kadaitcha or ngangkari) draw on songlines—sacred oral maps of the land—to invoke totemic ancestors and realign disrupted spiritual energies, healing individuals by addressing imbalances caused by malevolent beings like the Mimi spirits.^[77] Across these traditions, common elements include induced trance states via rhythmic drumming, chanting, or dance to access the spirit world; alliances with animal familiars, such as wolves in Siberian lore or eagles in Native American practices, which aid in spirit combat; and strong community involvement, where witnesses provide support and witness the resolution to reinforce social cohesion.^[78] These practices faced severe historical suppression during 19th-century colonialism, particularly in the Americas, where European settlers equated indigenous shamans with witches, leading to forced conversions, executions, and cultural erasure through missions and laws criminalizing native rituals.^[79] In contemporary times, globalization has spurred revival movements, blending traditional methods with modern contexts like urban healing centers, while UNESCO's 2011 inscription of the jaguar shamans' knowledge among the Barasana and Yani Yuhana peoples of Colombia as intangible cultural heritage underscores efforts to preserve these practices against ongoing marginalization.^[80]

Practices and Modern Views

Ritual Procedures

Exorcism rituals typically begin with a preparation phase focused on discernment to confirm possession. This involves evaluating symptoms to distinguish supernatural influence from natural causes.^[1] The exorcist undergoes personal purification, often through fasting, prayer, or confession, to achieve spiritual fortitude and protection against potential backlash.^[81] The ritual site is prepared according to established protocols to safeguard participants.^[82] In the core procedures, the exorcist invokes higher powers through recitations or supplications to establish authority over the entity.^[83] This is followed by adjuration, a direct command for the spirit to depart, often repeated to weaken its hold. Sacred objects are employed, including holy water for sprinkling and relics for intercession.^[84] Tools and symbols vary but commonly include protective amulets like crosses in Abrahamic practices or yantras in Eastern traditions, incense for atmospheric cleansing, and the rhythmic repetition of sacred texts or mantras to exhaust and expel the entity.^[85] The ritual concludes with sealing the expulsion, such as anointing the afflicted with oils or blessed substances to restore normalcy and close vulnerabilities. Follow-up blessings or protective rites are administered to prevent recurrence, often involving ongoing monitoring. Safety protocols emphasize non-violence toward the possessed, prioritizing restraint over aggression, while acknowledging historical risks like physical exhaustion for the exorcist or intensified spiritual opposition from the entity.^[86] In January 2025, the International Association of Exorcists released clarifications on performing exorcisms correctly, including 10 guidelines and 9 practices to avoid, such as unauthorized rituals or reliance on non-liturgical methods, amid reports of increased requests for exorcisms in recent years.^[87]

Psychological and Scientific Perspectives

From a psychological perspective, symptoms attributed to demonic possession, such as altered voices, convulsions, and identity shifts, are often interpreted as manifestations of dissociative identity disorder (DID), schizophrenia, or historical notions of hysteria. In DID, individuals may experience distinct personality states that could be misconstrued as external entities taking control, leading to behaviors resembling possession episodes.^[88] Similarly, schizophrenia can involve hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech that align with possession narratives, while hysteria—now largely reclassified under somatic symptom disorders—involved dramatic emotional displays once linked to supernatural influences. Sigmund Freud's 1923 analysis of a 17th-century case exemplified this by framing demonological experiences as neurotic symptoms rooted in paternal conflict and repressed desires, rather than literal possession.^[89] These models emphasize trauma, suggestibility, and cultural scripting as drivers of such phenomena, with empirical studies showing possession-like states emerging in therapeutic contexts mimicking ritual settings.^[90] Medically, historical cases of alleged possession have frequently been misdiagnosed instances of epilepsy or Tourette's syndrome, where seizures or involuntary tics were interpreted through supernatural lenses. For example, temporal lobe epilepsy can produce auras, automatisms, and ecstatic or terrifying visions that parallel possession accounts, as seen in documented 20th-century evaluations where anticonvulsant treatments resolved symptoms previously deemed demonic.^[91] Tourette's syndrome, with its sudden vocalizations and motor outbursts, has similarly been conflated with possession in pre-modern records, though modern diagnostics distinguish these as neurological disorders. The World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) explicitly excludes supernatural causes for mental and behavioral disorders, classifying them instead under biomedical categories like epilepsy (8A60) or tic disorders (8A05), underscoring a commitment to empirical etiology over spiritual explanations.^[92] One historical case involved a 17th-century painter whose seizures and visions were later analyzed as epileptic psychosis.^[93] Scientific investigations into possession have explored trance states as forms of altered consciousness, with anthropologist Felicitas Goodman's research in the 1970s and 1980s demonstrating how ritual body postures induce ecstatic trances that mimic possession, involving physiological changes like hyperventilation and dissociation without invoking supernatural agents.^[94] Her field studies across cultures, including Pentecostal and Umbanda groups, linked these states to neurobiological shifts in brain activity, treatable through contextual interventions rather than exorcism.^[95] In the 1980s, the Vatican initiated collaborations with psychiatrists to differentiate genuine psychiatric conditions from potential spiritual cases, establishing protocols that required medical evaluations prior to any ritual, as part of broader efforts to integrate empirical assessment into ecclesiastical practices.^[96] Skeptical analyses, such as those by James Randi, have debunked numerous possession claims as fraudulent performances or misattributions, using controlled demonstrations to replicate "supernatural" feats through sleight-of-hand or psychological manipulation, as in his exposures of faith healers whose "exorcisms" relied on staged convulsions.^[97] Cultural relativism further explains how belief systems amplify symptoms via placebo and nocebo effects; in communities where possession is normalized, expectancy can heighten dissociative experiences, while skepticism reduces them, illustrating the role of social context in symptom expression.^[98] These effects operate through neurochemical pathways, such as dopamine release for positive expectations or stress hormones for negative ones, underscoring how cultural narratives shape physiological responses without requiring paranormal validation.^[99] In contemporary integration approaches, mental health evaluations are mandated before exorcism rituals to rule out treatable conditions, aligning with American Psychiatric Association guidelines in the DSM-5 that include a category for "Other Specified Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorder" to address culturally influenced presentations like possession trances, while cautioning against pathologizing benign religious experiences.^[100] This framework, echoed in Vatican directives since the 1999 rite revisions, promotes multidisciplinary teams comprising psychiatrists and clergy to ensure ethical care, preventing iatrogenic harm from unaddressed medical issues.^[101]

Cultural Depictions

The portrayal of exorcists in literature dates back to medieval texts that intertwined demonology with inquisitorial authority. The Malleus Maleficarum (1486), a treatise attributed to Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, dedicates a section to remedies against witchcraft, including detailed instructions for exorcisms to expel demons from possessed individuals, often framing exorcists as vigilant inquisitors combating maleficium.^[102] This work influenced subsequent European writings on possession, emphasizing the exorcist's role in judicial and spiritual warfare. In the 19th century, gothic novels expanded these themes, depicting exorcists amid psychological torment and supernatural dread; for instance, Matthew Gregory Lewis's The Monk (1796) features clerical figures confronting demonic forces, foreshadowing modern horror archetypes. The 20th-century novel The Exorcist by William Peter Blatty (1971) marked a pivotal literary milestone, drawing from the 1949 exorcism of a boy known as Roland Doe in St. Louis, Missouri, to portray Jesuit priests as resolute yet vulnerable combatants against possession.^[103] Adapted into the 1973 film directed by William Friedkin, it popularized horror tropes of tormented exorcists, such as Father Damien Karras's internal crisis and physical ordeal, grossing over $440 million worldwide and shaping cinematic expectations of ritual confrontation.^[104] Non-fiction works like Malachi Martin's Hostage to the Devil (1976) further depicted real-life exorcists through case studies of five possessions, presenting them as modern spiritual warriors and influencing perceptions of the rite's intensity.^[105] Artistic representations of exorcists trace to Renaissance depictions of saintly figures enduring demonic assaults, symbolizing faith's triumph. Michelangelo's early panel The Torment of Saint Anthony (c. 1487–1488) illustrates the hermit's resistance to infernal creatures, evoking exorcistic resilience without explicit ritual.^[106] Later works, such as Martin Schongauer's engraving Saint Anthony Tormented by Demons (c. 1470–1475), portray the saint amid grotesque demons, reinforcing the exorcist archetype as a serene defender against chaos. In contemporary media, comics like Mike Mignola's Hellboy series (1993–present) feature exorcist-like characters, such as B.P.R.D. agent Ashley Strode in The Exorcist storyline (2012), blending pulp adventure with occult confrontation to explore themes of otherworldly authority.^[107] Global media adaptations reflect localized exorcist figures, adapting Western tropes to indigenous contexts. In Bollywood's Bhoot (2003), directed by Ram Gopal Varma, a possessed woman prompts intervention by a tantric practitioner akin to an ojha, merging Hindu ritual elements with The Exorcist-inspired possession for a culturally resonant horror narrative that grossed over ₹18 crore in India.^[108] Such portrayals extend to tourism, as seen with the Amityville Horror house in New York, site of alleged 1975 hauntings dramatized in Jay Anson's 1977 book and 1979 film, which annually attracts paranormal enthusiasts despite address changes to curb visitors.^[109] Recent films continue this trend, with The Exorcism (2024) starring Russell Crowe as a troubled actor unraveling during a horror shoot, blending meta-commentary on possession tropes with psychological horror. Upcoming is The Ritual (2025), depicting the true story of the United States' most-documented exorcism and starring Al Pacino, further exploring real-life cases in cinematic form.^[110]^[111] These depictions have profoundly shaped societal views, often reinforcing stereotypes of exorcists as dramatic saviors while occasionally offering educational glimpses into religious practices. Films like The Exorcist contributed to the 1980s Satanic Panic, amplifying fears of demonic influence and prompting real-world exorcism requests, yet they also sparked discussions on faith's role in adversity.^[112] Reality television, such as A&E's Paranormal State (2007–2011), which investigated over 100 cases involving alleged possessions and featured exorcist consultations, blurred entertainment with purported authenticity, fostering public fascination but critiqued for sensationalizing spiritual interventions.^[113] Overall, these cultural narratives balance reinforcement of supernatural dread with limited insight into exorcism's theological depth, influencing global perceptions from fear to curiosity.^[114]

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Egyptian Demons and Magic: Exorcising Evil Spirits | Ancient Origins
Jun 24, 2021 · Both texts, the Voyage of Wenamun and the Bentresh Stela, use a similar technical magical word for the process of expelling the demon. This is ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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“Exorcism. I. Ancient Near East and Hebrew Bible/Old Testament,” in ...
This encyclopedia entry on exorcism explores its roots in the Ancient Near East and the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, focusing specifically on magical ...
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Catholic exorcisms are real—and they have an ancient history
Apr 18, 2023 · In 1614, Rituale Romanum was instituted and remained largely unchanged through the first half of the 20th century. It included De Exorcismis et ...
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What does the Bible say about demonic oppression? - Got Questions
Apr 17, 2025 · What does the Bible say about demonic oppression? What is the difference between being demon possessed and demon oppressed?
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Deliver Us from Evil: The purpose and practice of exorcisms in the ...
Apr 20, 2023 · For that reason, the Catholic Church requires that the person(s) claiming to be “possessed” must submit to a full psychological evaluation ...
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How the Real Gabriele Amorth Fought Demons as the Pope's Exorcist
Aug 21, 2023 · Despite performing an absurdly high number of exorcisms—once claiming as many as 160,000—Amorth said fewer than 100 involved true demonic ...
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Exorcism - Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America
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Possession and Exorcism: What Do Orthodox Christians Believe?
Feb 19, 2025 · Orthodox Christians believe the Devil is a personal presence, possession is possible, and exorcism is a healing ministry rooted in Christ, ...
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Exorcism as Mercy - The Lutheran Witness
Aug 2, 2011 · In the case of Lutheran's, I would recommend getting permission of eclesiastical authority before performing a exorcism. Just remember that ...
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Exorcism - The Episcopal Church
More commonly, spiritual cleansing and deliverance is the practice of those who pray, “Deliver us from evil.” Glossary definitions provided courtesy of Church ...
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Deliverance Ministry, the History of Exorcists, and How to Minister ...
Deliverance ministry is a Christian practice concentrated on casting out or ridding people of demons or evil spirits because they are causing harm or diverting ...
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Vatican formally recognizes international association of exorcists
Jul 3, 2014 · The International Association of Exorcists is headquartered in Rome and was co-founded by Amorth and the French exorcist, Fr. Rene Chenessau.
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Prefect for Divine Worship on the New Rite of Exorcism | EWTN
The chapter with instructions and the liturgical text of the exorcisms in the Roman Ritual was written in 1614 ... "For these reasons, the whole of human history ...
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What is Ruqyah in Islam and how to Perform For Protection?
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[PDF] ruqyah in the qur'ān & sunnah - Ummah Welfare Trust
'Ruqyah' is the practice of treating illnesses through Qur'ānic āyāt and invocations as prescribed by the Messenger of Allah ﷺ. It provides a cure for evil eye, ...Missing: exorcism history
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About Raqi - Ruqiyah Shariah | duaruqyah.com
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Jinn Possession from an Islamic Perspective
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Ibn Sīnā cures a prince who thinks he is a cow - Hektoen International
Jan 29, 2017 · Many Muslims still believe that mental conditions are caused by demonic possession–either by zar spirits or jinn, which are beings described as ...
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Between Medicine and Magic: Spiritual Aetiology and Therapeutics in Medieval Islam.
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Full article: Factors affecting the effectiveness of 'ruqyah' treatment ...
Apr 14, 2024 · This study investigates the factors affecting the effectiveness of Ruqyah (Islamic healing) treatments in Malaysia's Darussyifa' Islamic Treatment Center.
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Conceptualising and addressing mental disorders amongst Muslim ...
This paper seeks to demonstrate that cultural formulations of mental illness, often viewed as “Islamic”, are distinct from historical Islamic approaches to ...
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Clinicians, Imams, and the Whisperings of Satan - Yaqeen Institute
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What is Ruqyah and How to Do Ruqyah - SimplyIslam Academy
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[DOC] Hinduism editsfinal , possesion - Pure
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(DOC) Atharva Veda, a Brief Outline - Academia.edu
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(PDF) The Garuda Purana, Sacred Literature – An Overview
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[PDF] Āveśa and Deity Possession in the Tantric Traditions of South Asia
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Mantra Siddhi and Its Significance in Tantric Rituals - Academia.edu
Mantra Mahodadhi by Mahidhara: A Tantric text detailing various mantra practices and their effects. Tantrasara by Abhinavagupta: Explores the esoteric ...
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Shakti in Village India: Priestesses, Sadhikas, Bhar Ladies, Ayes ...
Girls have had to undergo exorcisms by male healers to get them to renounce the gods that have called them to this role, while married women must deal with ...
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Sakta Tantric Traditions of Kerala in the Process of Change
May 20, 2021 · This Hindu tantric tradition weds ritualistic practices of Kashmirian Saivism (Krama-Trika) with the folk beliefs of Kerala.
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[PDF] The mystical world of the body in the Bengali tantric work ...
Sep 16, 2020 · The main goal of this paper is to shed light on some aspects of the religious experience in the regional Tantric tradition. As we may suppose, ...
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(PDF) BHŪTA KŌLA RITUAL SPIRIT POSSESION IN MANGALORE
Aug 8, 2025 · 1. INTRODUCTION. Bhūta Kōla ritual spirit possession is prevalent among Tulu speaking community of South Canara, Udupi districts of · 2. BHŪTA ...
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Ancient Hindu healing methodologies as cornerstones of health and ...
May 14, 2025 · This study explored how Hindu beliefs, practices and healing methodologies enables the physical health and mental well-being of individuals and their families.
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Rituals in Retreat: A Social Science Study of Declining Traditional ...
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This examination reveals that the temptations of Maara as allegorical representations of the mental torment, conflict, and crisis experienced by the Buddha as ...
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Lam-rim 20: Clutching Ghosts (Pretas) - Study Buddhism
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how Buddhism exorcises demons; transformation but no destruction
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A Tibetan Ghost Story: How Three Chod-pas Tamed a Yakshini
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Tibetan Buddhism: Ghosts, Demons, and Exorcism - exorcise me
Jan 28, 2015 · Seen as an embodiment of sentience, the phurba finds its use in exorcisms as a way to either help a spirit move on, or destroy it completely. ...
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Padmasambhava - Rigpa Wiki
It is said that he was then over a thousand years old. On the way to central Tibet, he began to subjugate the local spirits and made them take oaths to protect ...
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The chöd practitioner, or chöpa, visualizes the dismemberment, cooking, and finally offering of one's own body as a banquet to an assembly of demons, spirits, ...
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The Book of Protection: Paritta - Access to Insight
Paritta suttas describe certain suttas or discourses delivered by the Buddha and regarded as affording protection. This protection is to be obtained by ...
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Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case ... - NIH
We describe three patients from different religious backgrounds in Sri Lanka whose possession states were strongly influenced by their religious beliefs.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Mental and Physical Illness Can Be Caused by Spirits - FPMT
Even minor ailments can be caused by spirits. They disturb the wind energy, the lung. The energy gets dense, and then the mind gets sunk into a pattern of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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The evolution of ancient healing practices: shamanism to medicine
Jul 12, 2024 · In Siberia and Central Asia, shamanic traditions persist among the Tungus, Yakut, and Mongolian peoples, where shamans known as “tengeri” or “b ...
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Shamanisms and Survival
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Spiritual or social phenomenon: A cultural analysis of amakhosi ...
Those possessed by amafufunyana are usually referred to Church priests or traditional healers for exorcism. ... The word 'Amakhosi 'is a plural for the Zulu ...
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Ifa divination system - UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage
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[PDF] Healing Practices of the Spiritual Folk Healers of Tandag - EA Journals
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Witchcraft in Colonial Virginia
Witch trials had been a part of English life for centuries, and Parliament had passed a law criminalizing the practice of witchcraft in 1542, so the men and ...<|separator|>
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Traditional knowledge of the jaguar shamans of Yuruparí
Inscribed in 2011 (6.COM) on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
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[PDF] Facing Our Demons: Psychiatric Perspectives on Exorcism Rituals
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[PDF] EXORCISM AND POSSESSION IN THE CHRISTIAN TRADITION by ...
I will address the theology of possession and the practice of exorcism within the context of Christianity, with particular focus on Catholic exorcism and ...
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Guidelines on the Ministry of Exorcism and Healing the possessed
Jan 11, 2019 · The priest must proceed with prudence, strictly observing the rules established by the Church. Exorcism is directed at the expulsion of demons ...
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(PDF) Modern Practice, Archaic Ritual: Catholic Exorcism in America
This book presents an academic analysis of exorcism in Christianity. It not only explores the crisis and drama of a single individual in a fight against ...
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Traditional Catholic Exorcisms: Preserving the Church's Ancient Rite ...
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Mar 15, 2019 · In the temple-schools of Mesopotamia, students learned exorcism rituals, how to mix healing atonements, perform astrology, and how to cure demonic possession.
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Temporal Lobe Epilepsy and the Exorcism of Anneliese Michel
Jul 30, 2021 · A series of exorcisms on Anneliese, believing her to be demonically possessed. The case quickly became a sensation, and over the years has been adapted into ...
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[PDF] The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders
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(PDF) A Case of Epilepsy and Psychosis in the Seventeenth Century
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Felicitas Goodman - Ecstatic Trance: Ritual Body Postures
As she plunged into her graduate anthropological studies, Felicitas noted frequent discussion of an odd kind of speech people spoke while they were “possessed.” ...
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Trance, healing, and hallucination : three field studies in religious ...
Aug 16, 2019 · Publication date: 1974 ; Topics: Pentecostalism, Spirit possession, Trance, Umbanda (Cult) -- Saint Vincent ; Publisher: New York : Wiley.<|separator|>
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[PDF] Demons on the Couch: Spirit Possession, Exorcisms, and the DSM-5
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As a psychiatrist, I diagnose mental illness. Also, I help spot demonic ...
Jul 1, 2016 · As a psychiatrist, I diagnose mental illness. Also, I help spot demonic possession. How a scientist learned to work with exorcists.
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[PDF] The Malleus Maleficarum and King James: Defining Witchcraft
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Boy whose case inspired The Exorcist is named by US magazine
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The real story behind 'The Exorcist': A Q&A with Henry Ansgar Kelly
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Movie, TV Rights to Exorcist Book 'Hostage to the Devil' Picked Up ...
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Saint Anthony gazes serenely out at the viewer as frenzied demons grab at his limbs, clothes, and hair and pound him with sticks. Schongauer depicted these ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Bhoot - Variety
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What Happens When We Use Horror Movies to Interpret the Real ...
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