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First Carnatic War

The First Carnatic War (1746–1748) was a colonial conflict in southern India between the British East India Company and the French East India Company, constituting the Indian dimension of the broader War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) that engulfed Europe.^[1] Triggered by Anglo-French hostilities in Europe, the war saw French naval forces under Admiral Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais, in coordination with Governor Joseph François Dupleix, capture the British stronghold of Madras (now Chennai) in September 1746 after a brief siege, marking a significant early victory for France in the region.^[1] British reinforcements under Admiral Edward Boscawen arrived too late to prevent the fall of Madras but engaged in inconclusive naval actions, including the failed bombardment of Pondichéry, the French headquarters.^[2] The conflict highlighted logistical challenges for both sides in the Carnatic region, with limited troop numbers and supply lines constraining major land campaigns beyond coastal operations.^[3] It concluded inconclusively with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, which restored Madras to British control and reaffirmed pre-war territorial holdings, though the episode demonstrated French tactical advantages in naval power and initiative that foreshadowed intensified rivalry in subsequent wars.^[1]

Background and Context

European Geopolitical Setting

The War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) stemmed from a dynastic crisis precipitated by the death of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI on 20 October 1740, which left his daughter Maria Theresa as heir to the Habsburg lands under the terms of the Pragmatic Sanction promulgated in 1713 to secure her succession. Despite diplomatic efforts to uphold this arrangement, neighboring powers challenged Habsburg authority, viewing the absence of a male heir as an opportunity to revise territorial boundaries and influence. On 16 December 1740, Frederick II of Prussia launched an unprovoked invasion of the prosperous Habsburg province of Silesia, defeating Austrian forces at the Battle of Mollwitz in April 1741 and seizing control of the region, which provided Prussia with vital resources and strategic depth.^[4]^[5] This aggression fragmented Europe into rival coalitions, with Austria, Sardinia, and the Dutch Republic aligning against Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Sweden, Spain, and France. Great Britain, motivated by commitments to the balance of power, defense of Hanover, and containment of French expansionism, provided subsidies, troops, and naval support to the Pragmatic Allies backing Maria Theresa. France, conversely, subsidized Prussian ambitions and dispatched armies to occupy Austrian territories in the Low Countries and Italy, aiming to dismantle Habsburg dominance and install a compliant Bavarian candidate as emperor—achieved briefly with Charles VII's election in 1742. These alignments reflected deeper rivalries: Britain's anti-French stance rooted in commercial competition and continental stability, versus France's opportunistic bid to exploit Habsburg vulnerabilities.^[4]^[6] The European conflagration extended to colonial theaters owing to the overseas empires of Britain and France, where limited ground forces necessitated reliance on naval logistics for reinforcement and supply. Britain's Royal Navy, maintaining qualitative and numerical superiority—evidenced by its capacity to enforce blockades that halved French colonial trade by 1745—enabled offensive operations in North America (as King George's War), the West Indies, and Asia, projecting power without diverting resources from European subsidies. France, hampered by divided naval priorities between Atlantic and Mediterranean commitments, struggled to contest British maritime control, underscoring how sea power determined the war's peripheral outcomes amid stalemated continental campaigns.^[6]^[7]

Pre-War Anglo-French Positions in India

The British East India Company (EIC) had consolidated its presence in southern India primarily through Fort St. George at Madras, founded in 1639 as the first English trading fortress on the Coromandel Coast. This private joint-stock enterprise, granted a royal charter monopoly on English trade to the East Indies, developed Madras into a fortified commercial center by acquiring surrounding villages such as Egmore and Triplicane between 1676 and 1693, thereby expanding territorial control and revenue streams. Trade centered on textiles like calicoes, long cloths, and painted varieties sourced from local merchants and weavers, with significant procurement contracts exemplifying the scale: in 1699, supplier Checca Sherappa agreed to deliver 87,500 pieces valued at 151,125 pagodas, followed by 105,500 pieces worth 196,287 pagodas in 1701. These operations extended exports to Southeast Asia, the Persian Gulf, and Europe via dozens of annual shipments, underscoring the EIC's growing economic stake amid competition with Dutch and Portuguese rivals.^[8] In parallel, the French Compagnie des Indes Orientales established Pondichéry in 1674 under François Martin, who purchased land from the governor of Bijapur's possessions in the Carnatic, initiating settlement with around 60 French personnel. This state-chartered company prioritized piece-goods (textiles) and spices, rapidly scaling coastal and inland commerce to achieve annual exports surpassing 1,000,000 livres by 1676, positioning Pondichéry as the headquarters for French operations in India. Joseph-François Dupleix, appointed Governor-General of French India in 1742, drove pre-war expansion by securing Karikal in 1739, completing defensive ramparts around Pondichéry by late 1745, and increasing shipping capacity at subsidiary posts like Chandernagor from 6 to 72 vessels during his earlier intendant tenure. These moves reflected a more aggressive, politically oriented strategy compared to prior commercial focus, aiming to fortify trade routes and local manufacturing against encroachments.^[9]^[10] Underlying Anglo-French tensions stemmed from overlapping commercial interests in textiles and spices, which dominated exports from the Coromandel region, coupled with bids for leverage over politically unstable successor entities to the Mughal Empire, including the Carnatic Nawabs and Hyderabad Nizam. The EIC's reliance on negotiated privileges and alliances with local dubashes (intermediaries) clashed with Dupleix's vision of intertwining trade with territorial influence, as both powers maneuvered to monopolize weaver supplies and secure inland traffic without direct military engagement prior to 1746. This rivalry, rooted in Europe's broader mercantilist competition, intensified as French state backing enabled bolder initiatives, while British private capital sustained steady volume growth, such as Madras's annual exports to Manila reaching approximately 300,000 pesos in the 1740s.^[8]^[9]^[11]

Causes

Strategic and Commercial Rivalries

The strategic and commercial rivalries between the British East India Company (EIC) and the French Compagnie des Indes (CdI) centered on control of the Carnatic region's ports, which facilitated the export of cotton textiles and calicoes critical to intra-Asian trade networks linking India, Southeast Asia, and Persia.^[12] These ports, including Madras under British administration since 1639 and Pondicherry under French control since 1674, generated substantial revenues through textile shipments that underpinned company finances, with the [Coromandel Coast](/page/Coromandel Coast) accounting for a significant portion of European exports from India in the early 1740s.^[13] The EIC's decentralized model, with autonomous presidencies at Madras, Bombay, and Bengal, enabled adaptive commercial expansion via factories and private trade allowances that motivated agents to cultivate local networks, contrasting with the CdI's centralized governance under a governor-general based in Île de France, which imposed stricter oversight and limited initiative.^[14]^[13] French ambitions, directed by Governor Joseph François Dupleix from 1742, explicitly targeted the displacement of British commercial and political influence by forging military alliances with local rulers to establish a protective ring of subservient states around French enclaves like Pondicherry.^[15] This offensive strategy sought territorial and fiscal dominance to monopolize trade routes, diverging from the EIC's emphasis on defensive fortification of existing holdings and incremental alliances to safeguard shipping lanes.^[13] The broader European conflict of the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) served as a causal pretext for escalation, enabling opportunistic strikes, yet underlying asymmetries in maritime capacity—such as the EIC's operation of 204 ships from 1730 to 1755 versus the CdI's 37 from 1719 to 1754—conferred on Britain a logistical edge for reinforcing Indian operations, undermining claims of equivalent parity between the rivals.^[13]

Immediate Triggers and Declarations

The immediate triggers of the First Carnatic War in India stemmed from the arrival of the French naval squadron under Admiral Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais at Pondichéry in the summer of 1746, during the broader War of the Austrian Succession. French Governor-General Joseph François Dupleix, seeking to capitalize on the temporary superiority of French naval forces after La Bourdonnais's minor victory over the British squadron commanded by Commodore Edward Peyton off Negapatam in July 1746, urged a joint operation against British holdings. Peyton's subsequent withdrawal left the Coromandel Coast exposed, allowing Dupleix to press for an attack on the weakly fortified British settlement at Madras despite initial hesitations from La Bourdonnais regarding the monsoon conditions.^[1]^[12] La Bourdonnais's fleet appeared off Madras at the end of August 1746 but initially withdrew due to weather; it returned in mid-September, enabling a coordinated siege with Dupleix's land forces comprising around 1,200 Europeans and sepoy troops. The British garrison, numbering fewer than 300 Europeans and limited militia, surrendered after brief resistance on 21 September 1746, with terms allowing ransom and parole for the defenders. Tensions arose immediately between Dupleix and La Bourdonnais over the disposition of the captured city, as Dupleix favored retaining it strategically while La Bourdonnais advocated ransoming it back to the British per his agreement, highlighting operational disagreements within the French command.^[1] In response to the fall of Madras, British officials appealed to Nawab Anwar-ud-din of the Carnatic for protection, citing violations of local neutrality agreements that prohibited European conflicts within his domains. Anwar-ud-din initially maintained neutrality, having been assured by Dupleix of intentions to hand over Madras after securing it from the British, and refrained from immediate intervention despite British entreaties. This stance delayed direct Indian involvement, as the Nawab prioritized avoiding entanglement in European rivalries until French retention of the prize prompted further demands in October 1746.^[12]^[1]

Belligerents and Alliances

British East India Company and Royal Navy Support

The British East India Company's operations in southern India during the First Carnatic War were directed from Fort St. George in Madras under Governor Nicholas Morse, who assumed the role in 1744 and faced the initial French assault in 1746. The Company's land forces comprised a modest militia of roughly 200 to 300 European troops, augmented by local sepoy levies trained in European drill, which proved insufficient to repel the French capture of Madras but enabled defensive actions like the repulse at Adyar River.^[16] This limited manpower underscored the EIC's reliance on commercial priorities over large standing armies, with European personnel often doubling as traders and administrators. To bolster these efforts, the Royal Navy dispatched a squadron under Admiral Edward Boscawen in 1748, arriving off the Coromandel Coast with orders to interdict French shipping and support land operations.^[1] Boscawen's fleet, including ships of the line, facilitated resupply to British-held positions and imposed a blockade on Pondicherry, though monsoon conditions curtailed sustained bombardment. This naval intervention highlighted the integration of Crown resources with Company logistics, enabling sustained pressure on French outposts despite the EIC's initial territorial losses. British strategy emphasized alliances with regional powers, forging ties with the Nawab of Arcot following setbacks against French-backed forces, which provided auxiliary troops and legitimacy in local disputes. The synergy between EIC initiative and Royal Navy firepower allowed for effective coordination, contrasting with French divisions between company officials and naval commanders, and sustaining British commercial footholds through adaptive resupply chains.^[12]

French East India Company and Local Indian Allies

The French East India Company, under Governor Joseph François Dupleix at Pondicherry, fielded approximately 1,200 European troops, augmented by several hundred Indian auxiliaries trained in European-style discipline, for land operations in the Carnatic region.^[17] These forces emphasized infantry tactics suited to the terrain, with Dupleix prioritizing the recruitment and organization of sepoys—Indian soldiers drilled by French officers—to amplify limited European manpower. Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais, arriving from Île de France in July 1746 with a naval squadron of nine ships and around 3,700 troops (predominantly Europeans), provided critical amphibious support for initial offensives, though his contingent focused on coastal strikes rather than sustained inland campaigns.^[18] Dupleix pursued opportunistic alliances with local Indian elites to offset numerical disadvantages against larger indigenous armies, exploiting the Nizam of Hyderabad's preoccupation with Deccan succession intrigues and internal Mughal rivalries, which delayed any decisive intervention in the Carnatic.^[19] A key partnership emerged with Chanda Sahib, a claimant to the Nawabship of Arcot and son-in-law of the Nizam, whom Dupleix sheltered in Pondicherry after his earlier defeats; this temporary pact, though not fully realized until subsequent conflicts, allowed French forces to leverage Chanda Sahib's legitimacy claims against incumbent Nawab Anwar-ud-din Mohammed Khan.^[20] Such alignments reflected Dupleix's strategy of inserting French influence into Indian power vacuums, using small detachments—such as the 230 Europeans and 700 Indians under Captain de Paradise—to rout the Nawab's 10,000-strong army at the Battle of Adyar on September 24, 1746, demonstrating the efficacy of disciplined cadres over massed levies.^[21] Internal divisions undermined French cohesion, particularly in the acrimonious dispute between Dupleix and La Bourdonnais over the spoils of Madras, captured on September 10, 1746; La Bourdonnais adhered to a capitulation agreement ransoming the city for £400,000 to the British, while Dupleix repudiated it to retain strategic control, as detailed in their exchanged correspondence and La Bourdonnais's subsequent memoirs.^[22] This rift, exacerbated by disagreements on resource allocation and command authority, prompted La Bourdonnais's departure amid fleet damage from a cyclone, depriving Dupleix of naval superiority and forcing overreliance on land tactics vulnerable to British counteroffensives.^[23] Such inefficiencies, rooted in personal ambitions over coordinated operations, highlighted systemic challenges in the Company's decentralized structure, where metropolitan oversight lagged behind local imperatives.

Involvement of Indian Rulers

The Nawab of Carnatic, Anwar-ud-din Khan, responded to the French seizure of Madras on 7 September 1746 by protesting to Governor Joseph François Dupleix, asserting that the territory belonged to his domain and demanding its immediate restitution.^[24] When Dupleix refused, citing European hostilities, Anwar-ud-din dispatched an army of approximately 10,000 cavalry and infantry under his son Mahfuz Khan toward St. Thome to enforce compliance.^[25] On 24 October 1746, during the Battle of Adyar, Mahfuz Khan's forces attempted to cross the Adyar River but were routed by a French detachment of 230 European troops and 700 sepoys commanded by Captain Louis Paradis, who employed disciplined volley fire and artillery to inflict disproportionate casualties—around 300 killed on the Nawab's side with negligible French losses. This engagement underscored the qualitative edge of European military organization, including rigid infantry formations and coordinated firepower, over numerically superior but loosely coordinated Mughal-era armies reliant on cavalry charges and irregular foot soldiers.^[24] Anwar-ud-din's defeat neutralized immediate local resistance to French advances, though it did not secure long-term loyalty from the Carnatic forces. As nominal suzerain over the Carnatic, Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I of Hyderabad held overarching authority, having appointed Anwar-ud-din as Nawab in 1744 to stabilize the region.^[26] However, the Nizam, focused on suppressing internal revolts and Maratha incursions in the Deccan, refrained from direct intervention in the Carnatic theater, allowing European actors to operate with relative impunity amid fragmented Indian polities.^[27] His peripheral role exemplified how succession disputes and regional power consolidation distracted major Indian rulers, enabling opportunistic alliances with Europeans but failing to counterbalance naval and logistical dominance that ultimately dictated territorial control. Local rulers' participation provided both British and French companies with auxiliary manpower, such as Carnatic cavalry for scouting and skirmishes, compensating for their small European garrisons. Yet, these alliances were pragmatic and fluid, driven by short-term gains rather than ideological commitment, and often undermined by rival claimants or payment disputes, rendering Indian contingents unreliable in sustained campaigns.^[28] Fundamentally, the rulers' involvement exacerbated intra-Indian divisions without offsetting the Europeans' advantages in disciplined troops and sea power, preserving the conflict's character as a proxy for metropolitan rivalries.^[26]

Course of the War

Outbreak and Capture of Madras (1746)

The First Carnatic War in India erupted as an extension of the War of the Austrian Succession in Europe, with hostilities commencing when French forces, unhindered by British naval opposition, targeted British settlements along the Coromandel Coast. Following the inconclusive Action of 6 July 1746, in which the French squadron under Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais defeated and dispersed the British fleet commanded by Edward Peyton off Negapatam, the path to Madras lay open. Peyton's withdrawal to Bengal left the British East India Company's fortified factory at Madras vulnerable, defended by only a small garrison of approximately 300 Europeans and limited militia, unprepared for a coordinated assault.^[29]^[30] On 7 September 1746, La Bourdonnais's fleet, comprising nine ships including vessels such as Le Neptune and carrying around 3,700 troops predominantly European, anchored off Madras and commenced bombardment of the fortifications. French forces disembarked troops under cover of naval gunfire, initiating a siege that exploited the British defenses' weaknesses, including outdated walls and insufficient artillery. The bombardment persisted for several days, causing significant damage and demoralizing the defenders, who faced shortages of ammunition and reinforcements. By 21 September 1746, after minimal ground resistance and recognizing the futility of prolonged defense, Governor Nicholas Morse capitulated, surrendering the city and its garrison of about 200 British personnel as prisoners.^[2]^[1] Initial capitulation terms negotiated by La Bourdonnais included a substantial ransom of 1,100,000 pagodas for the restoration of Madras to British control, with private merchants contributing an additional 88,000 pagodas in cash, pearls, and diamonds to secure their properties. However, tensions arose between La Bourdonnais, who favored the ransom agreement to expedite operations, and Joseph François Dupleix, the French Governor at Pondicherry, who rejected the terms on 30 October 1746, prioritizing strategic retention of the captured territory over financial settlement. This discord led to the French occupation of Madras, looting of British goods, and the internment of prisoners, underscoring the French land initiative's success but revealing vulnerabilities stemming from naval command's temporary nature and internal command rivalries.^[31]^[1]

Land Campaigns and Skirmishes in the Carnatic

The French, having secured Madras in September 1746, faced immediate resistance from the Nawab of Arcot, Anwar-ud-din Khan, a British ally who mobilized approximately 10,000 troops to besiege the captured settlement and expel the intruders. On 24 October 1746, near the Adyar River outside St. Thome (modern-day Chennai), a compact French force comprising roughly 300 European infantry, 200 trained Indian sepoys, and supporting artillery under Captain Louis Paradis repulsed the Nawab's numerically superior army in a brief but decisive skirmish. The victory stemmed from European tactical innovations, including linear formations, volley fire, and defensive squares that neutralized Indian cavalry charges and disorganized infantry assaults, highlighting disparities in discipline and firepower despite the French's limited numbers and ammunition constraints.^[24]^[32] Emboldened by this success, Governor-General Joseph François Dupleix shifted focus southward, dispatching columns toward Fort St. David (Cuddalore), the British East India Company's primary remaining bastion in the Carnatic region, with intentions to overrun it through a combination of direct assaults and encirclement starting in November 1746. French operations relied heavily on augmented local levies—early sepoys drilled in European drill—and opportunistic alliances with disaffected regional elements, though Dupleix's total European manpower hovered around 900-1,000, strained by recruitment delays from France and vulnerability to disease in the tropical interior. Skirmishes ensued along supply routes, with French detachments occupying nearby villages and raiding British outposts, but these actions exposed logistical frailties, including protracted overland marches and dependence on unreliable Indian auxiliaries unaccustomed to sustained campaigning.^[33]^[34] British countermeasures emphasized defensive consolidation at Fort St. David, where reinforcements like Robert Clive—having evaded capture in Madras—organized small-scale guerrilla forays to disrupt French foraging parties and communications, preventing deeper penetration into the Carnatic plains. Absent large-scale reinforcements from Europe, both combatants avoided pitched inland battles, confining hostilities to hit-and-run engagements that underscored the war's peripheral character on land: European contingents, totaling fewer than 2,000 combined, prioritized coastal holdings over expansive conquests, with Indian rulers providing irregular cavalry but proving ineffective against disciplined fire without technological parity. This pattern of limited, asymmetric clashes persisted through 1747-1748, eroding French momentum as attrition mounted without decisive territorial gains.^[35]^[34]

Naval Engagements and British Counteroffensives (1746–1748)

The French naval campaign began with the arrival of Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais from Île de France (Mauritius) in June 1746, commanding a squadron of nine ships, including eight ships of the line and 1,200 European troops.^[35] On July 6, 1746, off Negapatam, La Bourdonnais' forces engaged a British squadron of six ships under Commodore Edward Peyton in the Battle of Negapatam; though the action was inconclusive, the British withdrew northward, allowing the French to maintain control of the Coromandel Coast approaches.^[29] This engagement, marked by fierce but limited exchanges due to Peyton's outsailing tactics, demonstrated initial French aggression but highlighted the Royal Navy's qualitative edge in maneuverability despite numerical inferiority.^[29] Supporting the land capture of Madras in September 1746, La Bourdonnais' squadron bombarded Fort St. George, contributing to its surrender on September 10 after four days of shelling that breached defenses and demoralized the garrison.^[1] French forces also seized several British merchant vessels during coastal operations, disrupting East India Company trade routes.^[2] However, a cyclone in late November 1746 devastated La Bourdonnais' fleet, sinking or disabling multiple vessels—including the flagship Soleil Royal—and compelling him to depart for France in December amid disputes with Governor Joseph François Dupleix over ransom terms for Madras.^[36] This natural disaster and subsequent leadership rift critically weakened French naval capacity in Indian waters, reducing their operational ships to fewer than five effective line vessels by 1747.^[1] British counteroffensives gained momentum as Royal Navy reinforcements arrived, establishing maritime dominance through superior logistics and ship quality. In 1748, Admiral Edward Boscawen's squadron, comprising approximately eight ships of the line supported by transports, imposed a blockade on Pondichéry, the French headquarters.^[37] From August 1748, Boscawen's forces conducted sustained bombardments and interdicted French supply lines, leveraging numerical and firepower advantages—British vessels outgunned remaining French defenders in caliber and rate.^[2] Attempts to occupy nearby ports like Negapatam faltered due to local resistance, but the naval pressure isolated Pondichéry, forcing Dupleix to ration resources amid dwindling reinforcements from Europe.^[1] The blockade persisted until October 27, 1748, when monsoon rains rendered operations untenable, compelling Boscawen to withdraw; this empirical demonstration of sustained naval coercion underscored the Royal Navy's role in shifting the war's balance toward Britain, independent of land outcomes.^[38]

Armistice and Resolution

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, signed on 18 October 1748 between Britain, France, and the Dutch Republic, concluded the War of the Austrian Succession and extended its provisions to overseas possessions, thereby resolving the concurrent First Carnatic War. The agreement mandated mutual restitution of conquered territories under the status quo ante bellum principle, requiring France to return Madras—captured by French forces in September 1746—to the British East India Company without ransom or compensation.^[39]^[35]^[40] Negotiations, led primarily by British and French diplomats in Europe, prioritized continental balance over colonial specifics, resulting in no dedicated clauses for India or other distant theaters. This omission highlighted the peripheral status of Indian operations relative to European priorities, as France's metropolitan government sought to end a resource-draining conflict amid British naval dominance that had isolated French fleets and limited reinforcements.^[41]^[27] Implementation followed ratification, with treaty terms reaching colonial administrators in India by early 1749, prompting the handover of Madras and cessation of active campaigning. French East India Company officials expressed frustration over the loss of territorial gains achieved through local alliances and sieges, attributing the reversal to European diplomatic concessions that disregarded on-the-ground advantages.^[35]^[31]

Restoration of Territories

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, signed on 18 October 1748, required the mutual restoration of territories captured during the War of the Austrian Succession, including those in India. Implementation in the Carnatic region focused on reversing wartime gains, with the French evacuating Madras, which they had seized in September 1746. British forces reoccupied Madras in early 1749 under the escort of a Royal Navy squadron, facing negligible opposition from the departing French garrison, as Dupleix prioritized preserving French influence through local alliances over prolonged defense of the enclave.^[42]^[43] Other minor settlements followed suit: British control over Fort St. David near Cuddalore was reaffirmed, while French holdings such as Pondichéry were returned intact; Negapatam, a key coastal point not decisively altered during active hostilities, reverted to prior arrangements without contest. The status of Indian rulers, including the Nawab of Carnatic Anwaruddin Khan, remained unaffected, as the treaty addressed only European conquests and ignored indigenous territorial claims or alliances forged mid-war.^[1]^[43] These handovers elevated Joseph François Dupleix's standing among French colonial officials, crediting his strategic defense of Pondichéry against British assaults and nascent ties with Deccan and Carnatic potentates for mitigating total reversal. Yet, the enforcing presence of British naval forces—demonstrating unchallenged dominance in Indian waters—constrained French unilateral actions, compelling reliance on Paris for future escalation and averting immediate post-treaty aggression by isolated Compagnie expeditions.^[22]^[44]

Consequences and Legacy

Territorial and Political Outcomes

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, concluded on 18 October 1748, restored all territories captured during the conflict to their pre-war owners, yielding no net territorial gains for either the British or French East India Companies in southern India. Madras, seized by French forces in September 1746, was returned to British control by early 1749 following the treaty's implementation, while Pondichéry and other French holdings remained intact. This mutual restitution preserved the approximate pre-1746 boundaries, with British factories at Fort St. David and French bases at Yanam and Mahé unaffected by permanent transfers.^[41]^[45] The war eroded the political standing of Nawab Anwar-ud-din Khan of the Carnatic, whose 10,000-strong army was decisively defeated by a smaller French force at the Battle of Adyar on 24 October 1746, revealing the ineffectiveness of local Mughal-era levies against disciplined European infantry and artillery. Anwar-ud-din's inability to enforce neutrality or reclaim Madras diminished his prestige among regional polities, fostering internal rivalries that intensified after his death on 3 August 1749 in the subsequent Battle of Ambur. In response, both European powers augmented their defensive postures: the British expanded the Madras garrison with additional European troops and sepoys to deter renewed assaults, while French reinforcements at Pondichéry underscored persistent tensions despite the armistice.^[27]^[46] French Governor-General Joseph François Dupleix regarded the campaign as a qualified triumph, citing the temporary occupation of Madras and the humiliation of Anwar-ud-din as proofs of European ascendancy over Indian rulers, though naval constraints limited consolidation. British officials, conversely, interpreted the outcome as a defensive success attributable to Royal Navy squadrons that relieved besieged positions and compelled French withdrawals, thereby safeguarding commercial interests without ceding ground. These perspectives reflected the war's stalemate, where tactical French land victories clashed with British maritime dominance, leaving local alliances fractured and European footholds intact but vigilant.^[47]^[25]

Impact on Colonial Strategies and Future Conflicts

The First Carnatic War (1746–1748) validated Joseph François Dupleix's strategy of deploying small European forces alongside subsidies and military aid to Indian rulers, enabling French expansion in the Carnatic region through alliances rather than direct occupation. This approach of exploiting local power vacuums influenced British countermeasures, as Robert Clive adapted similar tactics during the Second Carnatic War (1749–1754) by backing Muhammad Ali Khan against French-supported Chanda Sahib, culminating in decisive victories such as the Battle of Arcot on September 26, 1751, which reversed French gains.^[25]^[26] The war exposed vulnerabilities in isolated land-based operations, reinforcing the imperative for colonial powers to secure maritime supply lines, a lesson that prioritized naval coordination in future Anglo-French contests and contributed to British resilience against French initiatives. British East India Company (EIC) adaptability, driven by profit-oriented incentives, outperformed French efforts constrained by metropolitan oversight and funding shortfalls, as evidenced by Dupleix's recall in 1754 amid accumulating debts exceeding 10 million livres despite territorial successes.^[48] These dynamics precipitated the Second Carnatic War through unresolved succession disputes in Hyderabad and the Carnatic following Nizam-ul-Mulk's death on June 1, 1748, while prompting EIC structural adjustments, including augmented sepoy recruitment—rising from around 2,000 in 1748 to over 5,000 by 1756—and fortified presidencies, which integrated commercial outposts into defensible military hubs and foreshadowed the company's shift toward territorial sovereignty.^[49]

Evaluation of Military and Economic Factors

The military outcomes of the First Carnatic War were decisively shaped by the qualitative advantages of European forces in discipline, infantry tactics, and artillery employment, which repeatedly overcame numerical disparities with Indian allies. At the Battle of Adyar on October 24, 1746, a French force of approximately 700 men, including 300 European troops and supporting sepoys equipped with disciplined musket volleys and mobile field artillery, routed an Indian army of 10,000 cavalry and infantry sent by the Nawab of Arcot, demonstrating how coordinated firepower and unit cohesion could neutralize massed charges reliant on traditional cavalry tactics.^[50]^[24] This disparity in training and technology—European rates of fire from field guns reaching 5-6 rounds per minute—exposed the limitations of larger but less maneuverable Indian forces, a pattern evident in subsequent skirmishes where small European detachments held fortified positions against overwhelming odds.^[51] Naval logistics further amplified these advantages, enabling the British to sustain operations through superior maritime reinforcement and supply lines, while French efforts were constrained by vulnerabilities in overseas transport. British control of sea routes from 1746 onward allowed the delivery of troops and materiel to bases like Fort St. David, offsetting land losses and facilitating counteroffensives, whereas French naval detachments, often outnumbered or delayed, struggled to maintain consistent provisioning for extended campaigns in the Carnatic.^[34] Logistical restrictions for the Madras Presidency army prioritized defensive consolidation over aggressive expansion, underscoring how maritime dominance preserved British resilience amid territorial setbacks.^[3] Economically, the British East India Company's robust trade revenues provided a stable funding base for wartime defenses and alliances, contrasting with the French Compagnie des Indes' chronic indebtedness, which eroded its capacity for prolonged conflict. The EIC's profitability from intra-Asian commerce in the 1740s supported recruitment of local auxiliaries and fortification upgrades, enabling sustained resistance despite initial defeats, while the French company's reliance on speculative ventures and limited metropolitan subsidies—prioritized toward West Indian interests—led to financial overextension and operational curtailment by 1748.^[52]^[13] French strategic innovation in forging alliances with local claimants, such as Chanda Sahib and Muzaffar Jung, yielded short-term territorial gains by leveraging indigenous rivalries but faltered due to coordination breakdowns and dependency on unreliable partners, whereas British adherence to conservative commercial priorities fostered enduring defensive cohesion. Dupleix's alliance policy expanded French influence temporarily through proxy warfare but invited internal quarrels and diluted command authority, contributing to unsustainable commitments; in contrast, British focus on naval-backed retrenchment and selective pacts with the Nawab preserved assets for recovery without equivalent overreach.^[17]^[1]

Naval Forces

British Royal Navy Contributions

Rear Admiral Edward Boscawen commanded a Royal Navy squadron of eight warships that departed Britain in November 1747 and arrived off the Indian coast in early August 1748, bringing 1,400 British regulars to bolster East India Company defenses.^[1] This force, including ships of the line capable of sustained operations, immediately asserted British naval superiority in the region by securing command of the seas around the Carnatic coast.^[1] The squadron's presence disrupted French maritime logistics, preventing reinforcements and supplies from reaching Pondichéry, the principal French base.^[53] In support of the subsequent siege of Pondichéry beginning in August 1748, Boscawen's fleet enforced a blockade that limited French access to external aid, while attempting naval bombardment from offshore.^[53] Shallow waters restricted effective close-range fire to approximately 1,000 yards, curtailing the bombardment's impact when it commenced on 7 October 1748 and was abandoned four days later amid monsoon conditions.^[53] Despite the overall failure to capture the fortress, the Royal Navy's operations restored secure British supply lines and merchant convoy protections, countering earlier French dominance at sea following the 1746 capture of Madras.^[1] The strategic deployment exemplified naval power's amplifying effect on distant colonial theaters, as the blockade's pressure contributed to the war's resolution via the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle on 18 October 1748, which restored territorial status quo including Madras to British control.^[1] Boscawen's squadron, combining with local East India Company vessels to form a larger flotilla of around 30 sail, underscored the Royal Navy's role in projecting force without decisive fleet battles, relying instead on persistent presence to influence outcomes.^[53]

French Naval Operations and Limitations

Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais commanded a French naval squadron dispatched from Île de France (Mauritius) to support operations in India during the War of the Austrian Succession. His force included five ships-of-the-line upon engaging British vessels off Negapatam on July 6, 1746, resulting in an indecisive action that temporarily cleared British naval presence from the Coromandel Coast.^[29] Reinforced to approximately eight ships-of-the-line and transports carrying 1,200 troops, La Bourdonnais arrived off Madras on September 4, 1746, landing forces that besieged and captured the city on September 7 after a brief bombardment and assault.^[54] ^[55] French naval operations demonstrated potential through coastal raids and the Madras capture, but lacked decisive fleet engagements beyond Negapatam, as British counteroffensives were avoided due to logistical constraints rather than sustained superiority. La Bourdonnais negotiated a ransom of 1,100,000 pagodas for Madras's return, yet internal discord arose when Governor Joseph François Dupleix rejected the terms, insisting on retaining the settlement or ceding it to local allies, leading to mutual recriminations that delayed exploitation of the victory.^[56] ^[1] A cyclone in late October 1746 devastated La Bourdonnais's fleet off Madras, scattering vessels, wrecking several ships, and forcing survivors to seek refuge at Pondichéry, with a third of the squadron lost or irreparably damaged.^[56] This disaster, compounded by the admiral's recall to France amid disputes, crippled sustained operations. French efforts were further limited by heavy reliance on intermittent metropolitan reinforcements, which diminished as European theaters prioritized army deployments over naval commitments in distant colonies.^[42] ^[57] From the French perspective, chronic underfunding of the navy—stemming from fiscal strains and army favoritism post-prior conflicts—contrasted with more consistent British Admiralty provisioning, undermining logistics and repair capabilities in the Indian Ocean.^[58] Internal Company-naval frictions, exemplified by the La Bourdonnais-Dupleix rift, eroded coordinated effectiveness, preventing follow-up raids or blockades despite initial successes.^[59]

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