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Flagellate

Flagellates are a diverse assemblage of primarily unicellular eukaryotic protists characterized by the possession of one or more flagella, which are long, whip-like appendages composed of microtubules that enable locomotion through undulating or rotary motion.^[1] These organisms, often microscopic in size, inhabit a wide array of aquatic and moist terrestrial environments, where flagella also facilitate feeding by generating water currents to capture prey or particles.^[2] Flagellates exhibit varied nutritional strategies, including autotrophy via photosynthesis in forms like euglenoids, heterotrophy through predation or absorption, and parasitism in species that infect hosts such as humans and animals.^[3] Although traditionally grouped together based on their flagellar motility, flagellates represent a polyphyletic group, spanning multiple phylogenetic lineages among the protists, with over 8,000 described species.^[2] Notable examples include Euglena, a freshwater phytoflagellate capable of both photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition, and dinoflagellates, marine species some of which form symbiotic relationships or cause harmful algal blooms known as red tides.^[2] Parasitic zooflagellates such as Trypanosoma brucei, transmitted by tsetse flies, cause African sleeping sickness, while Giardia lamblia leads to giardiasis, a common waterborne intestinal infection.^[4] Ecologically, flagellates play crucial roles as primary consumers in microbial food webs, regulating bacterial populations and serving as prey for larger organisms, thus influencing nutrient cycling in ecosystems.^[3] Many flagellates can form resistant cysts to survive adverse conditions, aiding their dispersal and transmission, particularly in parasitic species. Their study has advanced understanding of eukaryotic cell motility, with flagella sharing structural similarities across diverse taxa, including the 9+2 microtubule arrangement conserved from protists to humans.^[5]

Definition and Classification

Definition

Flagellates are eukaryotic microorganisms distinguished by the presence of one or more flagella, which are long, whip-like appendages that propel the organism through undulatory or helical movements, primarily in aquatic or moist environments.^[6] These structures enable locomotion and, in some cases, feeding by generating fluid currents around the cell.^[7] Unlike prokaryotic flagella, which are rotary filaments powered by proton motive force and composed of flagellin protein, eukaryotic flagella feature a complex 9+2 microtubule axoneme driven by dynein ATPases, resulting in bending motions rather than rotation.^[8]^[9] A key distinction between flagella and cilia in eukaryotes lies in their morphology and arrangement: flagella are typically longer (often 10-100 μm) and present in smaller numbers per cell (usually 1-8), facilitating sustained swimming, whereas cilia are shorter (5-10 μm) and occur in large arrays (hundreds to thousands), producing metachronal waves for coordinated beating.^[10] This structural difference supports diverse motility strategies, with flagella adapted for directed propulsion in open fluids.^[11] Both organelles share the same core ultrastructure but are conventionally differentiated by these size and quantity traits.^[12] The term flagellate encompasses a broad scope of protists, including free-living protozoans, parasitic or symbiotic forms, and photosynthetic algal groups, all unified by flagellar motility during at least one life stage.^[13] Representative examples include the parasitic trypanosomes (e.g., Trypanosoma brucei), which inhabit blood and cause diseases like sleeping sickness, and dinoflagellates (e.g., Ceratium), which are often photosynthetic and contribute to marine plankton communities.^[14]^[15] This diversity highlights flagellates' ecological roles from predation on bacteria to parasitism in hosts.^[16]

Historical and Modern Taxonomy

In the 19th century, Ernst Haeckel established the kingdom Protista in 1866 to encompass unicellular organisms intermediate between plants and animals, classifying flagellates as the class Flagellata within the phylum Protozoa.^[17] This grouping included diverse forms such as the mixotrophic Euglena and the colonial Volvox, reflecting Haeckel's Darwinian emphasis on evolutionary transitions from simple to complex life.^[17] By 1878, Haeckel refined Protista to include ciliates alongside flagellates, viewing them as ancestral to both Metaphyta (plants) and Metazoa (animals), though this artificial assemblage faced criticism for lacking phylogenetic rigor.^[17] Twentieth-century revisions began separating photosynthetic flagellates (phytoflagellates) from protozoans, reassigning them to algal kingdoms based on pigmentation and plastid presence, as seen in systems by Pascher (1925) and Fott (1959). The advent of electron microscopy in the 1950s and 1960s revealed ultrastructural details, such as flagellar hairs (mastigonemes) and cytoskeletal arrangements, highlighting similarities among disparate groups and prompting further taxonomic realignments, including the recognition of stramenopile affinities in chrysomonads. These advances, combined with biochemical studies, dismantled Haeckel's monolithic Flagellata, emphasizing convergent evolution in flagellar motility over shared ancestry.^[18] Modern taxonomy, informed by molecular phylogenetics since the 1990s, confirms that flagellates form a polyphyletic assemblage, distributed across major eukaryotic supergroups rather than a single clade. Analyses of 18S rRNA sequences have placed kinetoplastids (e.g., Trypanosoma) within Excavata, stramenopiles and dinoflagellates within the SAR clade (Stramenopiles, Alveolates, Rhizaria), and green algae (e.g., Chlamydomonas) within Archaeplastida. For instance, dinoflagellates were reclassified into Alveolata based on cortical alveoli and molecular data, underscoring the paraphyletic nature of traditional groupings. Current challenges persist due to this polyphyly, with ongoing phylogenomic efforts refining boundaries and revealing hidden diversity, yet complicating unified flagellate taxonomy. For example, as of 2025, phylogenomic studies have described new predatory flagellate species like Rhodelphis edaphicus, further expanding the known diversity of deep-branching lineages.^[19]

Morphology and Function

Flagellum Structure

The axoneme forms the central core of the eukaryotic flagellum, consisting of nine outer doublet microtubules arranged in a cylindrical fashion around two central singlet microtubules, known as the 9+2 pattern.^[20] This microtubule-based structure provides the scaffold for flagellar motility and is enveloped by the plasma membrane, with the entire flagellum anchored to the cell via a basal body at its proximal end.^[21] The basal body, derived from centrioles, organizes the microtubules and transitions into the axoneme, ensuring stable attachment to the cytoskeleton.^[22] Accessory structures within the axoneme enable coordinated movement and structural integrity. Dynein arms, motor proteins attached to the A-tubule of each doublet microtubule, generate sliding forces between adjacent doublets by hydrolyzing ATP, which is converted into bending waves.^[23] Nexin links connect adjacent doublets, resisting shear forces during sliding to control bending and maintain axonemal shape, while radial spokes extend from the outer doublets to the central pair, regulating dynein activity through signaling pathways.^[24] In some algal flagellates, mastigonemes—fine, hair-like projections on the flagellar surface—enhance hydrodynamic interactions and may contribute to sensory functions.^[25] While the 9+2 arrangement is characteristic of motile flagella, variations exist, such as the 9+0 pattern in some non-motile flagella, which lack the central pair.^[26] Flagella typically measure 10–200 μm in length and approximately 0.2 μm in diameter, allowing flexibility in cellular propulsion across diverse environments.^[27] Biogenesis of the flagellum relies on intraflagellar transport (IFT), a bidirectional process where kinesin-2 motors carry IFT particles anterogradely from the basal body to the tip for axonemal assembly, and cytoplasmic dynein-2 returns them retrogradely.^[28] Centrioles duplicate and mature into basal bodies, nucleating microtubule elongation via IFT to build the full structure.^[29]

Cellular Arrangement and Locomotion

Flagellates exhibit diverse arrangements of flagella that influence their locomotion strategies. In many species, a single flagellum emerges anteriorly, facilitating a pulling motion where bending waves propagate from the distal tip toward the base, drawing the cell body forward; this is evident in trypanosomes such as Trypanosoma brucei, where the flagellum attaches along much of the cell length via an undulating membrane, enabling efficient navigation in viscous environments.^[30] Conversely, posterior flagella arrangements promote pushing locomotion, with waves initiating at the base and traveling distally to propel the cell. Multiple flagella, often unequal in length, allow for steering and directional control, as seen in Euglena gracilis, which possesses two flagella emerging from an anterior reservoir—one long primary flagellum for propulsion and a shorter secondary one aiding in maneuverability and sensory functions.^[31] Locomotion in flagellates relies on the generation of bending waves along the flagellum, powered by dynein motors that induce microtubule sliding within the axoneme. These waves can be planar, producing symmetrical oscillations, or three-dimensional, incorporating twists and helices for enhanced maneuverability; in Chlamydomonas, planar breaststroke-like beats synchronize the two flagella to achieve straight-line swimming at speeds of approximately 100–200 μm/s, while three-dimensional components introduce helical paths for rotational stability. In trypanosomes, bihelical waves alternate between left- and right-handed configurations, separated by propagating kinks, resulting in tumbling or persistent forward motion at speeds up to 20 μm/s, which facilitates evasion in crowded bloodstreams.^[32] Euglena employs helical and euglenoid undulatory patterns, combining flagellar beats with body peristalsis for speeds up to approximately 140 μm/s in optimal conditions, allowing adaptive path adjustments.^[33] The energy for these movements derives from ATP hydrolysis by axonemal dyneins, which generate inter-doublet sliding forces converted into bending via structural constraints like nexin links and radial spokes. Each dynein cycle hydrolyzes one ATP molecule to produce piconewton-scale forces, enabling sustained motility; in Chlamydomonas, this powers coordinated beating with efficiencies optimized for low-Reynolds-number regimes (Re ≈ 10⁻⁴–10⁻²), where viscous drag dominates over inertia, minimizing energy loss through non-reciprocal motions.^[34] Hydrodynamic efficiency is further enhanced by flagellar flexibility and waveform geometry, allowing thrust-to-drag ratios that support prolonged swimming without fatigue.^[35] Free-swimming flagellates adapt locomotion to environmental cues via rheotaxis and geotaxis, aligning with flow gradients or gravity for habitat retention. Rheotaxis orients cells upstream against shear flows, as in Euglena gracilis, where flagellar asymmetry and calcium signaling modulate beat frequency to maintain position in turbulent waters.^[36] Geotaxis, often negative, directs upward migration; Chlamydomonas achieves this through bottom-heavy statoliths and flagellar dominance, countering sedimentation at rates up to 10 μm/s while swimming.^[37] These behaviors integrate briefly with flagellar wave dynamics for survival in aquatic niches.^[38]

Diversity and Examples

Unicellular Protozoan Flagellates

Unicellular protozoan flagellates encompass a diverse array of heterotrophic protists characterized by their use of one or more flagella for locomotion and their predominantly free-living or parasitic lifestyles in aquatic, soil, or host environments. These organisms, often ranging in size from 10 to 50 μm, lack chloroplasts and rely on heterotrophic nutrition, distinguishing them from photosynthetic counterparts.^[39]^[40] Among the major groups are the kinetoplastids (class Kinetoplastea), which include both parasitic and free-living forms unified by the presence of a kinetoplast—a DNA-rich region within a single mitochondrion. Kinetoplastids such as those in the order Trypanosomatida typically possess a single flagellum emerging from a pocket at the anterior end, often associated with an undulating membrane formed by the flagellum adhering to the cell body, which aids in propulsion through wave-like undulations. For instance, Trypanosoma species, responsible for diseases like African sleeping sickness, exhibit this morphology, with the flagellum running along the body length to create the undulating membrane.^[41]^[42] In contrast, bodonids (order Bodonida), such as Bodo species, are primarily free-living bacterivores inhabiting sediments and freshwater, featuring two flagella—one directed forward for swimming and one trailing for steering—and they play key roles in microbial food webs by consuming bacteria.^[43]^[44] A distinctive morphological feature in many kinetoplastids is the paraflagellar rod (PFR), an extra-axonemal structure paralleling the flagellum that modifies the beat waveform, enhancing motility efficiency and enabling adaptations like host tissue penetration in parasites. These flagellates generally measure 10-50 μm in length, with elongated, slender bodies suited to their environments. Physiologically, free-living species like bodonids employ phagocytosis to engulf bacterial prey through a cytostome, while osmoregulation in freshwater inhabitants such as Bodo is managed by contractile vacuoles that expel excess water to maintain cellular balance.^[45]^[46]^[47] Another important group is the choanoflagellates, free-living unicellular heterotrophic flagellates characterized by a single flagellum surrounded by a collar of microvilli that traps bacterial prey via filtration. These organisms, typically 3-10 μm in size, are found in aquatic environments and are the closest living relatives to animals, providing insights into the early evolution of multicellularity.^[48] Beyond kinetoplastids, other prominent unicellular protozoan flagellates include diplomonads like Giardia lamblia, an intestinal parasite of humans and animals that uses eight flagella, particularly the ventral pair, to generate hydrodynamic forces for attachment to the gut epithelium via a ventral disc. Similarly, parabasalids such as Trichomonas vaginalis, a common urogenital tract parasite, rely on four anterior flagella for motility and exhibit anaerobic metabolism powered by hydrogenosomes, allowing survival in the low-oxygen conditions of the human genital tract. These examples highlight the adaptive diversity of heterotrophic flagellates in parasitic niches.^[49]^[50]^[51]

Algal and Photosynthetic Flagellates

Algal and photosynthetic flagellates are unicellular or simple multicellular protists that harness sunlight for energy production, contributing significantly to aquatic primary production through their chloroplasts. These organisms, often motile via flagella, include diverse groups such as chlorophytes and euglenoids, which possess chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and b for light absorption and carbon fixation via the Calvin cycle./5%3A_Biological_Diversity/23%3A_Protists/23.3%3A_Groups_of_Protists)^[52] Their photosynthetic apparatus enables efficient conversion of light energy into chemical energy, supporting their growth in illuminated environments. In chlorophytes, such as Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, two anterior flagella facilitate swimming, while an eyespot enables phototaxis, directing the cell toward optimal light for photosynthesis.^[53] These flagella often bear scales or fine hairs that enhance hydrodynamic performance and may aid buoyancy in planktonic habitats.^[54] Euglenoids, exemplified by Euglena gracilis, are mixotrophic, capable of both photosynthesis and heterotrophy; they store energy as paramylon, a β-1,3-glucan polysaccharide, particularly under light conditions that promote chloroplast activity.^[55]^[56] Physiologically, these flagellates exhibit light-dependent motility, where illumination modulates flagellar beating to optimize positioning in light gradients, as seen in the phototactic responses of Chlamydomonas and Euglena.^[57] Carbon fixation occurs through the Calvin cycle in their chloroplasts, producing sugars that fuel cellular processes and contribute to global oxygen production.^[52] Certain groups, like dinoflagellates including Noctiluca scintillans in its green form, can form dense blooms due to enhanced photosynthesis via symbiotic algae, amplifying primary production in nutrient-rich waters.^[58] Notable examples include haptophytes such as Prymnesium parvum, which feature two flagella and a unique haptonema—a filamentous appendage used for attachment and prey capture alongside photosynthesis—and cryptophytes like Cryptomonas species, characterized by a proteinaceous periplast that encases the cell and supports their photosynthetic lifestyle in freshwater and marine settings.^[59]31291-4) These structures underscore the adaptive diversity enabling these flagellates to thrive as key primary producers in aquatic ecosystems.

Life Cycles and Reproduction

Asexual Processes

Flagellates primarily reproduce asexually through binary fission, a process in which the parent cell duplicates its organelles and genetic material before dividing longitudinally into two genetically identical daughter cells.^[60] This method is prevalent among both heterotrophic protozoan flagellates, such as those in the genera Trypanosoma, Giardia, and Trichomonas, and photosynthetic algal flagellates like Euglena.^[60]^[61] In protozoan flagellates, binary fission typically occurs in the trophozoite stage, allowing rapid population growth in favorable environments, as seen in Giardia lamblia where the cyst form matures to release two trophozoites after organelle duplication.^[60] Multiple fission, or schizogony, represents another asexual process in some flagellates, particularly certain parasitic or algal forms, where the nucleus undergoes repeated divisions before the cytoplasm segments into multiple daughter cells or spores.^[62] For instance, dinoflagellates like Alexandrium reproduce via multiple fission, with one cell dividing sequentially into two, four, eight, or more daughter cells, facilitating explosive blooms in aquatic ecosystems.^[62] In green algal flagellates such as Chlamydomonas, asexual reproduction often involves multiple mitotic divisions within a sporangium, producing 2 to 16 zoospores that are released upon rupture of the parent cell wall; these motile spores then develop into new vegetative cells.^[63] Asexual processes in flagellates are generally haploid-dominant, with no meiosis involved, ensuring clonal propagation that enhances survival in stable habitats but limits genetic diversity.^[60] Encystment often precedes reproduction in variable environments, protecting cells during division and dispersal, as observed in Trichomonas and Euglena species.^[60]^[61] These mechanisms underscore the adaptability of flagellates, enabling them to colonize diverse niches from freshwater to host intestines.^[62]

Sexual Processes and Alternation of Generations

Sexual reproduction in flagellates encompasses a range of strategies, from isogamy to oogamy, facilitating genetic recombination across diverse taxa. In unicellular green algae such as Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, isogamy predominates, where morphologically similar but physiologically distinct plus (+) and minus (-) gametes fuse. These gametes adhere via flagellar agglutinins—large glycoproteins encoded by the SAG1 (plus) and SAD1 (minus) genes—that are displayed on flagellar membranes during nitrogen starvation. Agglutinins mediate species-specific adhesion through head-head, head-shaft, and shaft-shaft interactions, triggering intracellular signaling like cAMP elevation, cell wall disassembly, and plasma membrane fusion to form diploid zygotes.^[64] In more complex colonial forms like Volvox, sexual processes evolve toward anisogamy and oogamy, with small motile male gametes (sperm packets) and larger non-motile female gametes (eggs). This dimorphism arose from isogamous ancestors approximately 100 million years ago, driven by modifications in the MID gene, a master regulator of male differentiation, without expanding the mating-type locus complexity.^[65]^[66] Zygote formation typically involves syngamy followed by protective encasement. In green algal flagellates, fused gametes develop thick-walled zygospores for dormancy and survival against environmental stresses like desiccation and UV radiation. These zygospores feature multi-layered walls containing durable biopolymers such as sporopollenin-like materials for chemical resistance. Meiosis occurs upon zygospore germination, restoring the haploid phase and releasing flagellated spores.^[67] Alternation of generations varies phylogenetically among flagellates, reflecting adaptations to habitats. Green algal flagellates exhibit a haploid-dominant (haplontic) cycle, where the multicellular or unicellular gametophyte phase prevails, and the diploid sporophyte is transient, limited to the zygote undergoing immediate meiosis. In contrast, brown algal flagellates display a diploid-dominant (diplontic or haplo-diplontic) cycle, with a prominent multicellular sporophyte phase alternating with reduced haploid gametophytes; in some orders like Fucales, the haploid phase is confined to gametes. Parasitic flagellates such as Trypanosoma brucei incorporate sexual elements within their digenetic life cycle, featuring syngamy of haploid gametes (promastigote-like forms) in the tsetse fly's salivary glands, followed by meiotic recombination to generate diverse progeny, though without a distinct sporogonic phase.^[68]^[69] Hormonal triggers, particularly pheromones, synchronize gamete release in colonial species. In Volvox carteri, male colonies secrete a potent glycoprotein pheromone at concentrations as low as 100 aM, inducing asexual cells in nearby colonies to differentiate into eggs or sperm packets, thus coordinating oogamous reproduction. This signaling ensures efficient fertilization in dilute aquatic environments.^[70]

Ecology and Evolutionary Aspects

Habitats and Ecological Roles

Flagellates inhabit a wide range of environments, from aquatic to terrestrial and parasitic niches. In freshwater systems, such as nutrient-rich ponds and ditches, species like Euglena form dense blooms during summer months, particularly in eutrophic conditions driven by nutrient runoff.^[71]^[72] Marine environments host planktonic flagellates, including dinoflagellates, which dominate coastal and open ocean waters as key components of the phytoplankton community.^[73] Heterotrophic flagellates thrive in moist soil microhabitats, where they regulate bacterial populations in the litter layer and rhizosphere.^[74] Parasitic flagellates, such as Giardia duodenalis, reside in the intestines of vertebrate hosts, adhering to the mucosal lining to exploit nutrient-rich conditions.^[75]^[76] Ecologically, flagellates play diverse trophic roles that underpin food webs and nutrient cycling. Photosynthetic flagellates, especially dinoflagellates, serve as primary producers, contributing substantially to marine productivity—phytoplankton overall accounts for approximately 50% of global primary production, with dinoflagellates ranking second only to diatoms in coastal systems.^[77]^[73] Heterotrophic flagellates act as bacterivores, consuming bacteria at rates that transfer energy up the food chain and control microbial biomass in both pelagic and benthic habitats.^[16] In sediments and soil, they function as decomposers, facilitating organic matter breakdown and nutrient mineralization through grazing and excretion.^[74]^[78] Symbiotic relationships highlight flagellates' integrative ecological impact. Mutualistic dinoflagellate zooxanthellae reside within coral tissues, providing photosynthetic products in exchange for inorganic nutrients and protection, sustaining reef ecosystems.^[79]^[80] Conversely, parasitic forms like Pfiesteria piscicida disrupt aquatic communities by producing toxins that cause fish kills in nutrient-enriched estuaries, altering trophic dynamics.^[81]^[82] Flagellates influence biogeochemical cycles profoundly. Algal flagellates drive oxygen production via photosynthesis, contributing to atmospheric oxygen levels alongside their role in carbon fixation.^[77] Some flagellate systems, particularly through associations with nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes, support nitrogen availability in nutrient-limited environments like termite guts or marine interfaces.^[83]^[84]

Origins and Phylogenetic Relationships

The eukaryotic flagellum emerged as a pivotal innovation during the early evolution of eukaryotes, approximately 1.5 to 2 billion years ago in the Proterozoic era, marking a key adaptation for motility and environmental interaction. This structure originated in the last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA), a complex cell that possessed a motile flagellar apparatus, including centrioles or basal bodies and axonemal components. The flagellum's presence in LECA facilitated the diversification of early eukaryotes, enabling swimming in aquatic environments and contributing to the endosymbiotic events that shaped cellular complexity. Shared across major lineages like Opisthokonta (animals and fungi), the flagellum underscores its ancient eukaryotic heritage rather than a prokaryotic borrowing, with hypotheses suggesting autogenous development from cytoskeletal elements or endosymbiotic contributions. Recent phylogenomic studies as of 2025, including analyses of neglected flagellated protists, continue to refine the eukaryotic tree of life, supporting the polyphyletic distribution of flagellates.^[85] Phylogenetically, flagellates do not form a monophyletic group but are distributed across the eukaryotic tree, reflecting multiple losses and reacquisitions of the flagellum. Excavata, including taxa such as diplomonads (e.g., Giardia), is part of the Discoba supergroup and retains primitive flagellar configurations linked to ancestral feeding grooves. In Diaphoretickes, a major eukaryotic supergroup, flagella are retained in diverse subgroups like haptophytes and cryptophytes, reflecting inheritance from LECA with multiple independent losses in other lineages. Supporting evidence for flagellar antiquity includes the broad conservation of axonemal genes, particularly dynein motor protein families, which are encoded in genomes across eukaryotes and trace back to LECA's machinery for intraflagellar transport and bending. Proterozoic microfossils, dating to about 1.7 billion years ago, exhibit morphologies resembling flagellate cysts or vegetative cells, such as ornamented spheres with internal compartments suggestive of early motile protists. These fossils, often from cherts in formations like the Gunflint, provide direct paleontological corroboration of flagellate-like diversity predating the Cambrian explosion. Ongoing debates center on the rejection of flagellate monophyly, with phylogenomic analyses favoring a polyphyletic assembly where flagella evolved once in LECA but were lost in non-motile descendants like land plants and amoebae. The role of flagella in eukaryogenesis remains contentious, with models proposing symbiotic integration of an archaeal host and alphaproteobacterial endosymbiont, where flagellar precursors may have arisen from viral or bacterial elements to enable host motility during symbiosis.

Human Interactions

Medical and Pathogenic Importance

Flagellates of the genus Trypanosoma are significant human pathogens, particularly Trypanosoma brucei, which causes human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), also known as sleeping sickness. This vector-borne disease is transmitted by the bite of infected tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) in sub-Saharan Africa, leading to two forms: the chronic T. b. gambiense variant and the acute T. b. rhodesiense variant. HAT progresses from an early hemolymphatic stage to a late meningoencephalitic stage, causing severe neurological symptoms and, if untreated, death. As of 2024, WHO reported 546 new cases of the chronic form, with total annual cases under 1,000 since 2019, underscoring its ongoing public health threat in endemic regions despite dramatic declines due to control efforts; recent progress includes the World Health Organization validating Chad as free of the disease as a public health problem in June 2024, marking the 51st country to achieve this for a neglected tropical disease.^[86]^[87] A key pathogenic mechanism in T. brucei is antigenic variation, where the parasite periodically switches its variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) coat to evade the host immune response, enabling chronic infections. Treatment depends on the disease stage and subspecies; for first-stage T. b. rhodesiense HAT, intravenous suramin is the standard therapy, while second-stage cases require melarsoprol or newer options like fexinidazole for T. b. gambiense. Challenges include drug toxicity and emerging resistance, though vector control and surveillance have driven elimination efforts in several countries.^[88]^[89] Leishmaniasis, caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania (over 20 species), is another major flagellate-borne disease transmitted by phlebotomine sandflies, affecting skin, mucosa, or viscera. Visceral leishmaniasis, the most severe form, leads to fever, weight loss, and organ failure if untreated, with an estimated 30,000 new cases annually worldwide, alongside more than 1 million cutaneous cases per year. Endemic in 90+ countries, it disproportionately impacts impoverished populations in South Asia, East Africa, and Latin America. Pathogenesis involves intracellular survival within host macrophages, evading immune detection. Treatments include antimonials, amphotericin B, and miltefosine, but access and resistance pose ongoing hurdles.^[90]^[91] Giardiasis, caused by the flagellate Giardia lamblia (also known as G. duodenalis or G. intestinalis), is a common waterborne and foodborne infection affecting an estimated 280 million people globally each year with symptomatic infection, particularly in areas with poor sanitation. Transmission occurs via fecal-oral route, often through contaminated water, leading to symptoms like diarrhea, abdominal pain, and malabsorption. The parasite attaches to the small intestinal mucosa using a ventral disc and flagella, disrupting epithelial barrier function and nutrient absorption without invading tissues. Metronidazole or tinidazole are first-line treatments, effective in most cases, though nitroimidazole resistance has emerged in the 2020s, complicating therapy in some regions.^[92]^[93]^[94]^[95]^[96] Trichomoniasis, resulting from infection by Trichomonas vaginalis, is the most prevalent non-viral sexually transmitted infection worldwide, with approximately 156 million new cases among individuals aged 15–49 in 2020. Primarily affecting the urogenital tract, it causes vaginitis in women and urethritis in men, often asymptomatic but increasing risks for HIV transmission and adverse pregnancy outcomes. The motile parasite adheres to mucosal surfaces via adhesion proteins, inducing inflammation without tissue invasion. Standard treatment is oral metronidazole or tinidazole, with high efficacy, though resistance is rare but monitored globally.^[97]

Biotechnological and Research Applications

Flagellates, encompassing both protozoan and algal forms, have emerged as valuable platforms in biotechnology and research due to their diverse metabolic capabilities, motility, and unique cellular mechanisms. Algal flagellates such as Euglena gracilis and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii are particularly exploited for sustainable production of biofuels, nutraceuticals, and recombinant proteins, leveraging their photosynthetic efficiency and genetic tractability. Protozoan flagellates like trypanosomes serve as model organisms for studying eukaryotic cell biology, immune evasion, and drug development, contributing to advancements in parasitology and molecular genetics.^[98]^[99]^[100] In biotechnology, Euglena gracilis stands out for its multifaceted applications, producing high-value metabolites including α-tocopherol (vitamin E), polyunsaturated fatty acids, and the β-1,3-glucan paramylon, which exhibits immunostimulatory and antitumor properties suitable for nutraceuticals and biomaterials. Its biomass serves as a protein-rich supplement in aquaculture feeds and animal nutrition, enhancing growth rates in fish and livestock. Environmentally, E. gracilis aids in bioremediation by sequestering heavy metals like cadmium and lead from wastewater, and it supports ecotoxicological assessments due to its sensitivity to pollutants. Additionally, genetic engineering of Euglena enables plastid transformation for recombinant protein expression, positioning it as a platform for industrial enzyme production.^[98]^[98]^[98] Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, a biflagellate green alga, is widely used in bioengineering for its rapid growth and established genetic tools, including CRISPR/Cas9 editing and modular cloning systems like MoClo for pathway optimization. It produces biofuels such as biodiesel from its lipid-rich biomass under stress conditions, and high-value compounds like astaxanthin and zeaxanthin for antioxidants in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Recombinant protein production in C. reinhardtii includes therapeutic antigens, such as the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, achieving yields up to 1% of total soluble protein through nuclear and chloroplast expression systems. Its bacterial consortia further enhance applications in biofertilizers, promoting plant growth via phytohormone production and nutrient cycling.^[99]^[99]^[99] Dinoflagellates contribute bioactive phycotoxins with pharmacological potential, derived from species like Karenia brevis and Prorocentrum lima. Brevetoxins activate voltage-gated sodium channels, aiding neural repair in post-stroke therapies by promoting dendritic growth in animal models. Saxitoxins and neosaxitoxins function as potent analgesics and anesthetics, with clinical trials demonstrating efficacy in bladder pain syndrome at doses 10-100 times lower than traditional opioids. Other toxins, such as palytoxin and yessotoxin, show anticancer activity by disrupting cytoskeletal dynamics and inducing apoptosis in tumor cells, informing drug development for head and neck cancers and allergies. These compounds also serve as research tools for probing ion channel functions and cellular signaling.^[101]^[101]^[101] In research, protozoan flagellates like Trypanosoma brucei provide insights into eukaryotic processes divergent from typical models, including antigenic variation via variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) switching, which evades host immunity and inspires vaccine design strategies. Their unique RNA editing and glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor biosynthesis have elucidated post-transcriptional regulation and membrane protein trafficking, applicable to broader eukaryotic studies. T. brucei also models mitochondrial dynamics and endocytosis, with advanced imaging techniques revealing in vivo motility adaptations in vertebrate hosts, advancing understanding of parasitism and host-pathogen interactions. Genome editing toolkits, such as protein-tagging systems, facilitate localization studies of over 8,000 genes, supporting drug target identification for sleeping sickness therapies.^[100]^[100]^[100]

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Dec 15, 2009 · In wild-type flagella, two size classes of trains can be detected, of average lengths 700 ± 244 nm and 251 ± 45 nm. The shorter size class is ...
[12]
Biology 2e, The Cell, Cell Structure, The Cytoskeleton | OpenEd CUNY
Despite their differences in length and number, flagella and cilia share a common structural arrangement of microtubules called a “9 + 2 array.” This is an ...
[13]
Flagellate - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Flagellates are protozoans with flagella, producing a whiplike motion. They can be free-living or parasitic, and are free-swimming or sessile.
[14]
The Trypanosoma brucei Flagellum: Moving Parasites in New ...
Trypanosoma brucei and related subspecies are protozoan parasites that cause African trypanosomiasis in humans and animals, a deadly disease with devastating ...
[15]
Cascades of Convergent Evolution - NCBI - NIH
Benthic euglenids and dinoflagellates, in particular, adhere to substrates and are capable of gliding motility using 2 heterodynamic flagella equipped with ...
[16]
A Short Guide to Common Heterotrophic Flagellates of Freshwater ...
Heterotrophic flagellates (HF) are abundant eukaryotes, main feeders on bacteria, with a size range of 1-450 μm, and can be found in both marine and freshwater.
[17]
[PDF] HAECKEL'S Kingdom Protista and Current Concepts in Systematic ...
Abstract. Ernst HAECKEL, one of the biological giants of the second half of the 19th cen- tury, boldly created a novel third kingdom.
[18]
A Newly Revised Classification of the Protozoa* - LEVINE - 1980
SYNOPSIS The subkingdom Protozoa now includes over 65,000 named species, of which over half are fossil and ∼ 10,000 are parasitic.Missing: separation phytoflagellates
[19]
Axoneme Structure from Motile Cilia - PMC - PubMed Central
The axoneme is the main extracellular part of cilia and flagella in eukaryotes. It consists of a microtubule cytoskeleton, which normally comprises nine ...
[20]
Eukaryotic Flagella: Variations in Form, Function, and Composition ...
In the iconic, textbook 9+2 configuration, axonemes are formed from a ring of nine outer doublet microtubules that surround two singlet central pair ...
[21]
Basal body multipotency and axonemal remodelling are two ...
Dec 15, 2015 · Eukaryotic cilia/flagella exhibit two characteristic ultrastructures reflecting two main functions; a 9+2 axoneme for motility and a 9+0 ...
[22]
Structural-Functional Relationships of the Dynein, Spokes, and ...
Therefore, in these flagella the nexin links and the cell membrane are the only structures positioned to resist the t-force when the dynein arms release.Missing: accessory mastigonemes
[23]
The dynein regulatory complex is the nexin link and a major ...
M.E. . 1994 . Components of a “dynein regulatory complex” are located at the junction between the radial spokes and the dynein arms in Chlamydomonas flagella .Missing: accessory | Show results with:accessory
[24]
Mastigoneme - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Within the flagellar shaft, accessory structures are commonly found between the axoneme and membrane. ... dynein arms, nexin links, and radial spokes. Cilia of ...
[25]
Nodal Cilia Dynamics and the Specification of the Left/Right Axis in ...
These nodal cells exhibit cilia with 9+0 architecture that apparently rotate in a clockwise direction (ventral view). In wild-type (wt) phenotypes such motion ...
[26]
Diameter of flagellum - Eukaryotes - BNID 104823 - BioNumbers
The diameter of a eukaryotic flagellum is approximately 200 nm.
[27]
Intraflagellar transport at a glance - PMC - NIH
IFT plays essential roles in the assembly and function of cilia and flagella by contributing to cell motility, sensory perception and cilium-based signaling ( ...
[28]
Intraflagellar transport 46 (IFT46) is essential for trafficking IFT ...
Jun 18, 2018 · Intraflagellar transport (IFT) is a bi-directional process by which particles are carried within the cilia or flagella.
[29]
Trypanosome Motion Represents an Adaptation to the Crowded ...
Trypanosomes are pulled forward by the planar beat of the single flagellum. Hydrodynamic flow across the asymmetrically shaped cell body translates into its ...
[30]
[PDF] FLAGELLAR MOTION AND FINE STRUCTURE OF THE ...
The biflagellate alga Chlamydomonas reinhar&" was studied with the light and electron micro- scopes to determine the behavior of flagella in the living cell and ...
[31]
Euglena, a Gravitactic Flagellate of Multiple Usages - MDPI
Most Euglena species have two flagella originating in the basal bodies at the bottom of an indention at front end, called the reservoir (Figure 1). In most ...
[32]
Propulsion of African trypanosomes is driven by bihelical waves with ...
We find that, instead, motility of T. brucei is by the propagation of kinks, separating left-handed and right-handed helical waves.
[33]
Kinematics of flagellar swimming in Euglena gracilis - NIH
We provide a quantitative, 3D, highly resolved reconstruction of the swimming trajectories and flagellar shapes of specimens of Euglena gracilis.
[34]
Emergence of flagellar beating from the collective behavior of ...
Oct 10, 2016 · Axonemal dyneins generate force by coupling ATP hydrolysis to conformational changes, which causes sliding of the attached microtubules [3–7, 21]
[35]
[PDF] Bacterial Hydrodynamics - DAMTP
Jan 13, 2016 · Low–Reynolds number hydrodynamics is at the heart of the ability of flagella to generate propulsion at the micrometer scale.
[36]
Origins of eukaryotic excitability - PMC - NIH
Rheotaxis in shear flow is dependent on a PKD2-like TRP channel in the amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum [200]. In the excavate Euglena gracilis, Ca2+ influx via ...
[37]
The shape effect of flagella is more important than bottom-heaviness ...
To rotate the body upwards, cellular asymmetry is critical. Chlamydomonas can be depicted as a nearly spherical cell body with two anterior, symmetric flagella.Missing: pushing | Show results with:pushing
[38]
Gravitational sensory transduction chain in flagellates - ScienceDirect
RNAi of cal 1 leads to a long-term loss of free swimming in the cells (while euglenoid movement persists). It induced pronounced cell form aberrations and the ...
[39]
Kinetoplastida - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Kinetoplastida are flagellated unicellular organisms, including parasites and free-living forms, with unique kinetoplasts containing complex mitochondrial DNA.
[40]
Exploring the environmental diversity of kinetoplastid flagellates in ...
While this group encompasses over 30 genera, most of the available information has been derived from the vertebrate pathogenic genera Leishmaniaand Trypanosoma.
[41]
DPDx - Trypanosomiasis, African - CDC
A typical trypomastigote has a small kinetoplast located at the posterior end, a centrally located nucleus, an undulating membrane, and a flagellum running ...
[42]
Species-Specific Adaptations of Trypanosome Morphology and ...
Feb 12, 2016 · In all trypanosomes analysed the flagellum was closely attached to the cell body and did not constitute part of an elastic undulating membrane.
[43]
First finding of free-living representatives of Prokinetoplastina and ...
Feb 3, 2021 · Kinetoplastids are heterotrophic flagellated protists, including important parasites of humans and animals (trypanosomatids), and ecologically ...Missing: examples | Show results with:examples
[44]
Haemoprotozoa: Making biological sense of molecular phylogenies
Aug 26, 2017 · Two major kinetoplastid groups are recognized: bodonids with two flagella (most being free-living bactivores in aquatic/terrestrial habitats); ...
[45]
The paraflagellar rod of kinetoplastid parasites: From structure to ...
The paraflagellar rod (PFR) is one of several unique attributes characterising the biology of kinetoplastid protozoa and has served as a focus for speculation ...
[46]
Structure of the trypanosome paraflagellar rod and insights into non ...
Jul 13, 2021 · Eukaryotic cells depend on flagella (synonymous with cilia) to move through and respond to their external environment. In humans, flagellum ...
[47]
A contractile vacuole complex is involved in osmoregulation in ...
The contractile vacuole was first described in the late 18th century by the famed scientist Lazzaro Spallanzani who noted a pulsatile star-shaped organelle in a ...
[48]
Life with eight flagella: flagellar assembly and division in Giardia
Eight flagellar basal bodies lie in between or in close proximity to the two nuclei, and are generally arranged with the six basal bodies of the ventral, caudal ...
[49]
Recent advances in the molecular biology of the protist parasite ...
Mar 4, 2021 · T. vaginalis diverges strongly from most other protists by having an anaerobic metabolism and by hosting an unusual organelle, the hydrogenosome ...Missing: urogenital | Show results with:urogenital
[50]
Clinical and Microbiological Aspects of Trichomonas vaginalis - PMC
Carbohydrate and Energy Metabolism. Being one of the most ancient eukaryotes, T. vaginalis has features that are common to anaerobic bacteria as well as higher ...
[51]
Genetic engineering of the Calvin cycle toward enhanced ...
Oct 5, 2017 · The Calvin cycle plays a central role in plant and algal metabolism, which takes place in chloroplast and consists of a series of enzymatic ...Missing: flagellates | Show results with:flagellates<|control11|><|separator|>
[52]
Eyespot-dependent determination of the phototactic sign in ... - PNAS
Apr 27, 2016 · The biflagellate green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii exhibits both positive and negative phototaxis to inhabit areas with proper light ...
[53]
[PDF] characteristics and importance of planktonic flagellates in marine ...
Photosynthetic flagellates ... Prasinophyte cell and flagella (1-8) are covered with minute organic scales, the flagella also being covered with simple hairs.
[54]
Salt Stress Induces Paramylon Accumulation and Fine-Tuning of the ...
Nov 15, 2021 · Euglena gracilis is a mixotrophic microalgal species of unicellular freshwater flagellate protists, having high biotechnological potential ( ...
[55]
Euglena gracilis growth and cell composition under different ...
Although E. gracilis was not expected to store large amounts of paramylon when grown phototrophically, we observed that phototrophic cells could contain up to ...
[56]
Light-dependent switching between two flagellar beating states ...
We investigate how Euglena gracilis can select between positive vs. negative phototaxis under low vs. high light intensities, respectively.
[57]
Green Noctiluca scintillans: a dinoflagellate with its own greenhouse
Jul 14, 2025 · The aim of the present investigation was to quantify photosynthesis, food uptake and growth of the green. Noctiluca scintillans in monocultures ...
[58]
Prymnesins: Toxic Metabolites of the Golden Alga, Prymnesium ...
Mar 16, 2010 · Proposed uses for the haptonema include it being a sensory device, which is used to attach to substrates or to capture and aggregate prey [21,22] ...
[59]
Protozoa: Structure, Classification, Growth, and Development - NCBI
Protozoa are one-celled, microscopic, unicellular eukaryotes found worldwide, with complex internal structures and metabolic activities.
[60]
Euglena: a unicellular algae – Inanimate Life - Milne Publishing
Reproduction. Euglena reproduces asexually when cells divide. No sexual reproduction has been found within the group. The striations seen on the right side are ...
[61]
Dinoflagellate – Harmful Algal Blooms
Dinoflagellates such as Alexandrium usually reproduce by asexual fission: One cell grows and then divides into two cells, then two into four, four into eight, ...
[62]
Chlamydomonas, a small unicellular green alga - Milne Publishing
Chlamydomonas reproduces asexually when haploid cells divide (often multiple times) and form 2, 4, 8 or more daughter cells, that are then released. Sexual ...
[63]
Plus and Minus Sexual Agglutinins from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
Gametes of the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii undergo sexual adhesion via enormous chimeric Hyp-rich glycoproteins (HRGPs), the plus and minus ...
[64]
Anisogamy evolved with a reduced sex-determining region ... - Nature
Mar 8, 2018 · The first step to anisogamy in volvocine algae presumably occurred without an increase in MT size and complexity.
[65]
Zygospores of the green alga Spirogyra: new insights from structural ...
Dec 6, 2022 · Sexual reproduction occurs in Zygnematophyceae by conjugation and results in the formation of zygospores ... Disintegration of chloroplasts during ...
[66]
The epigenetic origin of life history transitions in plants and algae
The concept of an alternation of generations can be misleading when applied to algae as, unlike land plants, there is often no fixed or regular alternation ...
[67]
sexual recombination among pathogenic trypanosomes
Sexual recombination in trypanosomes involves meiosis, producing haploid gametes, and can create new strains by mobilizing harmful genes. This occurs in the ...Missing: sporogony | Show results with:sporogony
[68]
Pheromone signaling during sexual reproduction in algae - Frenkel
Mar 6, 2014 · (1998) The sex-inducing pheromone and wounding trigger the same set of genes in the multicellular green alga Volvox. Plant Cell, 10, 781–789.
[69]
[PDF] Euglenoids - NC DEQ
Blooms are most likely to occur during the summer in freshwater ponds and ditches receiving nutrient- rich waste or nonpoint source runoff. Significance:
[70]
Ecology of freshwater harmful euglenophytes: A review - PMC
Heavy bloom of euglenophytes in the summer season is the characteristic of eutrophic ponds. Inland waterbodies in many countries suffer from euglenophyte blooms ...
[71]
Life History and Ecology of the Dinoflagellata
The surplus of nutrients triggers a "bloom" of photosynthetic dinoflagellates, whose population density may jump to more than 20 million per liter along some ...Missing: flagellates | Show results with:flagellates
[72]
Protozoa and plant growth: the microbial loop in soil revisited
Apr 13, 2004 · Notes on protozoa in agricultural soil with emphasis on heterotrophic flagellates and naked amoebae and their ecology. FEMS Microbiology ...
[73]
Giardiasis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Feb 12, 2024 · G duodenalis, the flagellated protozoan responsible for the infection, ranks as the most commonly found intestinal parasite in the United States ...
[74]
Pathogen Safety Data Sheets: Infectious Substances – Giardia lamblia
CHARACTERISTICS: G. lamblia is a flagellated enteric protozoan parasite. There are two stages in the lifecycle, a motile vegetative form (trophozoite) which ...<|separator|>
[75]
The Biological Productivity of the Ocean | Learn Science at Scitable
Ocean productivity largely refers to the production of organic matter by phytoplankton, plants suspended in the ocean, most of which are single-celled.
[76]
Soil water availability strongly alters the community composition of ...
Soil heterotrophic protists, being important aquatic soil organisms are considered as key-regulators of microbial nutrient turnover.
[77]
Functional diversity in coral–dinoflagellate symbiosis - PNAS
Coral–dinoflagellate symbioses are defined as mutualistic because both partners receive benefit from the association via the exchange of nutrients. This ...
[78]
The engine of the reef: photobiology of the coral–algal symbiosis
Dinoflagellate algae live within the cells of corals and provide their hosts with most if not all the energy needed to meet the coral's metabolic demands ( ...
[79]
Field ecology of toxic Pfiesteria complex species and a conservative ...
Here we summarize a decadal field effort in fish kill assessment, encompassing kills related to Pfiesteria (49 major kills in North Carolina estuaries since ...
[80]
Toxigenic Pfiesteria species—Updates on biology, ecology, toxins ...
Both Pfiesteria species are causative agents of estuarine fish kills. Use of in-progress kills, while fish were still dying, as habitat for detecting ...
[81]
Bacteroidales ectosymbionts of gut flagellates shape the nitrogen ...
Dec 22, 2011 · A preferential association of certain flagellates with nitrogen-fixing bacteria would give rise to a pattern of diazotrophs that reflects ...
[82]
Nitrogen fixation in eukaryotes – New models for symbiosis
Apr 4, 2007 · Eukaryotic organisms are only able to obtain fixed nitrogen through their symbiotic interactions with nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes.
[83]
Trypanosomiasis, human African (sleeping sickness)
May 2, 2023 · WHO fact sheet on Human African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, a vector-borne parasitic disease. it provides key facts, ...
[84]
Antigenic variation in African trypanosomes - PMC - PubMed Central
Antigenic variation in T. brucei involves switching to expression of a distinct VSG so the availability of VSG cDNA clones allowed researchers to look for ...
[85]
Leishmaniasis - World Health Organization (WHO)
Jan 12, 2023 · Leishmaniasis is caused by a protozoa parasite from over 20 Leishmania species. Over 90 sandfly species are known to transmit Leishmania parasites.
[86]
[PDF] Multicriteria-based ranking for risk management of food-borne ...
Dec 6, 2012 · Giardia duodenalis, Giardia intestinalis, and Giardia lamblia are the names used to ... Approximately 200 million people have been exposed ...
[87]
Giardia duodenalis: Biology and Pathogenesis - PMC
The trophozoites adhere tightly to the small intestinal mucosa, leaving a detectable imprint when they detach from the intestinal epithelium (192), so the ...
[88]
Patient Care for Giardia Infection - CDC
Feb 20, 2024 · Metronidazole. Other medications healthcare providers can use to treat Giardia infection include: Albendazole; Mebendazole; Paromomycin ...Key Points · Treatment Options · Medication Options
[89]
Prevalence of Nitroimidazole-Refractory Giardiasis Acquired ... - CDC
May 16, 2025 · Treatment-refractory giardiasis is an emerging clinical problem. Of 4,285 giardiasis cases identified during 2008–2020 in Stockholm, Sweden, 102 ...
[90]
Trichomoniasis - World Health Organization (WHO)
Nov 25, 2024 · There were an estimated 156 million new cases of T. vaginalis infection among people aged 15–49 years old in 2020 globally in 2020 (73.7 million ...
[91]
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leishmaniasis
[92]
Molecular Advancements Establishing Chlamydomonas as a Host ...
Jun 28, 2022 · Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is emerging as a production platform for biotechnological purposes thanks to recent achievements, which we briefly ...
[93]
Trypanosomes as a magnifying glass for cell and molecular biology
Trypanosomes are a flexible model for molecular and cellular biology, with unique features and contributions to areas like RNA editing and GPI anchors.
[94]
Industrial Applications of Dinoflagellate Phycotoxins Based on Their ...
Dec 18, 2020 · PLTX can be used in research for anticancer drugs. Görögh et al. [148] previously found that PLTX possesses preferential toxicity for head and ...