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G2 phase

The G2 phase, or second gap phase, is the final substage of interphase in the eukaryotic cell cycle, positioned between the S phase of DNA synthesis and the M phase of mitosis.^[1] It serves as a preparatory interval where the cell grows, duplicates organelles, synthesizes proteins essential for chromosome segregation and cytokinesis, and verifies the completion and fidelity of DNA replication to prevent errors in daughter cells.^[1]^[2] The duration of G2 varies by cell type and organism but typically spans several hours in mammalian cells, allowing sufficient time for these quality-control processes.^[1] Progression through G2 is tightly regulated by the cyclin-dependent kinase complex formed by cyclin B and CDK1, which accumulates and activates in late G2 to trigger entry into mitosis.^[2] Transcription of cyclin B peaks in late G2 under the control of factors such as NF-Y, FoxM1, and B-Myb, while its nuclear localization is facilitated by phosphorylation from CDK1 and Polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1).^[2] This regulatory mechanism ensures that mitotic entry is delayed until all prerequisites are met, with cyclin B-CDK1 activity reaching its peak approximately 30 minutes before prometaphase.^[2] A critical feature of G2 is the G2/M checkpoint, which monitors DNA damage—particularly double-strand breaks—and replication fidelity, arresting the cell cycle if issues are detected to allow repair.^[1]^[2] This checkpoint is activated primarily by the ATM kinase in response to double-strand breaks, with maintenance involving ATR kinase following DNA end resection by proteins like CtIP and the MRN complex (Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1).^[2] DNA repair in G2 favors homologous recombination pathways, involving key players such as BRCA1, BRCA2, PALB2, and RAD51, to restore genome integrity and avert mutations during division.^[2] Failure in these safeguards can lead to genomic instability, contributing to diseases like cancer.^[2]

Overview and key events

Definition and timing

The G2 phase, also known as the second gap phase, is the interval in the eukaryotic cell cycle that follows the S phase of DNA replication and precedes the M phase of mitosis. During this period, the cell possesses a duplicated genome and focuses on preparations for division.^[3] In mammalian cells, the G2 phase typically lasts 2-5 hours, though this duration varies by cell type and physiological conditions; for instance, measurements in human cell lines such as HeLa cells indicate a median G2 duration of approximately 3.7 hours, while retinal pigment epithelial cells show 3.4–4.0 hours.^[4]^[3] The phase is shorter in rapidly dividing cells, such as those in early embryos, where G1 and G2 phases are often truncated to support accelerated proliferation, compared to longer durations in differentiated somatic cells.^[5]^[6] The primary purpose of the G2 phase is to facilitate cellular growth, the synthesis of proteins and structures required for mitosis (such as components of the mitotic spindle), and the assessment of DNA replication accuracy to ensure genomic integrity prior to division.^[7] This phase allows the cell to accumulate resources and verify that the duplicated chromosomes are suitable for segregation.^[8] The transition from G2 to M phase is primarily driven by the activation of the cyclin B-CDK1 complex. The existence of the G2 phase was first established in the 1950s through radiolabeling experiments using phosphorus-32 on root meristem cells of Vicia faba, conducted by Alma Howard and Stephen Pelc, who identified distinct periods of DNA synthesis and post-replicative growth, thereby delineating the cell cycle into G1, S, G2, and M phases.^[9]

Cellular growth and preparation

During the G2 phase, cells continue to grow, increasing their cytoplasmic volume and overall mass to ensure sufficient resources for the energy demands of mitosis and to provide enough cytoplasm for the two daughter cells. This expansion supports the biosynthesis of cellular components necessary for division, with organelles such as mitochondria continuing to duplicate to maintain bioenergetic capacity in daughter cells. Centrosomes, which begin duplication in the S phase, mature and separate during G2, establishing the poles for the future mitotic spindle. Additionally, microtubules reorganize into pre-mitotic arrays, preparing the cytoskeleton for chromosome segregation.^[1]^[10] Protein synthesis is upregulated in G2, focusing on mitotic machinery components including tubulins for microtubule polymerization, lamins for nuclear envelope dynamics, and condensins for chromosome compaction. The transcription factor FOXM1 plays a central role in this process, activating expression of G2/M-specific genes such as those encoding cyclin B1, polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1), and Aurora B kinase, which collectively drive mitotic progression. These proteins accumulate to facilitate spindle assembly and chromosome alignment.^[11]^[12] RNA synthesis persists in G2 but at a reduced rate compared to G1 and S phases, with transcription shifting toward mRNAs encoding mitosis-related proteins to support the ongoing preparations. RNA polymerase I activity, responsible for ribosomal RNA production, reaches maximal levels in S/G2, aiding ribosome biogenesis for translational demands. These transcriptional activities ensure timely availability of mitotic regulators.^[13]^[14] In yeast, G2 preparations include synthesis of precursors for septum formation, with genes in the Cdc15 cluster—such as those involved in cytokinesis—expressed to enable cell separation post-mitosis. In mammalian cells, G2 involves accumulation of components for nuclear envelope breakdown, including phosphorylatable lamins that disassemble the lamina upon mitotic entry. If DNA integrity issues arise, checkpoints can briefly halt these growth processes to allow resolution before mitosis.^[15]^[16]

Major molecular players

During the G2 phase, levels of cyclin A and cyclin B rise progressively, driving the cell toward mitosis. Cyclin A associates with CDK2 early in G2 to facilitate ongoing processes, while cyclin B accumulates later and binds to CDK1 (also known as cdc2) to form the maturation-promoting factor (MPF), a key complex that initiates mitotic entry.^[17]^[18] This MPF complex is essential for phosphorylating substrates that reorganize the cytoskeleton and nuclear envelope.^[19] The activity of the cyclin B-CDK1 complex is tightly regulated by inhibitory and activating factors. Wee1 kinase phosphorylates CDK1 on tyrosine 15 (Tyr15), inhibiting its activity and preventing premature mitotic entry during G2.^[20] In opposition, Cdc25 phosphatases (particularly Cdc25B and Cdc25C) dephosphorylate this inhibitory site, activating CDK1 and promoting the G2/M transition.^[21] The balance of these regulators can be modeled simply as CDK1 activity being proportional to cyclin B levels divided by the net inhibitory influence of Wee1 and the activating potential of Cdc25:

\text{CDK1 activity} \propto \frac{[\text{Cyclin B}]}{\text{Wee1 inhibition} + \text{Cdc25 activation}}

This phosphorylation state model underscores the antagonistic interplay without implying full derivation.^[22] DNA damage sensing in G2 involves p53, which acts as a transcriptional activator in response to genotoxic stress, alongside ATM and ATR kinases that initiate signaling cascades to halt progression if lesions persist. ATM primarily responds to double-strand breaks by phosphorylating downstream effectors, while ATR handles replication-associated damage, both contributing to checkpoint enforcement.^[23]^[24] Transcriptional regulation in G2 is mediated by the E2F family of factors, which control the expression of genes required for mitotic preparation, such as those involved in chromosome condensation and spindle assembly. E2F sites in promoters of G2/M genes like cdc2 and cyclin B1 enable both activation and repression to fine-tune timing.^[25] Additionally, polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1) performs multiple functions in G2, including centrosome maturation, activation of the anaphase-promoting complex, and coordination of microtubule organization.^[26]^[27]

DNA integrity and repair

Homologous recombinational repair

Homologous recombination (HR) serves as the primary mechanism for repairing DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) during the G2 phase of the cell cycle, utilizing the newly replicated sister chromatid as an error-free template to restore genomic integrity.^[28] This pathway is particularly active in S and G2 phases when sister chromatids are available, enabling precise repair that minimizes mutations compared to alternative mechanisms.^[2] In G2, HR is favored due to the cell cycle-dependent regulation by cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), which promote the initial processing of DSB ends, contrasting with error-prone pathways that dominate in G1.^[28] The process begins with DSB recognition by the MRN complex (Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1), which tethers the broken DNA ends and initiates 5' to 3' end resection in coordination with CtIP and BRCA1 to generate long 3' single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) overhangs.^[28] These overhangs are coated by RPA to prevent secondary structures, followed by the displacement of RPA and loading of RAD51 recombinase, facilitated by BRCA2 and its partner PALB2, to form a nucleoprotein filament capable of searching for homology.^[2] The RAD51 filament then performs strand invasion into the homologous sister chromatid, forming a D-loop structure that allows DNA polymerase to extend the invading strand using the intact template.^[28] Subsequent capture of the second end leads to the formation of double Holliday junctions, which are resolved by resolvases such as GEN1 or MUS81-EME1, yielding either non-crossover or crossover products to complete repair.^[28] Experimental evidence underscores HR's prominence in G2, with studies in yeast demonstrating that RAD52 mutants, which disrupt HR, exhibit severe defects in repairing DSBs induced by HO endonuclease, particularly when breaks occur in S/G2, leading to prolonged checkpoint arrest and cell death.^[29] In human cells, quantification of radiation-induced DSBs shows HR efficiency peaking at approximately 15-20% in G2 phase, with BRCA2 and PALB2 knockdown reducing repair rates and increasing genomic instability, as measured by γ-H2AX foci resolution.^[30]^[31] If HR fails to resolve DSBs, the G2/M checkpoint integrates these signals to delay mitotic entry, preventing propagation of unrepaired damage.^[2]

Other DNA repair pathways in G2

In addition to homologous recombination, several other DNA repair pathways operate during the G2 phase to address specific types of lesions, ensuring genome stability before mitosis. Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is a versatile mechanism that removes bulky, helix-distorting adducts, such as those induced by ultraviolet (UV) radiation, including cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers and 6-4 photoproducts. This pathway functions in a cell cycle-independent manner, actively engaging in G2 to excise damaged oligonucleotides through a multi-step process involving damage recognition, unwinding, incision, and resynthesis. Key proteins include XPC, which initiates global genome NER by detecting lesions; XPA, which verifies damage and assembles the repair complex; and XPB, a helicase component of the TFIIH transcription factor II H that unwinds DNA around the lesion site, facilitating incisions by XPG and XPF-ERCC1 endonucleases. NER intermediates, such as single-strand gaps, can trigger ATR kinase activation, contributing to G2 checkpoint enforcement if repair is incomplete. Mismatch repair (MMR) primarily corrects base-base mismatches and small insertion/deletion loops arising from DNA replication errors, with activity extending into G2 following the S phase boundary for post-replicative fidelity. Although most efficient during or immediately after S phase, MMR persists in G2, particularly in response to alkylating agents like N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine that generate O6-methylguanine mispairs. The process begins with recognition by the MutSα heterodimer (MSH2/MSH6), which recruits MutLα (MLH1/PMS2) to direct excision of the erroneous strand using strand discrimination cues, followed by resynthesis and ligation. In MMR-proficient cells, persistent mismatches in G2 lead to ATR-dependent signaling, inducing arrest in the subsequent G2 phase to allow resolution and prevent mitotic transmission of errors. Base excision repair (BER) targets non-bulky base modifications, such as oxidative lesions from reactive oxygen species (e.g., 8-oxoguanine), and operates throughout the cell cycle, including G2, to maintain nucleotide integrity post-replication. Short-patch BER predominates in G2, where DNA glycosylases (e.g., OGG1 for 8-oxoguanine) remove damaged bases, creating abasic sites that APE1 endonuclease cleaves to generate single-strand breaks with clean ends. PARP1 rapidly binds these breaks to recruit repair factors and prevent collapse, while APE1 processes ends for gap filling by DNA polymerase β, and the XRCC1-DNA ligase III complex seals the nick. Although BER activity does not significantly increase during G2 arrest induced by ionizing radiation, specialized polymerases like Pol λ are stabilized in late S/G2 by CDK2/cyclin A phosphorylation, supporting repair of replication-associated oxidative damage. These pathways—NER, MMR, and BER—interact with the broader DNA damage response in G2, where unrepaired intermediates or persistent lesions can activate ATM/ATR kinases to amplify checkpoint signaling and delay mitotic entry, distinct from direct homologous recombination processes. For instance, NER-generated single-strand-double-strand junctions and MMR-induced nicks engage ATR, while BER-derived single-strand breaks may convert to double-strand breaks under replication stress, recruiting ATM for coordinated resolution.

Checkpoint regulation

G2/M DNA damage checkpoint

The G2/M DNA damage checkpoint is a critical regulatory mechanism that detects DNA lesions during the G2 phase and prevents progression to mitosis until repair is complete, thereby maintaining genomic integrity. Upon detection of DNA double-strand breaks, the ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) kinase is rapidly activated and phosphorylates the checkpoint kinase Chk2 at multiple sites, including Thr68, enhancing its activity.^[32] Similarly, in response to single-stranded DNA or replication stress, the ataxia-telangiectasia and Rad3-related (ATR) kinase phosphorylates Chk1 at serine residues such as Ser345 and Ser317, leading to its activation. These activated effector kinases, Chk1 and Chk2, then target key regulators of the cyclin B1-CDK1 complex to enforce cell cycle arrest. Activated Chk1 and Chk2 inhibit the Cdc25 family of phosphatases (primarily Cdc25A, Cdc25B, and Cdc25C) by phosphorylating them at specific sites, such as Ser216 on Cdc25C, which promotes binding to 14-3-3 proteins and sequesters the phosphatases in the cytoplasm, preventing dephosphorylation of CDK1. Concurrently, Chk1 phosphorylates and activates the Wee1 kinase, enhancing its ability to phosphorylate CDK1 on tyrosine 15 (Tyr15), thereby inactivating the cyclin B1-CDK1 complex and halting mitotic entry. This dual inhibition—suppressing Cdc25 activity while boosting Wee1—ensures robust G2 arrest, providing time for DNA repair pathways, such as homologous recombination, to address the lesions. The checkpoint specifically monitors the resolution of these repair processes to verify genomic stability before allowing progression. If the damage is repaired, the checkpoint is resolved through reactivation of Cdc25 phosphatases and dephosphorylation of CDK1 at Tyr15, permitting mitotic entry; this process involves phosphatase activities like PP2A that counteract the inhibitory phosphorylations.^[33] The duration of the arrest is generally proportional to the severity of the DNA damage, with higher levels of lesions—such as multiple double-strand breaks—extending the delay to allow sufficient repair time. In cases of severe or irreparable damage, persistent activation of the checkpoint can trigger p53-dependent apoptosis to eliminate compromised cells, preventing propagation of mutations.^[34] Seminal studies in the 1990s using fission yeast models established the foundational role of Chk1 in mediating G2 arrest; for instance, Walworth et al. (1993) demonstrated that Chk1 links DNA damage sensors to Cdc2 (the yeast CDK1 homolog) inhibition,^[35] while Furnari et al. (1997) showed direct phosphorylation of Cdc25 by Chk1 as a key enforcement mechanism.^[36] These findings were extended to mammalian systems, confirming the conserved pathway's essentiality for checkpoint function.

Spindle assembly checkpoint preview

The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) operates at the onset of mitosis to ensure that all chromosomes achieve proper bipolar attachment to the mitotic spindle before anaphase proceeds, thereby preventing chromosome missegregation following the preparations made during the G2 phase.^[37] This surveillance mechanism is triggered by unattached kinetochores, which recruit and activate key effector proteins, including Mad1, Mad2, and BubR1, to generate an inhibitory signal that delays mitotic progression.^[37] Mad1 serves as a scaffold at kinetochores to template the conformational change in Mad2 from an open to a closed state, enabling Mad2 to bind and sequester Cdc20, a co-activator of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C).^[37] BubR1, in complex with Bub3, further reinforces this inhibition by directly binding APC/C and blocking its ubiquitination of substrates like cyclin B1 and securin.^[37] During G2 phase, cellular preparations for SAC activation include the synthesis and stabilization of critical components to prime kinetochores for spindle monitoring upon mitotic entry. For instance, the transcription factor FoxM1 binds the Aurora B promoter in late G2, driving increased expression of Aurora B kinase, a core member of the chromosomal passenger complex that supports SAC signaling by phosphorylating kinetochore substrates.^[38] Additionally, Aurora A kinase accumulates in the nucleus during late G2 and phosphorylates Haspin, promoting histone H3 threonine 3 phosphorylation (H3T3-ph), which facilitates Aurora B recruitment to centromeres and establishes a positive feedback loop essential for SAC readiness before nuclear envelope breakdown.^[39] To prevent premature SAC activation and APC/C inhibition in G2, a dual regulatory mechanism operates: the Mad1-Mad2 complex inhibits Cdc20-APC/C in a kinetochore-independent manner in the cytoplasm, while cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) phosphorylation of Cdc20 reduces its affinity for APC/C, collectively safeguarding cyclin B accumulation.^[40] A brief preview of SAC mechanism reveals that unattached kinetochores catalyze the assembly of the mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC)—comprising Mad2, BubR1, Bub3, and Cdc20—which potently inhibits APC/C until all kinetochores achieve stable microtubule attachments and tension.^[37] Defects in SAC function compromise this inhibition, leading to premature APC/C activation, erroneous chromosome segregation, and aneuploidy, a hallmark of genomic instability often observed in cancer.^[37] The SAC and its preparatory roles in G2 exhibit remarkable evolutionary conservation from budding yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to humans, underscoring its fundamental importance for genome stability across eukaryotes.^[41] In yeast, homologs like Mad1, Mad2, Mad3 (BubR1 ortholog), and Bub3 mediate APC/C inhibition at kinetochores, mirroring the MCC assembly in mammals.^[41] This conservation extends to G2-phase pre-loading of SAC components onto pre-kinetochores, where proteins such as Bub1, Aurora B, and phosphorylated MELT motifs on Knl1 begin localizing in G2, peaking in prophase to enable rapid checkpoint activation upon mitotic entry.^[42]

Transition to mitosis

Cyclin B1 synthesis and accumulation

The synthesis of cyclin B1 during the G2 phase is primarily regulated at the transcriptional level, with its expression initiated in late S phase and continuing into G2 by the activity of the CDK1-cyclin A complex. This complex contributes to the timely induction of cyclin B1 transcription, allowing buildup. The cyclin B1 promoter contains binding sites for E2F transcription factors, which act as both positive and negative regulators to coordinate expression with cell cycle progression, ensuring timely induction in G2.^[43] Additionally, forkhead box M1 (FOXM1) binds to specific sites in the cyclin B1 promoter (e.g., positions -806 to -817), further enhancing transcription and contributing to the mid-to-late G2 peak in cyclin B1 mRNA and protein levels.^[44] Overall, cyclin B1 mRNA levels increase approximately 3- to 7-fold from G1 to G2/M, reflecting this coordinated transcriptional activation.^[45] Accumulation of cyclin B1 protein in G2 is tightly controlled post-transcriptionally to achieve sufficient levels for mitotic entry. Phosphorylation events, such as those mediated by polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1) on residues like Ser126, stabilize cyclin B1 by inhibiting its recognition by ubiquitin ligases and promoting its cytoplasmic retention.^[46] Cytoplasmic sequestration is facilitated by nuclear export signals (NES) within the cyclin B1 sequence, which interact with exportin 1 (CRM1) to maintain low nuclear concentrations during G2, preventing premature activation of downstream targets.^[47] Without such stabilization, cyclin B1 exhibits a short half-life of approximately 1 hour due to constitutive turnover by the proteasome.00811-4) Regulation of cyclin B1 levels ensures proper timing and response to cellular stress. In the presence of DNA damage, p53 represses cyclin B1 transcription by binding to the promoter and attenuating its activity, thereby inhibiting accumulation and enforcing G2 arrest.^[48] Concurrently, ubiquitin ligases such as the APC/C (in its inhibited form during G2) and SCF complexes monitor cyclin B1 levels, preparing for its rapid degradation at the metaphase-anaphase transition while protecting it from untimely breakdown through mechanisms like Emi1-mediated APC/C inhibition.30734-8) This dynamic balance allows cyclin B1 to accumulate sufficiently to enable formation of the cyclin B1-CDK1 complex later in G2.^[46]

Cyclin B1-CDK1 complex activation

In early G2 phase, cyclin B1 binds to CDK1 (also known as Cdc2) to form the cyclin B1-CDK1 complex, which remains inactive primarily due to inhibitory phosphorylations at threonine 14 (Thr14) and tyrosine 15 (Tyr15) residues on CDK1, mediated by the kinases Wee1 and Myt1.^[17] These phosphorylations prevent premature activation, ensuring the complex does not trigger mitosis until DNA replication and repair are complete. The binding of cyclin B1 to CDK1 occurs as cyclin B1 levels rise from synthesis in late S and early G2 phases, providing the necessary subunits for complex assembly.^[49] Activation of the cyclin B1-CDK1 complex involves a coordinated series of phosphorylation events. First, CDK-activating kinase (CAK), consisting of CDK7, cyclin H, and MAT1, phosphorylates CDK1 at threonine 161 (Thr161) in the activation loop, enhancing the complex's affinity for substrates and priming it for full activity. This step occurs early upon complex formation but is insufficient for activation due to the dominant inhibitory phosphorylations at Thr14 and Tyr15.^[50] Subsequent dephosphorylation of these inhibitory sites by Cdc25B and Cdc25C phosphatases removes the blocks, allowing the Thr161-phosphorylated complex to become fully active and drive the G2/M transition.^[51] The activation follows a threshold model, where cyclin B1-CDK1 activity remains low until a critical threshold of active complexes is reached, after which activation accelerates sharply, ensuring an all-or-nothing commitment to mitosis.^[52] This bistable switch-like behavior provides robustness against fluctuations and irreversibility in cell cycle progression.^[53] Evidence for this threshold mechanism comes from studies in Xenopus laevis egg extracts, where addition of cyclin B1 below a certain concentration fails to induce activation or mitotic events, but exceeding the threshold triggers rapid H1 kinase activity and nuclear envelope breakdown, demonstrating the concentration-dependent nature of the process.^[52]

Positive feedback mechanisms

The positive feedback mechanisms during the G2/M transition form autocatalytic loops that drive the rapid, all-or-nothing activation of the cyclin B1-CDK1 complex, ensuring decisive commitment to mitosis. Initial traces of active CDK1 phosphorylate and activate Cdc25 phosphatases, which reciprocally dephosphorylate inhibitory sites (Thr14 and Tyr15) on CDK1, amplifying CDK1 activity in a positive loop. Concurrently, active CDK1 phosphorylates and inhibits Wee1 kinase, diminishing Wee1-mediated inhibitory phosphorylation of CDK1 and creating a second reinforcing positive feedback. These interlinked loops, first demonstrated experimentally in Xenopus egg extracts, generate a robust bistable switch that sharply elevates CDK1 activity above a threshold for mitotic entry.^[54]^[55] This bistable behavior arises from ultrasensitivity in the regulatory interactions, where small changes in CDK1 levels trigger disproportionate responses, quantified by Hill coefficients exceeding 1. For example, CDK1-mediated multisite phosphorylation of Cdc25C displays a Hill coefficient of ~10, while inhibition of Wee1A by CDK1 shows a coefficient of ~5, both contributing to the switch-like kinetics. These dynamics are captured in mathematical models of the system, such as:

\frac{d[\ce{CDK1^*}]}{dt} = k \cdot [\ce{Cdc25}] \cdot [\ce{CDK1}] - \text{degradation terms}

where the positive term reflects Cdc25-dependent activation, leading to hysteresis and two stable states (low-activity G2 or high-activity M phase).^[56]00202-4.pdf)^[54] The resulting irreversibility locks cells out of G2 phase, preventing premature reversal and enabling synchronized mitotic events, an adaptation that enhances fidelity in eukaryotic cell division across species. In mammalian systems, polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1) augments these loops by phosphorylating Cdc25 on multiple sites (e.g., Ser216 and Ser198), promoting its activation, nuclear translocation, and stability to reinforce the bistable switch.^[55]^[57]^[58]

Spatial and temporal regulation

During early G2 phase, cyclin B1 is predominantly excluded from the nucleus through active export mediated by the CRM1/exportin-1 pathway, which recognizes a nuclear export signal (NES) in the cyclin B1 cytoplasmic retention sequence (CRS). This spatial sequestration maintains low nuclear cyclin B1-CDK1 activity, preventing premature mitotic entry. In late G2, phosphorylation of cyclin B1 at multiple sites (e.g., Ser126, Ser128 by CDK1; Ser133 by PLK1) reduces its affinity for CRM1, thereby inhibiting export and promoting nuclear accumulation via enhanced binding to importin β. Live-cell microscopy studies have visualized this process as a gradient of cyclin B1 shifting from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, with abrupt nuclear import occurring just prior to nuclear envelope breakdown, ensuring coordinated activation.^[59]^[60]^[61] Temporally, cyclin B1-CDK1 activity exhibits oscillatory dynamics driven by periodic waves of cyclin B1 synthesis in late S and G2 phases, followed by ubiquitin-mediated degradation at mitotic exit via the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C). This oscillation is fine-tuned by the Greatwall kinase (MASTL), which is activated by CDK1 and phosphorylates ensa/arpp19 to inhibit PP2A-B55 phosphatase activity, thereby sustaining high levels of CDK1-dependent substrate phosphorylation during G2/M transition. The integration of spatial and temporal controls generates uniform waves of phosphorylation across cellular compartments, as evidenced by synchronized nuclear and cytoplasmic events in imaging assays; disruptions, such as impaired nuclear import, lead to defects in chromosome condensation uniformity and mitotic delays.^[62]^[63]^[60]

Biological and medical significance

Role in cell cycle control and development

The G2 phase plays a critical role in maintaining cell cycle fidelity by providing a dedicated interval for cells to verify the accuracy of DNA replication completed during S phase, thereby preventing the propagation of replication errors into daughter cells. This verification process involves monitoring for DNA damage and ensuring proper chromosome condensation and spindle assembly preparation before mitotic entry, which is essential for preserving genomic integrity across cell divisions. In the context of tissue homeostasis, the G2 phase supports balanced proliferation and repair mechanisms, allowing cells to integrate growth signals and environmental cues to sustain organ function without excessive or insufficient division. Disruptions in G2 regulation can compromise this balance, potentially leading to checkpoint failures that affect tissue maintenance, though such failures are explored in detail elsewhere. During embryonic development, the G2 phase is often abbreviated or absent in early cleavage stages to facilitate rapid cell divisions necessary for establishing the blastula. In species like Drosophila and C. elegans, initial embryonic cycles lack distinct G1 and G2 phases, enabling swift DNA replication and nuclear divisions without intervening growth periods, which accelerates embryo formation in nutrient-limited environments. Conversely, in later stages of development and during cellular differentiation, the G2 phase can extend to permit additional gene expression and protein synthesis required for specialized cell fates. For instance, in neuronal differentiation, an extended G2 phase in neural progenitors allows integration of differentiation signals, such as those from proneural factors, facilitating the transition from proliferation to post-mitotic states and supporting proper neural circuit assembly. Evolutionarily, the G2 phase is highly conserved across eukaryotes, from simple yeast models like Saccharomyces cerevisiae to complex human cells, reflecting its fundamental role in coordinating DNA repair and mitotic preparation through shared regulatory networks involving cyclin-dependent kinases and checkpoints. The duration of G2 correlates with increasing genome complexity in higher eukaryotes, where longer G2 periods accommodate more extensive error-checking in larger genomes, contributing to the evolutionary adaptation of multicellularity. Specific examples highlight this phase's versatility; in the plant Arabidopsis thaliana, G2 regulation controls endoreduplication, a modified cell cycle variant where cells undergo repeated DNA synthesis without mitosis, promoting cell enlargement and tissue differentiation in organs like leaves and trichomes. In mammals, G2 phase dynamics support immune cell maturation, particularly in hematopoietic progenitors.

Implications in cancer and therapy

Dysregulation of the G2 phase checkpoint is a hallmark of many cancers, where defects allow cells with unrepaired DNA damage to progress into mitosis, leading to genomic instability and tumor progression. For instance, mutations or downregulation of checkpoint kinase 1 (Chk1) impair the G2/M DNA damage response, enabling damaged cells to bypass arrest and accumulate chromosomal aberrations. Similarly, loss of p53 function compromises the G1 checkpoint, forcing cancer cells to rely heavily on the G2 checkpoint for survival; its abrogation in such cells exacerbates replication stress and promotes oncogenesis. These vulnerabilities arise because many tumors exhibit a defective G1/S transition due to p53 mutations, activating the G2 checkpoint as a compensatory mechanism that, when targeted, selectively kills malignant cells. Therapeutic strategies exploiting G2 phase defects have focused on checkpoint inhibitors to sensitize tumors to genotoxic therapies. Chk1 inhibitors, such as AZD7762, abrogate the G2 checkpoint, forcing premature mitotic entry in damaged cells and enhancing chemotherapy or radiation efficacy, particularly in p53-mutant breast cancers where it inhibits DNA repair and induces apoptosis. Preclinical studies have shown AZD7762's ability to potentiate gemcitabine in urothelial carcinoma by disrupting repair pathways and checkpoints.^[64] Wee1 inhibitors like adavosertib target the G2/M transition by preventing CDK1 inhibitory phosphorylation, leading to mitotic catastrophe in rapidly dividing tumor cells; phase II trials in platinum-resistant ovarian cancer showed promising response rates when combined with carboplatin, with manageable toxicity including hematologic effects. CDK1 modulators, including selective inhibitors, arrest cells in G2 by disrupting cyclin B1-CDK1 activation, showing preclinical efficacy in cancers like adrenocortical carcinoma by inducing DNA damage and apoptosis. Recent advances highlight G2 phase as a therapeutic nexus in precision oncology. Post-2020 CRISPR screens have identified synthetic lethal vulnerabilities in BRCA-deficient tumors, such as reliance on the 9-1-1 complex for ssDNA gap protection during replication stress, suggesting G2-targeted interventions to exploit homologous recombination defects. A 2025 CRISPR screen further identified the 9-1-1 complex as essential for ssDNA gap protection in BRCA2-deficient cells during replication stress, suggesting new G2-targeted synthetic lethal strategies.^[65] In 2023 studies, PLK1 expression has been associated with immune infiltration and prognosis in breast cancer through a PLK1-based risk model.^[66] These findings underscore G2 regulators as high-impact targets for combination therapies in genomically unstable cancers.

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Oct 28, 2023 · CDK1, the first identified member of the Cdk family, is conserved in all organisms and regulates the transition between the G2 phase and mitosis ...
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Apr 9, 2025 · Cyclin B and CDK1 are integral components of the M phase-promoting factor (MPF). Cyclin B accumulates from the S phase, persists through G2 ...
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The G2-to-M transition from a phosphatase perspective
May 25, 2020 · At the end of the G2-phase, new Cyclin B synthesis is not required anymore, all components needed for mitosis are present but MPF is inactive.
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May 4, 2007 · At the G2/M transition, Myt1 and Wee1 are inactivated while the dual specificity phosphatase, Cdc25, is activated. Cdc25 dephosphorylates Thr14 ...
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Wee1 and Cdc25 are conserved regulators of mitosis. Wee1 is a kinase that delays mitosis via inhibitory phosphorylation of Cdk1, while Cdc25 is a phosphatase ...
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Feb 10, 2017 · The G2 checkpoint is a signaling network regulating G2 to mitosis, acting as a biomolecular switch controlled by CDK1, Wee1, and CDC25C nodes.
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p53-deficient cells rely on ATM- and ATR-mediated checkpoint ...
In response to DNA damage, eukaryotic cells activate ATM-Chk2 and/or ATR-Chk1 to arrest the cell cycle and initiate DNA repair. We show that, in the absence ...
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Apr 5, 2001 · Chk1, Chk2, Atm and Atr also contribute to the activation of p53 in response to genotoxic stress and therefore play multiple roles. p53 induces ...
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Nov 24, 2004 · Analysis of the G2-regulated cdc2 and cyclin B1 genes reveals the presence of both positive- and negative-acting E2F promoter elements.
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Article PLK1 Activation in Late G2 Sets Up Commitment to Mitosis
Jun 6, 2017 · We report that Polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1) is required for entry into mitosis during an unperturbed cell cycle and is rapidly activated shortly before CyclinB1- ...Plk1 Activity Is Required... · Plk1 Activity Rises In Late... · Plk1-Dependent Cdc25c1...
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Feb 6, 2012 · It is well established that Polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1) plays critical roles in mitosis but little is known about its functions at other stages ...
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In this review, we discuss the repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) using a homologous DNA sequence (ie, homologous recombination [HR]), focusing mainly ...
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The activation of checkpoints that are responsive to DNA damage or incomplete DNA replication ultimately results in the inhibition of cyclin‐dependent kinases.
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Feb 15, 2018 · Once FoxM1 binds to the promoter region of Aurora B in the late G2 phase, Aurora B expression is increased, thus synthesizing Aurora B protein ...
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Jan 10, 2017 · Aurora-A promotes the establishment of spindle assembly checkpoint by priming the Haspin-Aurora-B feedback loop in late G2 phase. Fazhi Yu ...
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The checkpoint is evolutionarily conserved from yeast to humans and is believed to be essential for regulating fidelity of chromosome segregation and genome ...
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CENcyclopedia: dynamic landscape of kinetochore architecture ...
Aug 18, 2025 · Notably, many key components of the mitotic kinetochore begin to localize to pre-kinetochores during G2 phase. Moreover, during prophase, ...
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Analysis of the G2‐regulated cdc2 and cyclin B1 genes reveals the presence of both positive‐ and negative‐acting E2F promoter elements. Additional elements ...
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Because the human cyclin D1 promoter (−1095 to −1083) and the human cyclin B1 promoter (−806 to −817) contained potential binding sites for the FoxM1B ...
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Cyclin-dependent protein kinases and cell cycle regulation ... - Nature
Jan 13, 2025 · Both CDK4 and 6 controls the activity of FOXM1 thereby regulating G2/M transition and cellular senescence. Conversely, CDK6 but not CDK4 ...
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Cyclin B1 accumulates in the cytoplasm through S and G2 phases and translocates to the nucleus during prophase. We show here that cytoplasmic localization of ...
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p53 regulates a G2 checkpoint through cyclin B1 - PNAS
We have found that p53 prevents G2/M transition by decreasing intracellular levels of cyclin B1 protein and attenuating the activity of the cyclin B1 promoter.
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Jun 29, 2022 · FCS and FCCS measurements reveal that the fraction of Cyclin B1 bound to Cdk1 increases as cells progress through G2 phase and this is explained ...
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Phosphorylation of both Cdk1-Thr161 and Cdk2-Thr160 decreased after Cdk7 inhibition, in both time- and dose-dependent fashion, consistent with Cdk7 being ...
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Our data suggest that complex assembly and dephosphorylation of Cdk1 at G 2 /M is tightly coupled and regulated by Cdc25 phosphatases.
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Hysteresis drives cell-cycle transitions in Xenopus laevis egg extracts
Measurement of distinct activation threshold and inactivation threshold concentrations of cyclin for entry into and exit from mitosis confirms the fundamental ...
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Quantitative Reconstitution of Mitotic CDK1 Activation in Somatic ...
In the Xenopus system there is a cyclin B threshold: at cyclin B concentrations below a certain level no phosphorylation occurs, whereas above the threshold ...
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Mar 10, 2003 · Building a cell cycle oscillator: hysteresis and bistability in the activation of Cdc2 ... Pomerening & James E. Ferrell Jr. Department of ...
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[PDF] Irreversible Transitions, Bistability and Checkpoint Controls in the ...
In this review we show how bistability and irreversibility are emergent properties of molecular interactions, how bistability ensures unidirectional progression ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Ultrasensitivity in the regulation of Cdc25C by Cdk1 - PMC - NIH
Recently we showed that in Xenopus egg extracts, the phosphorylation of Wee1A by Cdk1 in the absence of feedback is highly ultrasensitive, with an apparent Hill ...
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Plk1 promotes nuclear translocation of human Cdc25C during ... - NIH
These results suggest that Plk1 phosphorylates Cdc25C on Ser198 and regulates nuclear translocation of Cdc25C during prophase.
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Achieving entry | Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology
Jul 2, 2008 · Active PLK1 then initiates a positive-feedback loop, also involving CDC25 and CDK1, that results in mitotic entry. Notably, this Bora- and ...
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Nuclear export of cyclin B1 and its possible role in the DNA damage ...
Cyclin B1 accumulates in the cytoplasm through S and G2 phases and translocates to the nucleus during prophase. We show here that cytoplasmic localization of ...Results · Leptomycin B Disrupts The... · Nes In Cyclin B1
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Apr 19, 2010 · In this study, we use a biosensor specific for cyclin B1–Cdk1 activity to show that activating cyclin B1–Cdk1 immediately triggers its rapid ...
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Changes in Oscillatory Dynamics in the Cell Cycle of Early Xenopus ...
Feb 11, 2014 · Assuming that cyclin B1 degradation is negligible in interphase, the cyclin B1 synthesis rate was estimated to be approximately 1.5 nM/min ...
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Sep 30, 2009 · A mixture of cyclin B1 and Cdk1-AF is more effective than Cdk1-AF alone in maintaining M phase characteristics (such as the lack of ...