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Geillis Duncan


Geillis Duncan (died 4 December 1591) was a young Scottish maidservant from in , executed for witchcraft amid the of 1590–1591. Employed by local official David Seton, she attracted suspicion through her reputed success in healing the sick and recovering stolen goods, coupled with observed nighttime absences from home. Arrested in November 1590, Duncan endured including thumbscrews known as pilliwinks and a tightened around her head, prompting a to possessing powers granted by the , marked by a throat insensible to pricking. She described attending clandestine sabbats at , where she played a —called a ctrouthie-kame—to accompany dances led by the in the guise of a black man with a tail; one such gathering on Halloween 1590 allegedly involved plotting storms to drown VI during his return voyage from . Presented before the king, she demonstrated the instrument, further embedding the narrative of royal endangerment. Her statements, detailed in the 1591 pamphlet Newes from Scotland, named accomplices such as and , sparking arrests of around 60 individuals in a hysteria-driven overseen personally by James, who viewed the accusations as a demonic on his rule. Prior to her strangling and burning at Edinburgh's Castle Hill—alongside Bessie Thomson—Duncan recanted her testimony, claiming it stemmed from Seton's coercive torments rather than truth, underscoring the trials' reliance on duress-extracted admissions amid widespread superstition and legal overreach. This episode, rooted in the 1563 Witchcraft Act but amplified by royal paranoia following maritime misfortunes, exemplifies early modern Europe's evidentiary frailties, where empirical healing talents and coerced narratives supplanted verifiable causation, propagating unsubstantiated diabolical conspiracies.

Historical Context

Witchcraft Beliefs and Persecutions in

The integration of pre-Reformation folk beliefs in maleficium—harmful causing illness, crop failure, or storms—with post-Reformation demonological theology profoundly shaped Scottish perceptions in the . Protestant reformers, influenced by Continental Calvinist texts like those of Heinrich Institoris and Jakob Sprenger, emphasized pacts with the as the core of , viewing it as spiritual against rather than mere . This shift, promoted by the Kirk's presbyteries and sessions, framed witches as participants in sabbats, shape-shifting, and weather , often conflating them with Catholic remnants or social deviants. Parliament's Witchcraft Act of 1563 formalized these beliefs into law, declaring it a capital offense to "use, practice, or cause to be practiced any invocations, conjurations, or " or to consult witches, with penalties including execution by strangling and burning. Enacted amid the Reformation's consolidation under and later James VI, the Act centralized prosecutions under justiciars while empowering local authorities to initiate accusations, leading to sporadic trials from the 1560s. Unlike England's more restrained statutes, Scotland's permitted —such as the caschielawis boot or —to extract confessions, inflating perceived threats through chained denunciations. Persecutions peaked in episodic "witch panics," with the 1590–1591 North Berwick trials marking an early surge of over 70 executions amid fears of royal assassination plots via demonic means. Subsequent waves in 1597, 1629–1630, and especially 1661–1662 saw intensified hunts, driven by royal commissions and pressure; the latter alone involved around 500 trials. Across 1563–1736, records indicate 3,837 accusations, with approximately 60–67% resulting in execution—yielding 2,300–2,500 deaths—disproportionately affecting women (about 84%) from lower social strata, including healers and midwives whose folk remedies were recast as . Scotland's rate exceeded England's by a factor of five to ten, attributable to its hybrid legal system blending inquisitorial with adversarial trials, and the 's policing amid political .

Preconditions: Storms and King James VI's Voyage

In 1589, King James VI of Scotland arranged a marriage to Anne of Denmark to strengthen alliances, with a proxy ceremony conducted on August 20. Anne's fleet departed Copenhagen in September but encountered violent North Sea storms that damaged vessels and forced the ships to seek shelter in Norway, delaying her arrival in Scotland. These tempests, described as exceptionally severe with contrary winds persisting for weeks, raised contemporary suspicions of supernatural interference, as similar weather anomalies had already prompted witchcraft investigations in Denmark targeting those accused of conjuring gales against royal ships. James, determined to secure the union, departed Leith on October 22, 1589, aboard the Anne, navigating the same hazardous seas to reach Anne in , where they married in on November 23. The return journey in late 1589 and early 1590 faced renewed storms, scattering the fleet, sinking at least one escort ship with significant loss of life, and stranding the royal couple in until May 1590. During their stay in , James personally interrogated accused witches, including those tried for storm-raising sorcery, which deepened his conviction that demonic forces targeted him and his bride. These maritime ordeals, combined with Denmark's ongoing persecutions—where over 100 individuals faced trial for weather magic by early 1590—intensified James's preexisting theological interest in , prompting him to authorize intensified witch-hunts upon returning to . The king's exposure to continental evidence of witches summoning tempests via rituals, such as knot-tying spells or sea invocations, framed subsequent accusations, including those in the trials, as extensions of a perceived diabolical on the monarchy. This royal preoccupation, rooted in the voyage's empirical perils rather than abstract doctrine, directly precipitated the scrutiny of figures like Geillis Duncan, whom accusers later linked to storm-raising conspiracies against James's fleet.

Early Life

Origins and Employment

Geillis Duncan was a young maidservant employed in the household of David Seton, deputy bailiff of , a small town in , , during the late 1580s. , located near , served as her primary place of residence and work, where she performed domestic duties typical of such positions in 16th-century . Historical accounts from the period, including trial-related documents, identify her role without providing details on her age, exact birth year, or family origins, suggesting she was likely a local from the region but offering no verifiable lineage or prior circumstances. Seton's position as a local involved enforcing civil authority in , and Duncan's employment under him placed her in a exposed to suspicions amid rising fears following storms that delayed VI's voyage in 1589–1590. No records indicate formal training or alternative livelihoods for Duncan beyond servitude, aligning with the socioeconomic constraints on women of her station, where such roles were common for unmarried females without independent means. Her employment thus positioned her at the intersection of domestic service and local governance, factors that later contributed to her scrutiny by Seton himself.

Reputation for Healing and Music

Geillis Duncan, employed as a maidservant by David Seton, deputy bailiff of in , , developed a local reputation for treating ailments among neighbors, reportedly curing various sicknesses through methods that included charms. Contemporary accounts describe her as taking on cases of illness, effecting recoveries, and then vanishing for extended periods, such as a month, which Seton viewed as evidence of unnatural practices. These healings, achieved without conventional means, drew attention in the late 1580s amid heightened suspicions of following storms attributed to during VI's voyage. In addition to her healing, Duncan was noted for her proficiency with the , a small metal played by plucking a flexible tongue while holding it in the mouth to modulate sound. Seton, suspecting her abilities, compelled her to perform on the before him, highlighting its role in her public persona as a soothing or entertaining skill among the community. This musical talent, combined with her absences and curative successes, contributed to Seton's decision to investigate her further in , interpreting the combination as indicative of diabolical influence rather than benign folk remedies.

Arrest and Examination

Initial Accusations by David Seton

David Seton, the deputy bailiff of in , , employed Geillis Duncan as a maidservant in his household during the late 16th century. In the autumn of 1590, Seton grew suspicious of Duncan's abilities after she successfully healed several members of his family, including his ailing wife and child, using remedies and techniques that appeared to lack any conventional medical basis or prior knowledge on her part. Seton's suspicions intensified due to Duncan's proficiency in playing the , a small , which he observed had an unusually hypnotic effect on listeners, suggesting to him an unnatural or demonic influence rather than mere talent. Confronting her directly about these feats, Seton accused Duncan of employing to achieve such results, viewing them as evidence of a with forces amid the prevailing beliefs in demonic and maleficium in post-Reformation . Duncan initially denied the charges, maintaining that her healings stemmed from honest skill and her music from practice, but Seton dismissed these explanations as implausible and refused to accept them without further proof of her innocence. This occurred against the backdrop of recent storms in 1589–1590 that had delayed VI's voyage to wed , fostering widespread fears of witchcraft as a cause of natural calamities, though Seton's claims focused primarily on personal observations rather than royal intrigue at this stage. The deputy's lent initial credibility to his allegations within local authorities, prompting immediate scrutiny of Duncan under the Witchcraft Act of 1563, which criminalized such practices with severe penalties.

Physical Search and Devil's Mark

Following her initial denial of the witchcraft accusations leveled by her employer, David Seton, bailie of , Geillis Duncan underwent a aimed at identifying the devil's mark, a purported insensitive blemish or teat believed to signify a with and common in witch-hunting protocols of the era. Seton, suspecting due to Duncan's reputed abilities and nocturnal absences, directed the search as part of preliminary investigations before formal commenced. This procedure, rooted in continental inquisitorial practices disseminated through texts like the , involved stripping the suspect nude to eliminate concealment and shaving the body hair to expose potential hidden anomalies. The examination of Duncan, conducted by Seton and assisting officials in late 1590, included systematic of the skin with needles or pins to locate a spot that neither bled nor elicited pain, hallmarks of the devil's insensible . Such tests were predicated on the theological assumption that rendered a specific bodily site numb and bloodless to feed familiars or evade detection, though modern analysis attributes "marks" to natural variations like moles, scars, or misinterpreted under duress. In Duncan's case, examiners identified a suitable beneath her , which reportedly failed to respond to , prompting her subsequent subjection to intensified interrogation. This finding, detailed in the contemporary Newes from Scotland—a pro-James propaganda tract emphasizing royal involvement in the trials—served as evidentiary pretext for escalating coercion, including thumbscrews (pilliwinks), despite lacking independent corroboration beyond the accusers' testimony. The devil's mark search exemplified the pseudoscientific forensics of 16th-century Scottish probes, where subjective interpretation by biased examiners often confirmed preconceptions rather than yielding falsifiable proof. No medical or empirical validation preceded or followed these claims, and 's youth—likely in her late teens—and status as a servant rendered her vulnerable to such invasive scrutiny without legal recourse. Later retractions by Duncan and others implicated in the trials cast doubt on the mark's authenticity, suggesting it may have been a benign exaggerated under pressure, though trial records prioritize the affirmative narrative to justify executions.

Interrogation and Confession

Torture Methods Employed

Geillis Duncan was subjected to torture by her employer, David Seton, prior to formal judicial proceedings, employing devices and methods documented in the 1591 pamphlet Newes from Scotland. The primary instruments included pilliwincks, or thumbscrews, applied to her fingers to crush the digits and induce excruciating pain through compression by iron vise-like bars, often fitted with protruding studs. Additionally, a cord or was repeatedly bound around her head or and twisted or winched tight—a known as "thrawing"—performed four times until she yielded a on the final application. These methods, while effective in eliciting admissions, were extrajudicial at the initial stage and reflected broader practices in Scottish interrogations of the era, where physical aimed to break resistance without immediate risk of death. Unlike later applications of the —an iron device wedged between the legs and hammered to splinter bones, used on associates like —Duncan's ordeal focused on targeted extremity and cranial torment to preserve her for further testimony. The Newes from Scotland account, likely propagandistic in promoting royal involvement in witch hunts, provides the earliest printed description but aligns with trial records indicating such tortures preceded her implication of over 70 accomplices.

Details of Extracted Admissions

Under with pilliwinkes applied to her fingers and her head bound with a cord, Geillis Duncan confessed on or about November 1590 that her reputed healings of the sick and proficiency in music were achieved through , induced by the 's enticements. A search revealed a 's mark on her throat, which she acknowledged as the site where the Devil first touched her to initiate her . Duncan admitted to participating in a sabbath of approximately 200 witches at North Berwick Kirk on All Hallows' Eve, October 31, 1590, where attendees arrived by sea in sieves and engaged in a reel dance to her playing of a small trump, or Jew's harp. The Devil appeared in the form of a man and enjoined the group to a penance of kissing his buttocks; Duncan further confessed that the assembly renounced their baptisms and vowed allegiance to him. Her admissions extended to implicating accomplices, naming , Agnes Tompson, Doctor Fian (John Cunningham), and others as fellow witches who attended the same meetings and conspired to raise storms against VI during his 1589-1590 voyage to . Though details of rituals like binding a to invoke tempests were primarily attributed to Sampson and Tompson in corroborating confessions, Duncan's testimony placed her within the plotting the King's drowning. These claims, extracted amid physical coercion, prompted to summon Duncan to demonstrate her harp-playing, replicating the sabbath tune before him.

Retraction of Confession

Following the application of torture, including the use of thumbscrews known as pilliwinkes, Geillis Duncan initially confessed on November 26, 1590, to acts of witchcraft, including healing through the devil's aid and participation in a coven aimed at harming King James VI. However, Duncan subsequently retracted her confession, asserting that her admissions were false and coerced. This recantation occurred shortly before her execution in early 1591, during which she reportedly declared to a that she had never known or associated with certain implicated individuals, such as Barbara Napier, and denied the reality of the alleged supernatural events. Despite the retraction, authorities proceeded with her conviction, viewing the initial tortured confession as sufficient evidence amid the broader panic over threats to . The retraction underscored the unreliability of confessions extracted under duress, a pattern observed in other cases, though it failed to alter her fate.

Involvement in Broader Trials

Implication of Accomplices

Under torture applied by David Seton in November 1590, Geillis Duncan confessed to and implicated numerous accomplices, naming over 60 individuals involved in alleged covens and rituals aimed at harming VI and his bride, . Among the key figures she identified were , a respected and healer from Nether Keith; John Cunningham, known as Doctor Fian, a who served as the coven's ; Barbara Napier, a burgess's sister-in-law with connections to ; and Euphame MacCalzean, a wealthy landowner's daughter. These accusations, detailed in the contemporary Newes from Scotland (1591), portrayed the group as meeting at locations such as Acheson’s Haven and Kirk, where they purportedly invoked demons and plotted maritime sabotage. The implications triggered widespread arrests, with estimates of over 100 detentions across and beyond, expanding the trials into a major from 1590 to 1593. Sampson's subsequent confession under corroborated Duncan's claims, leading to trials that executed at least 30 accused witches, including MacCalzean by burning on 25 June 1591. Napier was initially convicted but possibly acquitted on a technicality after jury sympathy, though records remain ambiguous. Fian's dramatic , recapture, and execution by and burning in early 1591 further fueled the panic. Duncan later retracted portions of her testimony, particularly those against Napier and MacCalzean, asserting they were false yields to agony from devices like pilliwinks and head ropes, but this did not halt proceedings against her or others. Newes from Scotland, while the primary account, reflects propagandistic elements promoting royal involvement in demonology, as noted in scholarly analyses, yet aligns with trial records preserved in the Justiciary Court books. The chain of implications from Duncan's admissions thus catalyzed Scotland's most infamous early modern witch panic, intertwining local suspicions with national fears of regicide.

Alleged Conspiracies Against the King

Geillis Duncan's confessions, extracted under including the use of pilliwinkes on her fingers and binding of her head with cords, implicated her in a supposed plot to assassinate VI by storms to sink his ship during his 1589 voyage from with bride-to-be . The that year, which scattered the fleet and delayed the royal marriage until May 1590, was attributed by the king and prosecutors to demonic intervention, with Duncan's admissions naming accomplices who allegedly met the at kirk on Halloween 1590, where she played a to lead a of witches dancing backward in renunciation of . In a transcribed confession dated December 15, 1590, Duncan detailed gatherings at an Edinburgh house owned by Barbara Napier, where the coven purportedly conspired to raise winds against the king, including coordination with Danish witches to target the royal vessels. Alleged methods involved sailing in sieves to the Firth of Forth, dismembering corpses to bind limbs to dead cats thrown into the sea for summoning gales, and crafting wax effigies of the king to melt and sink, all under the Devil's command who reportedly deemed James his "greatest enemie." These claims expanded to over 70 accused individuals, with Duncan identifying Agnes Sampson as a key figure who corroborated storm-raising rituals during personal interrogation by the king himself. Prior to her execution by burning in 1591, Duncan retracted her statements, asserting they were fabricated solely to end her torment, a detail recorded in contemporary accounts amid the trials' reliance on judicial without independent corroboration. , initially skeptical, became convinced after Sampson revealed private details of his wedding night, prompting his active oversight of the proceedings and influencing his 1597 treatise , which framed such acts as treasonous diabolical assaults. The allegations, disseminated in the 1591 Newes from Scotland, lacked beyond coerced testimonies and reflected the era's heightened royal paranoia following natural maritime hazards.

Execution and Immediate Aftermath

Trial Proceedings

Geillis Duncan's trial proceedings formed part of the , with formal examinations documented as beginning on 27 January 1591. She faced charges of intertwined with , including participation in demonic assemblies at and conspiracies to raise storms sinking the ships of King James VI and during their 1590 voyage from . Conviction rested on her prior , extracted through methods such as pilliwinkes applied to her fingers—which crushed nails and joints—and cords or ropes winched tightly around her head to induce pain. No independent trial records survive, indicating proceedings emphasized interrogations and the physical evidence of a "devil's mark" found on her throat during an initial search. In her admissions, given under duress and reiterated in examinations extending to May 1591, Duncan described attending sabbats where she played a (referred to as a "trump") to summon spirits, leading dances around the depicted as a black man with a tail, and performing rituals like tying joints on a cat to conjure winds for . She also confessed to one instance of maleficium involving a charmed hat. She was found guilty by a linked to the king's and sentenced to execution. On 4 December 1591, Duncan was strangled at the stake and her body burned at Castle Hill in , alongside Bessie Thomson. Immediately before death, she publicly recanted her confession and accusations against accomplices like Euphame MacCalzean and Barbara Napier, declaring them fabricated under coercive torture by her initial accuser David Seton and interrogators.

Manner of Death

Geillis Duncan was executed by followed by burning at the stake on 4 December 1591 at Castle Hill in . This method—strangling the condemned to induce before consigning the body to flames—was the customary practice for convictions in late 16th-century , intended to minimize suffering while ensuring complete destruction of the remains to prevent any supposed resurgence. Duncan was put to alongside Bessie Thomson, another accused , after both had publicly retracted prior accusations against figures such as Euphame MacCalzean and Napier, asserting that their confessions were coerced under by authorities including Seton. Despite the retraction, no clemency was granted, reflecting the severity of the North Berwick trials under VI's direct involvement.

Legacy and Scholarly Interpretations

Impact on Scottish Witch-Hunting and Daemonologie

Geillis Duncan's arrest and coerced confession in November 1590 served as the catalyst for the , initiating a chain of accusations that expanded into one of 's most prominent early modern witch panics. Her testimony under torture implicated dozens of accomplices, including prominent figures like and , leading to the interrogation and execution of approximately 70 individuals between 1590 and 1592. This demonstrated the efficacy of torture-induced confessions in generating widespread accusations, setting a procedural that amplified witch-hunting intensity across during the 1590s, with trial numbers surging from fewer than 20 annually prior to 1590 to peaks exceeding 200 in subsequent years. The trials' alleged conspiracies—particularly the claim of witches raising storms to sink King James VI's ship during his 1589-1590 return from —drew the monarch's direct involvement, as he personally oversaw interrogations and endorsed the proceedings. This royal scrutiny legitimized aggressive inquisitorial methods, including and thumbscrews, which Duncan's case exemplified, thereby institutionalizing such practices in Scottish and contributing to a national framework under the 1563 Witchcraft Act that facilitated over 3,800 witchcraft accusations and around 2,500 executions by the mid-17th century. The events, triggered by Duncan's initial breakdown, underscored witchcraft's perceived threat to political stability, prompting legislative and cultural reinforcement of hunts that persisted until the early 18th century. Duncan's role indirectly shaped King James VI's Daemonologie (1597), a treatise defending the reality of demonic pacts and the necessity of for witches, composed amid the trials' aftermath to counter skeptics like . James referenced diabolical conventions akin to those confessed by Duncan and her alleged —such as nocturnal sabbaths and weather magic—as empirical validations of witchcraft's perils, drawing from the North Berwick interrogations to argue against leniency and advocate inquisitorial rigor. Published amid ongoing panics, the text influenced English witch-hunting upon James's ascension, exporting Scottish precedents and embedding demonological orthodoxy in Jacobean policy, though its causal link to Duncan's case lies in the trials' reinforcement of James's pre-existing North Sea storm obsessions rather than originating solely from her testimony. Scholarly analyses attribute Daemonologie's urgency to these events, positioning Duncan's confession as a pivotal evidentiary anchor for the king's advocacy of proactive witch prosecution.

Modern Assessments of Guilt and Hysteria

Modern scholars assess Geillis Duncan's alleged guilt through the lens of , psychological , and the absence of verifiable evidence, concluding that her does not indicate actual . Extracted via devices like pilliwinks (thumbscrews) applied in late 1591, such methods reliably produce fabricated admissions, as corroborated by studies on coerced showing high rates of false positives under physical duress—up to 80% in experimental analogs—without regard to factual innocence. Duncan's claims of demonic healing, storm-raising, and sabbath attendance lack empirical corroboration beyond her own statements, which were later partially retracted before her January 4, 1592 execution; contemporary records, including those summarized in James VI's (1597), rely solely on these unreliable sources without independent verification of causal mechanisms for the imputed acts. The "mass hysteria" interpretation of the North Berwick trials, popularized in mid-20th-century accounts, has been critiqued by historians like Brian P. Levack as overly reductive, portraying prosecutions as spontaneous panics rather than deliberate legal proceedings shaped by elite fears, religious doctrine, and political intrigue. Levack, in analyses of European witch-hunts (circa 1450–1750), estimates around 110,000 trials overall but emphasizes Scotland's North Berwick episode (1590–1592) as a controlled inquisitorial response to specific threats—such as plots against King James VI—fueled by denunciations and state involvement, not uncontrollable crowd psychology; between 70 and 200 individuals faced trial in the region, with executions numbering around 30–60, driven by structured interrogations rather than diffuse frenzy. This view aligns with causal realism, wherein accusations stemmed from tangible grievances (e.g., Duncan's folk healing during the 1590 plague, misinterpreted as maleficium) amplified by confessional chains, but without evidence of genuine diabolical pacts. Julian Goodare's examinations of Scottish witchcraft further nuance hysteria claims, highlighting how the North Berwick hunt originated from localized suspicions—Duncan's employer reporting her "miraculous" cures—and escalated via torture-induced implicatory networks, implicating over 150 suspects amid treason fears tied to Francis Stewart, Earl of Bothwell. Goodare notes the trials' integration into broader and royal authority assertions post-1560 Presbyterian reforms, where "diabolical" was reframed as a capital crime blending and ; however, he underscores the lack of pre-existing "witch" identity among most accused, including Duncan, a young servant with no prior maleficium reputation, suggesting prosecutions reflected interpretive overreach on mundane practices rather than objective guilt or irrational outbreak. Mainstream academic sources, while credible on archival detail, often underemphasize contemporary belief systems' rationality within their paradigms, potentially biasing toward pathologizing accusers; yet, no peer-reviewed work posits Duncan's culpability, prioritizing evidential voids over credulity.

Depictions in Culture

Literature and Historical Fiction

In Jenni Fagan's 2022 novella Hex, Geillis Duncan is portrayed as a 15-year-old prisoner in 1591 Edinburgh on the eve of her execution, engaging in a supernatural dialogue with Iris, a visitor from the 21st century who materializes through a magical door; the narrative blends historical details of the North Berwick trials with speculative elements critiquing persecution and female agency. Fagan draws on trial records to depict Duncan's alleged healing abilities and confessions under torture, framing her as a resilient figure amid absurd accusations of devilish pacts. Naomi Kelsey's 2023 debut novel The Burnings centers Duncan as a key in the witch hunts, intertwining her story with that of to explore the 1590–1591 trials' social and political dynamics, including suspicions against VI; the work emphasizes empirical motivations like Seton's suspicions over her maidservant's "curing" skills via a mysterious charm. Diana Gabaldon's series (beginning 1991) incorporates the historical Duncan as a nominal for its fictional Geillis Duncan (born Gillian Edgars in 1968), a time traveler who adopts the alias in 18th-century and faces charges echoing the 1591 case, including herbalism and ritual elements; the character's arc references the original trials' lore, such as sabbaths and regicidal plots, while prioritizing narrative invention over strict historicity. The naming choice nods to the events documented in James VI's (1597), though the novel's Duncan operates in a later era amid intrigue.

Film, Television, and Other Media

In the television series (2014–present), adapted from Diana Gabaldon's novels, Geillis Duncan is depicted as a cunning, time-traveling and alleged , with her character loosely inspired by the historical maidservant accused in the trials. Dutch actress portrays Geillis across 10 episodes, beginning in season 1's "The Devil's Mark" (2015), where she is shown as the wife of Arthur Duncan and implicated in alongside Claire Fraser. The portrayal emphasizes her manipulative nature and involvement in supernatural plots, diverging significantly from historical records by incorporating elements of fantasy and romance. No major feature films directly dramatize the historical Geillis Duncan or the . Documentaries occasionally reference her case, such as in the / series Investigates: The Witch Hunts (2022), which examines the trials' origins and Duncan's torture-induced confession as a catalyst for the panic, framing it within VI's obsessions rather than validity. Other media representations remain limited, with her story appearing in educational videos and podcasts focused on Scottish history, but these prioritize factual recounting over narrative fiction.

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