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Gender and emotional expression

Gender differences in emotional expression denote the consistent, empirically documented disparities in how males and females outwardly convey affective states, with females typically exhibiting higher levels of facial, vocal, and gestural expressivity—especially for positive emotions like joy and internalizing ones such as sadness and fear—while males display more pronounced manifestations of anger and contempt.^[1] These patterns, observed across developmental stages from infancy onward, reflect small to moderate effect sizes in meta-analyses, including Hedge's g values ranging from -0.10 to -0.56 for female advantages in internalizing expressions and positive effect sizes for male advantages in externalizing ones during early childhood.^[1]^[2] In adulthood, women continue to show greater nonverbal expressivity overall, with meta-analytic evidence indicating a moderate effect (d = 0.40) favoring females in behaviors like smiling, eye contact, and nodding, even as contextual factors such as familiarity with observers moderate the differences.^[1]^[3] Biologically, these disparities are linked to sex-specific traits including higher male physiological arousal thresholds, differences in amygdala volume and prefrontal regulation, and prenatal hormone influences that shape neural pathways for emotional processing and display.^[1] Socialization further amplifies them through gender-typed display rules, where parents and peers encourage girls toward relational expressivity and boys toward stoicism or assertion, though differences persist in controlled settings minimizing cultural input.^[1] Cross-culturally, the core pattern holds: analyses of self-reported and observed data from 37 countries reveal females associating more intensely with "powerless" emotions (e.g., sadness, fear) and males with "powerful" ones (e.g., anger, pride), with individualism in societies exacerbating rather than eradicating the divide.^[4]^[5] Notable controversies center on causal attribution, with some interpretations overemphasizing socialization amid institutional tendencies to downplay biological realism, yet converging evidence from twin studies, endocrinology, and longitudinal cohorts underscores innate contributions as primary drivers, resistant to equalization efforts.^[1]^[2]

Biological Foundations

Innate Sex Differences in Physiology and Neurology

Sex differences in gonadal hormones contribute to divergent patterns of emotional expression. Males typically exhibit higher circulating levels of testosterone, which correlates with reduced emotional reactivity and expressivity, particularly in response to negative stimuli. ^[6] ^[7] In contrast, females experience greater fluctuations in estrogen and progesterone, associated with heightened sensitivity to emotional cues and increased prevalence of mood disturbances during hormonal transitions such as menstrual cycles or pregnancy. ^[7] ^[8] These physiological variances arise from innate dimorphism in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, where testosterone production in males exceeds that in females by approximately 20-fold, influencing downstream neural processing of emotions. ^[9] Neurological differences manifest in brain structure, with males showing larger absolute volumes in regions like the amygdala after controlling for total brain size. ^[10] ^[11] The amygdala, central to emotional processing, displays sex-specific functional connectivity; females exhibit stronger bilateral amygdala activation to negative emotions and stress, correlating with greater behavioral accuracy in threat detection but also heightened emotional intensity. ^[12] ^[13] Males, conversely, demonstrate more persistent amygdala responses to novel stimuli and reduced reactivity to familiar positive or negative valences, potentially underpinning lower overt expressivity. ^[13] Meta-analyses confirm valence-dependent sex differences in amygdala activation during emotional tasks, with females showing enhanced responses to aversive stimuli. ^[14] In emotion regulation, neuroimaging reveals that males often engage prefrontal regions more efficiently, requiring less activation to downregulate negative affect compared to females, who display greater recruitment of areas like the anterior cingulate and frontal lobes. ^[15] ^[16] This pattern suggests innate neural economies in male emotion control, possibly modulated by androgen influences on cortico-limbic pathways. ^[17] Females, however, show distinct activations in thalamic and parietal cortices during emotional conflict resolution, driven by estrogen-mediated enhancements in perceptual-emotional integration. ^[18] These differences persist across studies using functional MRI, indicating underlying sexual dimorphism in the centromedial amygdala and connected circuits rather than socialization alone. ^[17] ^[19]

Evolutionary Explanations for Divergent Expression Patterns

Evolutionary theories attribute sex differences in emotional expression to adaptive pressures arising from asymmetric reproductive roles in ancestral environments, where females faced higher obligatory parental investment through gestation, lactation, and primary childcare, while males competed more intensely for mating opportunities. Parental investment theory posits that these disparities selected for females' greater expressivity in affiliative and vulnerable emotions, such as sadness and fear, to foster social alliances and elicit protective support from kin and potential mates, thereby mitigating risks to offspring viability.^[20] In contrast, males evolved tendencies toward emotional restraint in weakness-signaling displays and heightened outward expression of anger to project strength, intimidate competitors, and secure resources essential for mate attraction and retention.^[21] Sexual selection mechanisms further reinforced these patterns, with intra-male competition favoring stoic facades that concealed vulnerabilities, as displays of distress could undermine perceived mate value in contexts of physical rivalry and provisioning demands. Empirical support draws from comparative primatology, where species exhibiting high male-male contest competition show amplified sex differences in aggressive signaling, mirroring human patterns of males' preferential anger expression over other emotions.^[22] Females' enhanced crying frequency—adults weeping up to fourfold more than males—serves as a chemical signal reducing aggression in observers, adaptively suited to females' need for conflict de-escalation amid dependency on group cooperation for child-rearing.^[23] These explanations integrate physiological data, such as sex-specific autonomic responses during emotional elicitation, with behavioral ecology; for example, males exhibit lower skin conductance variability when suppressing expressive anger, aligning with selection for controlled dominance displays rather than overt vulnerability.^[24] Cross-cultural persistence of these divergences, despite socialization variances, underscores their partial innateness, though evo-psych frameworks acknowledge gene-environment interplay without overattributing to culture alone.^[25] Critiques of such theories often stem from ideological priors in academia favoring nurture-dominant accounts, yet fossil and ethnographic evidence of persistent sex-dimorphic roles bolsters causal realism in linking expression patterns to survival fitness trade-offs.^[20]

Developmental Trajectories

Patterns from Infancy Through Childhood

Sex differences in emotional expression emerge early in infancy. Female infants display more frequent smiling during social interactions with caregivers, such as at 2.5 months of age, compared to male infants. ^[26] Male infants, however, exhibit greater challenges in maintaining affective self-regulation, evidenced by increased negative expressivity and distress in paradigms like the still-face procedure, where maternal interaction is interrupted. ^[27] These patterns suggest innate divergences in emotional reactivity and recovery, with males showing heightened vulnerability to disruptions in social contingency. ^[28] In toddlerhood, differences become more pronounced across specific emotion domains. Girls tend to express higher levels of positive emotions, including happiness and joy, during observed interactions, with one study of 1- to 3-year-olds reporting girls at 31.3% frequency versus boys at 28.7%. ^[29] Conversely, boys display more externalizing expressions like anger, while girls show elevated internalizing emotions such as sadness and fear, patterns linked to differential physiological arousal and behavioral responses to frustration. ^[30] A comprehensive meta-analysis of over 200 studies spanning infancy to late childhood confirms these trends, finding moderate effect sizes (d ≈ 0.20–0.40) for girls' greater expressivity of sadness, shame, and guilt, and boys' higher expressivity of anger and contempt, with differences evident as early as 6 months and stable through age 10. ^[31] These findings hold across observational, self-report, and physiological measures, though moderated by context, such as greater male anger in competitive settings. ^[32] During middle childhood, girls increasingly exhibit internalizing behaviors like anxiety-related withdrawal, while boys show persistent externalizing tendencies, including conduct issues, aligning with broader trajectories in emotional dysregulation. ^[33] Such patterns underscore biological underpinnings, as socialization effects alone fail to account for their precocity and consistency. ^[34]

Adolescent and Adult Shifts Influenced by Biology

During puberty, typically spanning ages 10 to 18, surges in sex hormones such as testosterone in males and estrogen in females drive divergent shifts in emotional expression, amplifying innate sex differences observed in childhood. Testosterone levels in adolescent boys increase dramatically—up to 26-fold from prepubertal baselines—correlating with heightened externalizing behaviors, including anger expression and reduced verbalization of sadness or fear, as these hormones modulate amygdala reactivity and promote behavioral restraint in vulnerability displays.^[35]^[36] In contrast, estrogen elevations in girls enhance sensitivity to internalizing emotions like anxiety and sadness, with neural circuitry changes facilitating greater emotional disclosure and rumination, patterns that emerge more pronounced post-puberty than pre-puberty.^[37] Empirical data from longitudinal studies indicate that pubertal maturation interacts with sex to heighten susceptibility to emotional stimuli, with post-pubertal adolescents showing larger sex-differentiated responses in brain regions like the insula and prefrontal cortex compared to children.^[38] These adolescent shifts transition into adulthood, where sustained hormonal profiles reinforce sex-specific expression norms biologically. Adult males' higher baseline testosterone (averaging 7-8 times that of females) is linked to enhanced threat detection and anger displays while suppressing empathy-related expressions, as evidenced by experimental administration studies showing testosterone reducing accuracy in recognizing subtle negative emotions like sadness.^[39]^[40] In women, cyclical estrogen variations influence emotional lability, but overall profiles support greater expressivity of affiliative and distress emotions, with meta-analyses confirming small but consistent adult sex differences (effect sizes d ≈ 0.2-0.4) in positive emotion display and internalizing tendencies that align more with physiological than purely social factors.^[41]^[1] Castration or hypogonadism in adult males, reducing testosterone, often diminishes aggression expression while increasing verbal emotionality, underscoring causal hormonal roles over socialization alone.^[36] Biological influences extend to domain-specific emotions in adulthood, where testosterone biases males toward dominance-oriented expressions (e.g., contempt, pride) and away from submissiveness cues, as seen in facial electromyography studies measuring zygomatic and corrugator activity during emotional tasks. Estrogen, meanwhile, heightens females' vicarious emotional responses, potentially via oxytocin interactions, though this is tempered by progesterone's stabilizing effects. These patterns hold across large-scale neuroimaging data, with sex hormones predicting variance in emotional regulation circuits independent of cultural variables.^[40]^[42] While environmental factors modulate expression thresholds, twin studies attribute 30-50% of adult sex differences in emotional reactivity to heritable biological components, including androgen receptor sensitivity.^[43]

Empirical Evidence

Meta-Analyses and Large-Scale Studies

A meta-analytic review by Chaplin and Aldao (2013) synthesized findings from 166 studies encompassing over 21,000 children aged from infancy to late adolescence, focusing on observed behavioral expressions of discrete emotions. Girls exhibited significantly greater expression of internalizing emotions, including sadness (effect size d = 0.19) and fear (d = 0.23), relative to boys, with composite internalizing effects reaching d = 0.31; externalizing emotions like anger showed smaller differences (d = 0.08 overall), often moderated by social context such as the presence of adults, where girls displayed more positive emotions and boys more neutral or externalizing ones when unobserved.^[37] These patterns held across laboratory and naturalistic settings, indicating differences emerge early and persist, though effect sizes were modest and varied by emotion valence. McClure's (2000) meta-analysis of 187 studies on facial expression processing, including production aspects, from infancy through adolescence (N > 10,000) found small but consistent female advantages in encoding (expressing) facial emotions, with effect sizes increasing with age (d ≈ 0.10–0.20 for encoding tasks); girls showed heightened expressivity for both positive and negative emotions compared to boys, particularly in structured encoding paradigms, challenging notions of negligible early differences.^[44] The review highlighted developmental trajectories where sex differences in expression processing, encompassing overt facial displays, were evident by early childhood and strengthened into adolescence, independent of verbal ability confounds. In adults, McDuff et al. (2017) conducted a large-scale automated analysis of facial action units from over 37,000 video clips across public speeches and elicited expressions (N ≈ 5,000 participants), revealing females displayed facial actions 11–30% more frequently than males overall, with pronounced differences for positive valence expressions like smiling (odds ratio ≈ 1.3–1.5) and smaller or reversed patterns for specific negatives like disgust; these held across cultures and contexts, with females averaging higher intensity in valence-coded displays.^[45] The study's machine learning validation minimized observer bias, confirming robust sex differences in naturalistic expression frequency and intensity, though absolute effects were context-sensitive.

Domain-Specific Findings Across Emotions

Meta-analytic reviews of emotional expression reveal pronounced domain-specific sex differences, with females demonstrating higher expressivity for internalizing emotions like sadness and fear, while males show greater externalizing displays of anger, particularly in observational and self-report data from childhood through early adulthood.^[1] For instance, Chaplin and Aldao's (2013) analysis of 166 studies encompassing over 21,000 participants found small but consistent female advantages in internalizing expressions (Hedges' g = -0.12 in middle childhood), including sadness (g = -0.06, though aggregated with fear and anxiety) and fear (g = -0.10), with effects emerging as early as infancy (g = -0.14) and persisting stably across development.^[2] These patterns align with physiological markers, such as females' increased likelihood of tearful responses to sadness, where adult women cry 2-5 times more frequently than men per month, often in interpersonal contexts, as documented in cross-cultural surveys of over 5,000 respondents.^[46] In contrast, anger expression exhibits a reversal, with males displaying higher levels of overt, externalizing anger in toddlerhood through middle childhood (g = 0.13-0.17), shifting toward female advantages only in adolescence (g = -0.27), potentially reflecting contextual moderators like peer interactions.^[1] Adult studies corroborate this, showing men report and exhibit more intense anger outbursts tied to provocation, with meta-analyses of aggression indicating male effect sizes up to d = 0.60 for physical expressions of anger in real-world settings, though verbal forms show smaller disparities.^[47] Crying in response to anger further highlights this divergence, as males suppress lachrymose reactions more than females, with sex differences most marked in anger-eliciting scenarios (e.g., injustice), based on longitudinal adolescent data tracking frequency and intensity.^[48] Positive emotions like happiness display intermediate patterns, with no differences in infancy but increasing female expressivity in adulthood, evidenced by meta-analytic reviews of smiling behaviors where women produce 20-30% more Duchenne smiles (genuine) in social interactions across 37 studies (d = -0.41).^[3] Fear expression, often internalized, shows females' greater facial and vocal signaling from early ages (g = -0.10), consistent with evolutionary accounts of heightened female vigilance in threat detection, though effect sizes remain modest and context-dependent (e.g., stronger with unfamiliar stimuli).^[1] For disgust and surprise, differences are less robust, with some evidence of female advantages in recognition but minimal in overt expression, underscoring that sex disparities are not uniform but emotion-specific, influenced by both biological baselines and situational demands.^[49] These findings derive primarily from laboratory observations of facial, vocal, and postural cues in Western samples, with replication needed in diverse populations to assess generalizability.^[24]

Cross-Cultural Consistency and Variations

Cross-cultural research indicates consistent patterns in gender differences in emotional expression, with females generally displaying greater expressivity for internalizing emotions like sadness and fear, while males show more for externalizing ones like anger, observed in samples from over 30 countries spanning individualistic and collectivistic societies.^[4] These directional differences persist despite methodological variations in self-reports and observational data, aligning with evolutionary accounts where female expression facilitates social bonding and male expression signals dominance.^[50] For example, meta-analytic evidence from facial expression studies confirms small but reliable sex differences in decoding basic emotions—universal per Ekman's framework—with females outperforming males in recognizing subtle cues across diverse populations.^[51]^[52] Variations emerge primarily in the magnitude and context-specific display rules rather than the core patterns. In collectivistic cultures like China, gender differences in emotional arousal are amplified, with women reporting higher intensity for both positive and negative stimuli compared to men, whereas in individualistic cultures like Germany, differences are smaller or reversed for positive emotions, reflecting norms that permit greater male expressivity in autonomy-focused settings. A secondary analysis of self-reported data from 37 countries found women's higher ratings for fear, sadness, and disgust moderated by cultural individualism, with larger gaps in societies emphasizing personal emotional disclosure.^[4] Such modulations arise from socialization, where traditional gender roles enforce female vulnerability displays and male restraint more rigidly in high-power-distance cultures, yet biological baselines ensure differences endure even under suppression.^[1] Notably, some domains show near-universal consistency, underscoring limits to cultural influence. Women's elevated social anxiety expression appears across 18 nations, with effect sizes stable regardless of societal egalitarianism, pointing to hormonal and temperamental factors over pure socialization.^[53] Observational studies of children in non-Western contexts similarly reveal early-emerging sex differences in emotional intensity, diminishing with acculturation to expressive norms but not eliminating them.^[54] These findings challenge pure social constructivist views, as persistent patterns across disparate environments—from hunter-gatherer societies to modern urban ones—favor integrated bio-cultural models.^[55]

Socialization Processes and Their Limits

Socialization of emotional expression begins in infancy through parental responses that differ by child's sex. Mothers and fathers tend to respond more contingently to girls' emotional displays, such as sadness or fear, encouraging verbalization and empathy, while responding to boys' displays with distraction or redirection toward activity, fostering suppression of vulnerability.^[1] This pattern aligns with cultural display rules that prescribe greater expressivity for females in internalizing emotions like sadness and anxiety, and externalizing emotions like anger for males, reinforced through modeling and reinforcement in family interactions.^[34] Peer groups further entrench these norms during childhood, with boys facing social penalties for emotional displays perceived as feminine, leading to self-regulation that diminishes overt expression of non-anger emotions.^[56] These processes interact with temperament, as infant boys exhibit higher arousal and less inhibitory control than girls, prompting differential parental strategies that amplify nascent differences rather than originating them.^[37] Meta-analytic evidence from studies spanning infancy to adolescence confirms that gender differences in emotion expression—girls showing more positive and internalizing emotions, boys more externalizing—emerge in social contexts but are moderated by familiarity and observer presence, indicating socialization's role in calibration rather than creation.^[57] However, such differences appear as early as preschool, prior to intensive peer or media influences, suggesting biological substrates constrain socialization's scope.^[56] Limits to socialization are evident in the persistence and even magnification of sex differences in more gender-egalitarian societies, where reduced traditional pressures paradoxically allow greater expression of innate tendencies.^[58] For instance, analyses of personality and emotional traits across nations show larger gaps in negative emotions and verbal fluency in countries with higher living standards and gender equality, contradicting pure social constructivist models that predict convergence under equal opportunity.^[59] Longitudinal data reveal that attempts to equalize expression through neutral parenting yield minimal erosion of patterns, as hormonal and neurological factors—such as prenatal testosterone's influence on amygdala reactivity—override cultural pressures, maintaining divergent trajectories into adulthood.^[1] This interplay underscores socialization's amplifying but bounded effect, unable to fully supplant evolved sex-specific emotional architectures.

Nature Versus Nurture

Primacy of Genetic and Hormonal Influences

Twin studies and genetic analyses reveal that sex differences in emotional traits, including aspects of expression such as jealousy and resilience, exhibit substantial heritability, with estimates ranging from 26% to 52% depending on the trait and sex.^[61]^[62] For instance, emotional jealousy shows heritabilities of 26% overall, with genetic factors contributing similarly across sexes but manifesting in divergent expressive patterns, where males tend toward more restrained displays.^[61] Broader genomic research identifies sex-specific genetic architectures underlying brain regions involved in emotional processing, such as the amygdala and prefrontal cortex, where X and Y chromosome effects drive dimorphisms in neural connectivity and reactivity that precede socialization.^[63] These findings indicate that genetic variants, rather than shared environments, account for the majority of variance in sex-differentiated emotional behaviors, with heritability often higher in males for traits like resilience.^[62] Hormonal influences, particularly androgens like testosterone, exert organizational effects prenatally and activational effects postnatally, shaping emotional expression toward sex-typical norms. Prenatal androgen exposure masculinizes behavioral responses, reducing expressivity of vulnerability-related emotions such as sadness and enhancing threat detection without overt display, as observed in human and animal models.^[64]^[65] In adults, elevated testosterone correlates with decreased accuracy in detecting subtle negative emotions like disgust and sadness, and administration studies show it impairs neural connectivity during emotion recognition tasks, promoting a pattern of emotional restraint characteristic of males.^[39]^[66] Estrogen, conversely, enhances sensitivity to social and affiliative cues, facilitating greater expressivity in females, though these effects are modulated by genetic predispositions.^[1] Empirical data from longitudinal and experimental designs underscore the primacy of these biological mechanisms, as sex differences in emotional expressivity emerge early—often by infancy—and persist across cultures despite varying socialization pressures, suggesting causal precedence over learned behaviors.^[1] For example, higher baseline testosterone in men attenuates responses to angry facial expressions, reducing overt emotional signaling in social contexts, a pattern not fully attributable to cultural norms given its replication in controlled hormonal manipulations.^[67] This biological foundation explains why interventions aimed solely at altering expression through training yield limited, non-enduring changes compared to the robust, heritable baselines.^[63] Empirical studies demonstrate that sex differences in emotional expression emerge in infancy, prior to substantial socialization, challenging the social constructivist view that such patterns are primarily learned through cultural norms. A meta-analytic review of 166 studies involving over 21,000 children from infancy through adolescence found small but significant differences, with girls exhibiting greater expression of internalizing emotions like sadness (effect size d=0.23 overall, present even in infants aged 0-23 months at d=0.17) and anxiety-related behaviors, independent of parental presence or context in early stages.^[37] These findings indicate an innate foundation, as infants lack the cognitive capacity for complex social learning of gender roles, suggesting biological predispositions drive initial expressivity patterns. Hormonal influences further undermine purely constructivist accounts by linking sex differences to prenatal and pubertal endocrinology. Prenatal exposure to androgens, such as testosterone, correlates with reduced emotional expressivity in later childhood and adulthood; for instance, girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (exposed to elevated prenatal androgens) display decreased sadness expression and increased rough-and-tumble play akin to typical male patterns.^[1] Pubertal surges in testosterone similarly suppress expressive behaviors in males, with longitudinal data showing stability in these traits despite varying social environments.^[68] Twin studies reinforce this, estimating heritability of emotional expressivity at 30-50%, with genetic factors explaining more variance than shared environment in sex-typed patterns like female-typical affiliation and male-typical agency in emotion display.^[69] Cross-cultural research reveals consistencies in sex differences that transcend socialization, as patterns of greater female expressivity in positive and internalizing emotions persist across diverse societies, including 37 countries spanning individualistic and collectivistic cultures.^[5] While variations exist—such as muted differences in expressive cultures—the directional trends (e.g., women reporting and displaying more empathy-related emotions) hold, with effect sizes comparable to Western samples, indicating biological universals over cultural invention.^[1] Social constructivism struggles to account for these invariances, as radical shifts in gender norms (e.g., post-1960s egalitarianism) have not eradicated differences; meta-analyses confirm stability over decades.^[57] Critics of constructivism note that experimental manipulations of social expectations fail to fully override innate tendencies; for example, when primed with gender-stereotypic roles, expressivity aligns more with biological sex than assigned expectations, highlighting causal primacy of physiology.^[70] Although effect sizes are modest (d<0.30), their early onset and resistance to cultural attenuation provide robust evidence against explanations reliant solely on nurture, favoring integrated biosocial models where biology sets baselines modified but not determined by environment.^[37]^[69]

Controversies and Debates

Methodological and Interpretive Challenges

Research on sex differences in emotional expression faces significant methodological hurdles, including discrepancies between self-reported emotional experience and observable or physiological indicators. For instance, studies relying on explicit self-reports often yield inconsistent results due to social desirability biases, where males underreport intense emotions to conform to stoic norms, while physiological measures like heart rate variability show no such gender differences in arousal intensity. ^[71] Similarly, many early investigations into expressive behaviors failed to concurrently assess internal emotional experience, confounding whether observed differences reflect genuine feeling or performative display rules. ^[24] Behavioral observation methods, such as facial coding via systems like FACS, introduce challenges in standardization and ecological validity, as laboratory settings may suppress natural expressions influenced by context-specific gender socialization. Encoding variability across studies—e.g., scripted vs. spontaneous elicitation—further complicates meta-analytic synthesis, with effect sizes for expressivity differences (Cohen's d ≈ 0.4–0.6 for positive emotions) attenuating when controlling for stimulus type. ^[1] Sample limitations exacerbate these issues; most datasets derive from WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic) populations, potentially inflating apparent differences by overlooking cross-cultural display rule variations, as evidenced by smaller gaps in expressive suppression among non-Western cohorts. ^[72] Interpretive challenges arise from conflating correlation with causation, particularly in attributing differences to socialization without disentangling innate predispositions. Gender stereotypes bias decoding, leading observers to rate identical neutral expressions as more angry in males or sadder in females, which propagates into researcher expectations and selective hypothesis testing. ^[73] Publication bias favors novel "large" effects, underrepresenting null findings on physiological congruence, while small-to-moderate effects (d < 0.5) are often overstated as evidence for cultural determinism despite robustness across longitudinal and twin designs. ^[74] These interpretive pitfalls, compounded by disciplinary silos (e.g., psychology vs. neuroscience), hinder causal realism, as hormonal and genetic markers (e.g., prenatal testosterone correlations with reduced expressivity) are sidelined in favor of malleable social explanations lacking experimental falsification. ^[16]

Ideological Biases in Academia and Media

Surveys of political affiliations among psychologists reveal a pronounced left-leaning imbalance, with liberals outnumbering conservatives by ratios as high as 14:1 in the field overall and even more starkly in social psychology subfields relevant to emotional expression research.^[75] ^[76] This homogeneity correlates with greater partisan conformity among more liberal researchers, potentially fostering environments where hypotheses emphasizing innate biological sex differences in emotions—such as men's greater propensity for anger expression or women's for sadness—are scrutinized more rigorously or dismissed as perpetuating stereotypes, while socialization-centric explanations gain preferential publication and funding.^[77] Such dynamics contribute to interpretive challenges, as evidenced by the field's historical underemphasis on genetic and hormonal factors in meta-analyses of emotional expression, despite empirical data supporting their role.^[78] In academia, this ideological skew manifests in viewpoint illiteracy, where dissenting perspectives on gender and emotions face barriers to entry, as documented in calls for greater intellectual diversity to mitigate confirmation bias in psychological science.^[79] For instance, studies attributing gender disparities in emotional competence primarily to cultural training often receive uncritical acclaim, even when cross-cultural evidence reveals persistent biological underpinnings, reflecting a broader institutional preference for constructivist narratives that align with progressive equity goals over causal realism grounded in neuroendocrinology.^[80] Peer review processes in journals like those from the American Psychological Association, dominated by left-of-center scholars, have been critiqued for enforcing conformity, leading to underrepresentation of research challenging the primacy of nurture in emotional dimorphism.^[78] Mainstream media amplifies these academic tendencies, selectively covering findings that frame emotional sex differences as malleable social artifacts rather than evolved traits, often sourced from ideologically aligned outlets and omitting countervailing biological evidence to avoid narratives perceived as essentialist. This pattern aligns with broader media institutional biases toward left-leaning viewpoints, resulting in public discourse that privileges environmental determinism—such as portraying male stoicism as toxic rather than adaptive—while downplaying large-scale studies affirming hormonal influences like testosterone's role in modulating aggression-related emotions.^[80] Consequently, media narratives contribute to policy and cultural interpretations that undervalue empirical rebuttals to pure social constructivism, perpetuating a feedback loop with academia where source credibility is unevenly assessed.^[77]

Societal Implications

Impacts on Relationships and Mental Health

Gender differences in emotional expressivity, with women typically displaying greater overall expressivity than men, can influence relational dynamics by affecting perceived emotional intimacy and conflict resolution.^[1] In heterosexual couples, women's higher engagement in emotion work—such as facilitating partners' emotional sharing—often compensates for men's lower expressivity, yet this imbalance correlates with reduced relationship quality when men's restrictive emotionality persists.^[81] ^[82] Studies indicate that men's greater tendency toward emotional restraint is associated with lower marital satisfaction, as it hinders mutual understanding and escalates unresolved tensions.^[82] ^[83] Conversely, adaptive emotional regulation, including moderated expressivity, predicts higher satisfaction; for instance, wives' downregulation of negative emotions benefits both partners' perceptions of the relationship.^[84] Mismatches in expressivity may exacerbate issues in casual or early romantic contexts, where women's post-interaction emotional outcomes are more negative if expressivity norms differ.^[85] Overall, while expressivity fosters closeness, unchecked gender-typical patterns—such as men's suppression—can perpetuate cycles of withdrawal and demand, undermining long-term stability.^[86] Regarding mental health, patterns of emotional expression and suppression show sex-differentiated outcomes, with men more prone to externalizing behaviors like anger expression and women to internalizing ones like rumination.^[87] Traditional assumptions of men suppressing emotions more than women, potentially contributing to higher male suicide rates via unexpressed distress, are supported by self-report data but challenged by experience-sampling studies revealing no significant momentary gender differences in suppression.^[88] ^[89] Neural evidence from fMRI indicates men achieve comparable behavioral suppression of negative emotions as women but via distinct brain mechanisms, suggesting inherent rather than purely socialized differences in regulation efficacy.^[16] Emotional suppression, irrespective of gender, correlates with poorer psychological well-being, including heightened distress in relational contexts, though men's habitual restraint may amplify isolation and delayed help-seeking.^[83] Women, with higher expressivity, face risks from over-rumination on emotions, linking to elevated anxiety and depression rates, while men's patterns may channel unexpressed affect into substance use or aggression.^[90] These dynamics underscore that rigid adherence to gender-typical expression norms—rather than flexibility—exacerbates mental health vulnerabilities, with empirical data emphasizing biological underpinnings over purely cultural ones.^[16]

Policy Considerations and Therapeutic Approaches

Policies addressing sex differences in emotional expression have focused on mental health promotion, particularly in light of epidemiological data showing men's higher suicide rates—four times that of women globally in 2021, partly attributable to lower rates of emotional disclosure and help-seeking among males. Interventions such as public awareness campaigns in countries like Australia and the UK have aimed to destigmatize male emotional vulnerability, with programs like Beyond Blue's "Real Blokes" initiative reporting increased male engagement in services by encouraging pragmatic discussions of distress without pathologizing innate tendencies toward suppression. However, empirical reviews indicate that policies overly emphasizing social constructivist views—ignoring biological underpinnings like testosterone-modulated lower expressivity in males—risk inefficacy, as evidenced by meta-analyses finding persistent sex differences in expressivity from infancy, predating socialization.^[1] In educational and workplace settings, policies promoting "emotional intelligence" training often adopt gender-neutral frameworks, yet studies reveal adaptive aspects of male-typical suppression, such as reduced physiological arousal in non-extraverted individuals during stress, suggesting tailored approaches over uniform expressivity mandates.^[91] For instance, U.S. Department of Defense guidelines for military personnel incorporate sex-specific resilience training, recognizing men's preference for action-oriented coping to mitigate risks like post-traumatic stress, where evidence-based psychotherapies show poorer outcomes for males when ignoring these patterns.^[92] Critics from evolutionary psychology argue that policies driven by ideological biases in academia, which downplay hormonal influences on emotion regulation, contribute to mismatched interventions, as seen in higher male dropout from verbal-focused therapies.^[24] Therapeutic approaches grounded in empirical data prioritize strategies accounting for sex differences, with cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) adaptations for males emphasizing reappraisal over suppression to reduce amygdala hyperactivity while accommodating lower baseline expressivity.^[93] For male clients exhibiting suppression—linked to both socialization and biological factors like prefrontal cortex dimorphism—evidence supports integrating behavioral activation techniques, which align with male-typical regulation via action rather than verbalization, yielding better adherence and outcomes in treating depression compared to expression-focused modalities.^[94] Emotion-focused therapy variants, informed by fMRI data showing sex-specific neural responses to regulation, demonstrate that acceptance-based methods outperform suppression training for women but may exacerbate physiological costs (e.g., elevated cortisol) in men without personalization.^[16]^[95] In addressing pathologies tied to dysregulated expression, such as anxiety disorders, meta-analyses of randomized trials indicate that therapies recognizing male advantages in threat-focused suppression—potentially rooted in evolutionary adaptations—improve efficacy when avoiding one-size-fits-all expressivity goals, with dropout rates 20-30% lower in gender-informed protocols.^[96] Ongoing research underscores the need for therapists to counter trainee overestimations of sex differences, as mental health professionals often exaggerate female expressivity, leading to mismatched interventions that undervalue biological realism.^[97] Comprehensive guidelines from bodies like the American Psychological Association recommend integrating pharmacotherapy with behavioral therapies for males, targeting underlying hormonal influences on emotion processing to enhance long-term regulation without forcing atypical expression patterns.

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Sex differences in the persistence of the amygdala response to ...
Previous studies have indicated that men and women have different amygdala responses to novel (vs familiar) and valenced (positive vs negative) material.
[14]
Sex differences in brain activation to emotional stimuli - PubMed
Mar 17, 2012 · These meta-analysis findings indicate that the amygdala, a key region for emotion processing, exhibits valence-dependent sex differences in activation to ...
[15]
Sex Differences in Neural Correlates of Emotion Regulation in ...
Jun 23, 2023 · Neuroimaging studies suggest that males more efficiently regulate emotion than females by showing less prefrontal cortex activity (suggesting ...
[16]
Gender Differences in Emotion Regulation: An fMRI Study of ... - NIH
First, men may expend less effort when using cognitive regulation, perhaps due to greater use of automatic emotion regulation. Second, women may use positive ...
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Sex-specific neural circuits of emotion regulation in the centromedial ...
Mar 23, 2016 · Many studies investigating the neural basis of sex differences in emotional processing have consistently reported a significant difference with ...
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The effects of age, sex, and hormones on emotional conflict-related ...
Sex differences were present in occipital and parietal cortices, and were driven by activation in females, and deactivation in males to Congruent trials.
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Sex Differences in Neural Correlates of Emotion Regulation in ...
Jun 23, 2023 · We found that females showed different levels of self-rated emotional intensity and amygdala activity for negative versus positive emotions, while males did ...
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Parental investment theory and gender differences in the evolution ...
The authors postulate that there was greater pressure to inhibit potentially maladaptive emotional, social, and sexual responses on prehistoric women than men ...Missing: display | Show results with:display
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Sex differences in aggression: What does evolutionary theory predict?
Aug 20, 2009 · Evolutionary theory provides a robust explanation for the finding that males are more likely to control sexual access to females than the ...
[22]
Evolutionary Developmental Explanations of Gender Differences in ...
The greater inhibition of anger expression by females may be because human females are cooperative breeders (Hrdy, 2009)—unlike in, say, hyenas, where physical ...
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The gender-specific impact of emotional tears | Motivation and ...
May 18, 2019 · We replicated the strong effect of tears on willingness to help, and showed this effect to be less potent for male dyads than for female or mixed ones.
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[PDF] Sex Differences in Emotion: Expression, Experience, and Physiology
Some studies have found that women, who are more expressive, also report experiencing more emotion than men (Choti, Mar- ston, Holston, & Hart, 1987; Greenwald ...
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Sex and Care: The Evolutionary Psychological Explanations for Sex ...
Apr 16, 2019 · The present article elucidates sex differences in terms of formal care occupational choices and care styles based on evolutionary psychological perspectives.
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Emotional expressions of female and male infants in a social and a ...
At both ages, male and female infants spent more time looking at the toy than at their mother and showed more expressions of interest toward the toy. They also ...
[27]
Gender differences in emotional expressivity and self-regulation ...
Male infants had greater difficulty than female infants in maintaining affective regulation during each episode, including the still face.
[28]
Gender differences in emotional expressivity and self-regulation ...
Male infants had greater difficulty than female infants in maintaining affective regulation during each episode, including the still face.
[29]
Full article: Early gender differences in emotional expressions and ...
May 1, 2019 · Girls were also observed to have more emotional expressions of happiness, joy or contentedness (31.3%, N = 7472) than boys (28.7%, N = 7644).
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Gender differences in emotion expression in children - PubMed - NIH
The present study constitutes a comprehensive meta-analytic review of gender differences and moderators of differences in emotion expression from infancy ...
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https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23231534
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Effects of Age and Gender in Emotion Regulation of Children and ...
Thus, girls express more positive emotions and more negative internalizing emotions such as sadness and anxiety, and boys express more externalizing emotions ...
[33]
Age and Gender Differences in Emotional and Behavioral ...
May 26, 2025 · Girls exhibited higher levels of internalizing symptoms and greater emotion regulation difficulties than boys, whereas boys showed more conduct ...
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The socialization of gender differences in emotional expression
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Pubertal hormones and mental health problems in children ... - NIH
Oct 1, 2024 · Estradiol and testosterone (which can be converted into estradiol) show steep increases during early and middle adolescence in females and males ...
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Testosterone Increases Amygdala Reactivity in Middle-Aged ...
Jan 30, 2008 · These results show that testosterone modulates amygdala reactivity in women, and suggest that the age-related decline in androgen levels contribute to the ...
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Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta ...
It has been proposed that gender differences are more pronounced in uncomfortable, negative situations (LaFrance et al., 2003). In these contexts, girls may be ...
[38]
The Increased Sex Differences in Susceptibility to Emotional Stimuli ...
Jan 12, 2018 · The present study investigated how pubertal development and sex interact to influence humans' emotion susceptibility during adolescence.
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Testosterone and Its Influence on Emotion Recognition in Young ...
We found a decrease in the emotion detection accuracy rates for sadness and subtle disgust in males with high testosterone concentrations. Both emotions are ...<|separator|>
[40]
Testosterone and estrogen impact social evaluations and vicarious ...
Oct 4, 2013 · Our results showed that testosterone administration to females enhanced ratings of facial dominance but diminished their accuracy in inferring mental states.
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Estrogen, Stress, and Depression: Cognitive and Biological ...
This article reviews the interactions of estrogen changes and psychosocial stress in contributing to vulnerability to major depressive disorder (MDD) in women.Cognitive Models Of Major... · Estrogen And Emotion... · Estrogen Effects In The...
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A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effect of emotion ...
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[PDF] Gender/sex differences in emotions | Einstein Lab
Biological sex differences begin in utero and continue to develop through- out life, based on biology and experience. The concept of gender re-.
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A meta-analytic review of sex differences in facial expression ...
This study was designed to review quantitatively the literature on sex differences in FEP from infancy through adolescence and to evaluate consistency
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A large-scale analysis of sex differences in facial expressions
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Culture and Crying: Prevalences and Gender Differences
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Sex Differences in Aggression in Real-World Settings: A Meta ...
Such an analysis predicts that sex differences in physical aggression will be largest when reproductive competition is highest, during young adulthood, and for ...
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https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0030661
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Sex differences in emotion recognition: Evidence for a small overall ...
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The relation between gender and emotion in different cultures.
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[PDF] Universals and Cultural Differences in Facial Expressions of Emotion
A long-continuing dispute has been waged over the question of whether there are universal facial expressions of emotion or whether facial expression of emotion ...
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Influence of gender in the recognition of basic facial expressions
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Are Women More Emotional Than Men? - Psychology Today
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Gender and Emotion Expression: A Developmental Contextual ...
Small but significant gender differences in emotion expressions have been reported for adults, with women showing greater emotional expressivity, ...
[55]
Gender and emotion in context. - APA PsycNet
Gender differences in emotional functioning are both mediated and moderated by sociocultural, cognitive, biological, and behavioral variables.
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Gender Differences in Caregiver Emotion Socialization of Low ... - NIH
Studies have shown gender differences in children's emotion expression as early as preschool age, with girls showing greater sadness and anxiety/fear than boys.
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Gender differences in emotion expression in children - APA PsycNet
The present study constitutes a comprehensive meta-analytic review of gender differences and moderators of differences in emotion expression from infancy ...
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Distinct sex differences persist in countries with higher standards of ...
Aug 1, 2024 · Psychological gender differences persist in countries with improved living conditions, according to a study published in Perspectives on Psychological Science.Missing: expression egalitarian
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Distinct sex differences persist in countries with higher standards of ...
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Sex differences don't disappear as a country's equality develops ...
Apr 22, 2024 · Several studies have found that some psychological sex differences, such as those in personality, are larger in more gender-equal countries.
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Sex differences in jealousy: a population-based twin study in Sweden
The twin models revealed significant heritabilities for both sexual (32%) and emotional (26%) jealousy. The heritabilities were of a similar magnitude in both ...
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Sex Differences in the Heritability of Resilience - PMC - NIH
According to this specification, the heritability of resilience is higher among men (h 2 = .52) compared to women (h 2 = .38).
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The Genetics of Sex Differences in Brain and Behavior - PMC
This paper reviews the evidence for direct genetic effects in behavioral and brain sex differences.
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Gender Differences in Emotional Responses May Start in the Womb
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Maternal testosterone exposure increases anxiety-like behavior and ...
Nov 2, 2015 · This study investigated whether maternal androgen excess causes anxiety-like behavior in offspring mimicking anxiety disorders in PCOS.
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Testosterone reduces functional connectivity during the 'Reading the ...
Our findings thus reveal a neural mechanism by which testosterone can impair emotion-recognition ability, and may link to the symptomatology of ASC, in which ...2.2. Testosterone... · 2.4. Rmet · 3. Results
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Testosterone administration decreases sensitivity to angry facial ...
The findings indicate that testosterone attenuates sensitivity to facial threat, especially angry facial expressions, which could lead to a misestimation of ...
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Sex-hormone status and emotional processing in healthy women
These data suggest a differential impact of female sex hormones on emotional processing, ie, empathy-related performance and affective sympathetic reactivity.
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[PDF] Biosocial Construction of Sex Differences and Similarities in Behavior
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Sex Differences in Emotion: A Critical Review of the Literature and ...
Aug 6, 2025 · This article examines the findings of several reviews of the empirical literature on biological sex and emotion, focusing on the degree to which perceived sex ...Missing: rebutting constructivism
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Gender Differences in Emotional Response: Inconsistency between ...
We observed gender differences in emotional responses and found that they depend on specific emotion types but not valence. Women show relatively stronger ...
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Gender differences in emotional development: A review of theories ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Theories, data, methodological and conceptual problems concerning the study of gender differences in the development of defenses, emotional ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] THE GENDER STEREOTYPING OF EMOTIONS
Women are believed to express sadness, fear, and love more often, while men are believed to express anger more often.
[74]
Are women truly “more emotional” than men? Sex differences in an ...
However, assessing differences in emotional feelings holds methodological challenges because of being based on explicit reports. Such research often lacks ...
[75]
Psychologists are known for being liberal – but is that because they ...
Jul 14, 2015 · Formal surveys have produced similar results, showing the ratio of liberals to conservatives in the broader field of psychology is 14-to-1.
[76]
Academic Psychologists Value Diversity, but Now Find That Liberal ...
Sep 18, 2015 · According to a recent survey, liberal academic psychologists outnumber conservatives by a ratio of about 14-to-1 suggesting that more than 93% of psychology ...
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Are Psychologists Too Politically Close-Minded Today?
Oct 30, 2020 · According to our results, the more liberal psychologists are these days, the more partisan and conforming they will be in their views on the major issues.
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Psychologists' politics. - APA PsycNet
Most psychologists are politically left-of-center while few are right-of-center or centrist. The political views of psychologists can and frequently do color ...
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Psychological Science and Viewpoint Diversity
Jan 29, 2016 · Many psychological scientists truly believe in the benefits of diversity, and understand that it is the diversity of viewpoints that makes the ...Missing: emotions | Show results with:emotions
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Psychologists Looked In The Mirror … And Saw A Bunch Of Liberals
Jul 2, 2018 · Psychologists, it appears, tend to fall on the liberal end of the political spectrum. Social psychology's left tilt has been widely discussed, ...
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Gender, Emotion Work, and Relationship Quality: A Daily Diary Study
Researchers have found that women in both same-sex and different-sex relationships do more emotion work than men to allow and encourage the sharing of personal ...
[82]
[PDF] RESTRICTIVE EMOTIONALITY AND MARITAL SATISFACTION
satisfaction may be caused by the fact that greater restriction in emotion in men ... background impact emotional restriction and satisfaction may be important in.
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Emotional Suppression and Psychological Well-Being in Marriage
Jan 15, 2022 · Although studies have shown that a spouse's level of emotional suppression could significantly affect one's satisfaction in marriage [8,11], ...
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Emotion regulation predicts marital satisfaction: More than a wives' tale
Findings showed that (a) greater downregulation of wives' negative experience and behavior predicted greater marital satisfaction for wives and husbands ...
[85]
Was it Good for You? Gender Differences in Motives and Emotional ...
Feb 11, 2022 · Gender differences were found for both sexual motivations and emotional outcomes of casual sex, with women generally having more negative emotional outcomes ...
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Emotion expressivity and regulation in romantic relationships
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Gender Differences in Emotional Risk for Self- and Other-Directed ...
Women and men generally differ in how frequently they engage in other-and self-directed physical violence and may show distinct emotional risk factors for ...
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Men Do Not Suppress Emotions More than Women in Everyday Life
Sep 4, 2025 · While men reported greater habitual suppression than women on trait questionnaires, no such gender difference emerged in momentary reports of ...
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The effects of sexual shame, emotion regulation and gender on ...
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Expressive Flexibility and Mental Health: The Mediating Role ... - MDPI
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The Sex Differences in Regulating Unpleasant Emotion ... - Frontiers
Jul 6, 2016 · These results suggest a male advantage for using expressive suppression for emotion regulation in non-extraverted, ambivert individuals.
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Review Masculinity, emotion regulation, and psychopathology
Effectiveness of evidence-based psychotherapy (EBP) for PTSD can vary based on gender and trauma type, with poorer outcomes for men and sexual traumas.
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The Neural Bases of Emotion Regulation: Reappraisal and ...
Suppression reduced negative emotion experience and behavior, but sustained elevated responses in amygdala and insula. A pattern of reduced emotion facial ...Missing: therapy | Show results with:therapy
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Men tend to regulate their emotions through actions rather than words
Aug 1, 2023 · Men often choose to respond to such awareness by doing something pragmatic instead of verbalising feelings.
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Gender differences in the physiological effects of emotional regulation
Men benefited more from emotional suppression than emotional expression, contrary to typical health consequences associated with emotional regulation.
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Effects of suppression and acceptance on emotional responses of ...
The present investigation compared the subjective and physiological effects of emotional suppression and acceptance in a sample of individuals with anxiety ...Missing: male | Show results with:male
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(PDF) Gender Differences in Emotional Expression: Do Mental ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Three studies examined whether mental health trainees overestimate emotional differences between the sexes.Missing: rebutting constructivism