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Contempt

Contempt is a multifaceted concept primarily understood as an emotion involving disdain, scorn, and a sense of moral superiority toward others perceived as inferior or unworthy of respect, often triggered by appraisals of unchangeable moral flaws and resulting in social exclusion rather than corrective action. In psychology, it is often considered one of the basic emotions distinct from anger, as it arises from judgments of a target's bad character that is unresponsive to change, eliciting calm derogation instead of heated confrontation. Legally, contempt denotes disobedience to a court order or conduct that obstructs the administration of justice, serving as a mechanism to uphold judicial authority through civil sanctions aimed at coercion or criminal penalties for punishment.^[1] Within interpersonal dynamics, particularly romantic relationships, contempt manifests as toxic behaviors like sarcasm, eye-rolling, and ridicule, positioning one partner as superior and eroding emotional connection, with research identifying it as the strongest predictor of divorce.^[2] As an emotion, contempt functions on multiple levels: it reinforces social hierarchies by signaling disapproval of norm violations, aids self-regulation by distancing from perceived threats to one's values, and can persist as a long-term sentiment influencing attitudes toward groups or individuals. Unlike disgust, which targets objects or behaviors, or anger, which seeks restitution, contempt is uniquely interpersonal and directed at human agents, implying pessimism about their capacity for improvement and often accompanied by facial expressions such as the unilateral lip curl.^[3] Philosophically and ethically, it raises debates about its moral value, with some viewing it as a justified response to immorality that denies recognition to wrongdoers, while others critique it for undermining empathy and equality in social relations.^[4] In legal practice, contempt is divided into civil and criminal forms: civil contempt coerces compliance with court directives, such as enforcing child support payments, and can be purged by obedience, whereas criminal contempt punishes willful disrespect, like disrupting proceedings, to protect the court's dignity and public trust in justice.^[1] Examples include failing to appear as summoned (direct contempt) or violating probation terms outside court (indirect contempt), with procedures ensuring due process, such as notice and hearings for civil cases or proof beyond reasonable doubt for criminal ones.^[1] This power is inherent to courts but balanced against constitutional rights to prevent abuse. Relationally, contempt builds from unresolved resentments, fostering a cycle of negativity that weakens immune function and emotional health in partners, making it "sulfuric acid" for love according to extensive observational studies.^[2] Antidotes include building a culture of appreciation through expressing needs positively and practicing gratitude, which counteract its corrosive effects and promote repair.^[5] Overall, contempt's defining trait across domains is its role in enforcing boundaries—whether emotional, legal, or moral—at the risk of isolation and breakdown when unchecked.

Definition and Origins

Etymology

The word "contempt" entered the English language in the late 14th century, derived from [Old French](/page/Old French) contempt or contemps, which itself stems from the Latin contemptus, the past participle of contemnere, meaning "to scorn, despise, or disdain."^[6] This Latin verb combines the intensive prefix com- (indicating completeness or togetherness) with temnere ("to slight or scorn"), reflecting a classical Roman connotation of viewing something as beneath consideration or worthy of rejection.^[7] The earliest recorded uses in English appear around 1393, initially denoting open disregard or disobedience, particularly toward authority or law, before expanding by circa 1400 to a broader sense of scorn for anything deemed mean, vile, or worthless.^[7] In classical Roman contexts, contemnere and its derivatives appeared in legal and rhetorical texts to express disdain for moral failings or social inferiors, influencing the term's enduring association with hierarchical judgment.^[6] During the medieval European period, the word's transmission through Old French integrated it into Anglo-Norman legal and ecclesiastical writings, where it often carried implications of dishonor or spiritual scorn, bridging Roman stoicism and Christian moral frameworks.^[8] Related terms evolved alongside it; for instance, "contemptuous," meaning manifesting or expressing contempt, was first recorded in the late 14th century, derived directly from Latin contemptus with the suffix -ous.^[9] Over time, the usage of "contempt" has shifted in frequency, particularly in American English. Archival analyses of books from 1800 to 2008, using tools like Google Ngram Viewer, reveal a marked decline in the word's occurrence since the 19th century, alongside related terms like "disdain" and "despised," possibly reflecting broader cultural changes in expressing social attitudes.^[10]

Historical and Philosophical Definitions

In ancient philosophy, Aristotle conceptualized contempt as an emotion arising from a perception of superiority, particularly in the context of the great-souled person (megalopsychos) who feels disdain toward those claiming undeserved excellence or honors. In the Nicomachean Ethics, he describes this as a measured response, justified when grounded in true beliefs about moral worth, and integral to moral education through the habit of "hating the right things" appropriately.^[11] The Stoics, such as Epictetus and Seneca, extended this by advocating a dismissal of external judgments and indifferents—things beyond one's control like reputation or fortune—as unworthy of emotional investment, fostering inner tranquility through rational indifference rather than active scorn.^[12] During the Enlightenment, David Hume positioned contempt as a key moral sentiment linked to disapproval of vice and inferiority, arising from sympathy with others' perceived meanness or poverty, which evokes a natural aversion in the observer. In A Treatise of Human Nature (Book II, Part II) and An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (Section II, Part I), Hume integrates it into his sentimentalist framework, where contempt reinforces social utility by discouraging base traits without descending into cruelty.^[11] Immanuel Kant, in contrast, treated contempt cautiously as a potential response to moral vice, such as failures in self-duty, but warned against its excess due to its risk of undermining respect for human dignity; in the Metaphysics of Morals (Doctrine of Virtue) and Lectures on Ethics, he argued that while it may censure wrongdoing, it must never deny the inherent moral worth of persons, lest it become a vice itself.^[11] In 20th-century philosophy, Robert Solomon reframed contempt within his judgment theory of emotions, viewing it as a status-based variant of anger directed at those perceived as inferior and noxious, distinct from resentment (toward superiors) or standard anger (toward equals). In The Passions (Chapter 8), Solomon emphasizes its role in the "emotional register" as an evaluative judgment that asserts personal superiority, yet warns of its potential to erode relationships if unchecked, differentiating it from disgust (a visceral rejection) or pure anger (a demand for rectification).^[11]

Psychological Foundations

Core Characteristics

Contempt is defined in psychological research as a complex emotion characterized by a sense of moral or social superiority, accompanied by disdain and the devaluation of another person, group, or their actions, often signaling "I'm better than you."^[13] This emotion typically arises from perceived immoral or incompetent behavior, positioning the experiencer as elevated above the target.^[13] Unlike more reactive feelings, contempt involves a cognitive appraisal of the target's inherent inferiority, leading to emotional detachment rather than immediate confrontation.^[14] Key traits of contempt include its asymmetry, manifesting as a one-sided judgment where the contemner asserts dominance without reciprocity or empathy for the target's perspective.^[13] It is often described as "cold" in tone, contrasting with the "hot" intensity of anger, and is associated with behavioral withdrawal or exclusion rather than approach-oriented actions like aggression.^[15] This coldness reflects a calculated dismissal, fostering long-term social distance instead of the temporary conflict resolution sometimes seen in heated disputes.^[16] Contempt is distinguished from anger, which stems from perceived moral violations or goal obstructions and motivates corrective action or confrontation.^[17] In contrast to disgust, which involves aversion to contamination—whether physical, moral, or social—and prompts avoidance to protect oneself, contempt specifically targets human failings with a layer of superiority, often without the visceral nausea of disgust.^[13] Regarding scorn, contempt represents a more sustained, internalized disdain, while scorn tends to be a briefer, more overtly mocking response.^[18] Psychologist Paul Ekman classified contempt as one of the basic emotions, expanding his original set of six (anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise) to include it as a seventh, based on its distinct facial expression and universal recognizability.^[19] Cross-cultural studies, including Ekman's fieldwork in isolated communities like the Fore people of New Guinea, provided evidence of contempt's recognition across diverse societies, supporting its status as a fundamental human emotion.^[13] These findings highlight contempt's innate quality, observable through subtle, often unilateral facial cues such as a one-sided lip curl, though detailed nonverbal signals are explored elsewhere.

Facial Expressions and Recognition

Contempt is primarily conveyed through a distinctive facial expression characterized by a unilateral lip curl or smirk, involving the raising of one corner of the mouth, often accompanied by a tightening of the lip on that side. This expression was identified as a pan-cultural signal of contempt in seminal research, where it elicited recognition rates of approximately 75% across diverse groups, including participants from the United States, Japan, and Sumatra. Empirical studies on recognition have demonstrated varying accuracy levels, with higher rates typically observed in Western cultures compared to non-Western ones, yet maintaining consistency across groups such as Japanese and German participants. For instance, in cross-cultural judgments involving multiple societies, contempt expressions achieved above-chance agreement in diverse samples, though Japanese observers sometimes showed slightly lower precision than their American counterparts, attributing this to subtle cultural differences in labeling rather than perceptual failure.^[20] These findings underscore the expression's recognizability as a subtle indicator of disdain or moral superiority, often outperforming other emotions in low-agreement scenarios.^[21] Beyond the core facial action, contempt is frequently accompanied by secondary nonverbal behaviors that enhance its social signaling, such as eye rolling, which conveys dismissal or irritation; head tilts backward, signaling superiority; and averted gaze, which reinforces relational distance.^[13] Research indicates that adding a head tilt to the unilateral lip curl significantly improves recognition accuracy, as it amplifies the perceived dominance inherent in the emotion.^[22] Eye rolling, in particular, serves as a paralinguistic cue linked to contemptuous rejection, often observed in interpersonal conflicts to subtly undermine the target without verbal confrontation.^[23] Debates persist regarding the universality of these expressions, with critics like Lisa Feldman Barrett arguing that their interpretation is highly context-dependent, varying by cultural, situational, and individual factors rather than fixed biological signals.^[24] Barrett's constructionist perspective posits that no single facial configuration, including the lip curl for contempt, reliably maps to a specific emotion across all populations, as meanings emerge from integrated perceptual experiences rather than innate universals.^[24] This view challenges earlier claims by highlighting methodological limitations in cross-cultural studies, such as reliance on posed stimuli that may not capture naturalistic variability.

Neuroscience and Evolutionary Perspectives

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have identified specific brain regions associated with the processing of contempt, particularly in response to facial expressions. The insula, often linked to disgust and visceral emotional responses, shows preferential activation during the perception of contemptuous faces, alongside the amygdala, suggesting an overlap in neural substrates for social and moral aversion.^[25] Additionally, the middle frontal gyrus, part of the prefrontal cortex involved in moral judgment and social evaluation, exhibits heightened activity, especially in women processing male contempt expressions, indicating sex-specific neural sensitivities in evaluating hierarchical disrespect.^[26] From an evolutionary perspective, contempt functions as a status-regulating emotion that reinforces social hierarchies and group cohesion by devaluing individuals perceived as cheaters, incompetents, or low-status members. Social-functionalist theories posit that displays of contempt signal moral superiority and dominance, enabling the expresser to distance themselves from unworthy others while maintaining alliances with higher-status group members, an adaptation likely honed in ancestral hierarchical societies to minimize exploitation and promote cooperative norms.^[27] This role aligns with broader evolutionary accounts tracing contempt to sentiments of disdain observed in primates, where dominant individuals exhibit avoidance or dismissive behaviors toward subordinates, facilitating resource allocation and conflict resolution without direct confrontation.^[28] Research in primatology has extended these insights through interdisciplinary approaches. Studies of great ape emotional expressions highlight analogs to human contempt, such as chimpanzees' selective ignoring or aggressive posturing toward lower-ranking peers, underscoring conserved mechanisms for social exclusion across species.^[29] Recent 2025 research has further explored contempt's role in moral emotions, including its interplay with envy in grandiose narcissism and socio-functional models tested in Japanese contexts.^[30]^[31] Concurrently, advancements in artificial intelligence for emotion recognition have improved detection of contempt in dynamic facial data, with deep learning models achieving higher accuracy on subtle cues like unilateral lip raises, aiding neuroscience by enabling large-scale analysis of contempt in naturalistic social interactions.^[32]

Cultural Variations

Research on the facial expression of contempt reveals both universal recognition and culture-specific variations in its display and intensity. Paul Ekman's cross-cultural studies, including a 1988 investigation involving participants from the United States and Minangkabau in Indonesia, demonstrated high agreement in identifying the characteristic unilateral lip curl as contempt, distinct from anger or disgust.^[33] However, display rules—cultural norms governing emotional expression—lead to differences in overtness; in individualistic cultures such as the United States, contempt is often expressed more directly to assert moral superiority, whereas in collectivist Asian societies like Japan and China, it is typically subdued to preserve group harmony and avoid social disruption. This subtlety aligns with broader patterns where negative emotions, including contempt, are less overtly shown in collectivist contexts to prioritize relational interdependence.

Functions in Society

Contempt serves several functions in society, particularly in regulating social norms and hierarchies. One key positive role is as a form of moral signaling, where expressing contempt toward individuals or groups perceived as violating ethical standards communicates disapproval and reinforces community values. For instance, contempt directed at corrupt officials in civic contexts can highlight unethical behavior, prompting collective vigilance and encouraging adherence to integrity norms. This exclusionary aspect of contempt helps maintain social cohesion by distancing the group from those deemed unworthy, thereby upholding moral boundaries without necessarily resorting to direct confrontation.^[34] Philosophically, contempt has been viewed as a virtue in fostering ethical vigilance, as articulated by Friedrich Nietzsche, who described "noble contempt" as an essential element of superior morality that rejects weakness and pity, thereby promoting self-overcoming and societal strength. In historical contexts, such as the French Revolution, widespread contempt for the monarchy's absolutism fueled revolutionary fervor by eroding respect for royal authority and motivating subjects through resentment of perceived disdain from the elite. Similarly, in modern activism, contempt for systemic injustices—like racial or economic disparities—has galvanized movements by framing oppressors as morally inferior, driving calls for reform and exclusion of unjust structures from societal acceptance. However, contempt's functions also carry significant negative consequences, often exacerbating social divisions through mechanisms of rejection and exclusion that lead to alienation. When directed at outgroups or individuals, it can escalate conflicts by fostering long-term ostracism rather than resolution, disrupting interpersonal trust and broader social harmony. Dispositional tendencies toward contempt, in particular, correlate with poorer social functioning and heightened relational strain, as they prioritize derogation over empathy, potentially undermining community resilience.^[14]

Contempt in Interpersonal Relationships

Dynamics in Romantic and Familial Contexts

In romantic relationships, contempt manifests as a potent destructive force, often expressed through sarcasm, mockery, eye-rolling, or sneering, positioning one partner as morally superior to the other. This behavior is a core component of John Gottman's "Four Horsemen" model, which identifies four communication patterns—criticism, contempt, defensiveness, and stonewalling—that erode relational stability. Specifically, contempt emerges as the most virulent, conveying disgust and disdain that undermine mutual respect and emotional safety.^[2] Longitudinal studies by Gottman reveal that contempt strongly correlates with emotional withdrawal, where the targeted partner disengages to protect themselves, leading to diminished intimacy and escalating cycles of disconnection. In marriages exhibiting high levels of contempt, couples experience reduced physical and emotional closeness, fostering a toxic environment that perpetuates negativity. Gottman's research demonstrates that the presence of these patterns, particularly contempt, predicts divorce with over 90% accuracy over extended periods, such as up to 14 years, based on observational data from thousands of couples.^[35]^[36] Within familial contexts, contempt extends beyond spousal dynamics to parent-child interactions, where it can instill deep-seated resentment and provoke adolescent rebellion. When parents display contempt toward their children—through belittling remarks or dismissive gestures—it signals unworthiness, eroding the child's self-esteem and prompting defiant behaviors as a defense against perceived rejection. Over time, such patterns contribute to long-term relational strain, with adolescents internalizing these experiences as models for future attachments, potentially perpetuating cycles of emotional distance in their own families. Gottman's framework applies these "Four Horsemen" to parenting, noting that contempt in this realm hinders secure bonding and fosters ongoing conflict.^[37] Therapeutic interventions rooted in the Gottman Method target contempt by promoting antidote behaviors, such as cultivating fondness and admiration through structured exercises like daily appreciation rituals and reminiscing about positive shared history. These techniques aim to rebuild emotional reserves, countering contempt's corrosive effects by fostering empathy and respect. Recent evaluations confirm the method's efficacy; for instance, a 2024 study found that Gottman-based interventions, delivered either in-person or online, significantly enhance relationship satisfaction and communication skills, with comparable outcomes across formats and sustained improvements in conflict resolution up to six months post-treatment. In familial therapy, similar approaches encourage parents to replace contemptuous responses with validation, reducing adolescent rebellion and promoting healthier dynamics. Gender patterns may influence how contempt is expressed, with men often showing it through nonverbal cues, though this varies by relational power structures.^[38]^[39]

Gender and Power Differences

Research indicates that gender differences influence the expression of contempt in interpersonal interactions, with women and girls more likely to employ nonverbal forms such as glares, eye rolls, or "mean faces" rather than direct verbal confrontations.^[23] This pattern is linked to socialization processes that encourage relational aggression among females, where subtle nonverbal cues serve to damage social relationships without overt physical or verbal conflict.^[23] Empirical studies further reveal that men tend to express contempt more overtly through verbal means, such as sarcasm or insults, while women favor subtle, indirect nonverbal signals that maintain social harmony on the surface.^[40] In marital contexts, these differences intersect with power imbalances; for instance, in heterosexual couples, the partner perceiving greater relational power often uses contempt to assert dominance, exacerbating dissatisfaction and predicting relational instability, as observed in longitudinal analyses of conflict interactions.^[40] Such dynamics reinforce hierarchical structures, where contempt directed at lower-status individuals signals superiority and perpetuates inequality.^[41] Power dynamics play a central role in contempt's deployment, with expressions more frequently targeted at those perceived as low-status or psychologically distant, thereby upholding social hierarchies within relationships.^[41] In unequal partnerships, contempt from the higher-power individual can solidify imbalances, leading to emotional distancing and reduced mutual respect.^[14] Recent research on LGBTQ+ relationships underscores the fluidity of gender and power roles beyond binary frameworks, where contempt's expression adapts to negotiated dynamics rather than fixed gender norms, often manifesting in ways that challenge traditional heterosexual patterns.^[42]

Legal and Ethical Implications

Contempt in Legal Contexts

Contempt of court refers to any willful act or omission that obstructs the administration of justice, constitutes disobedience to a court's order, or shows disrespect for judicial authority.^[1] This legal concept originated in English common law, where courts developed the inherent power to punish such conduct to maintain order and protect their proceedings, with early precedents dating to the 17th century, such as cases involving disruptions during trials that led to summary punishments like fines or imprisonment.^[43] The doctrine was imported into American jurisprudence through colonial courts and later codified or affirmed in statutes across U.S. jurisdictions.^[44] Contempt proceedings are categorized into two primary dimensions: civil versus criminal, and direct versus indirect. Civil contempt is remedial in nature, aimed at coercing compliance with a court order, such as imposing fines for non-payment of child support until the obligation is met, or ordering confinement until a party purges the contempt by fulfilling the directive.^[45] In contrast, criminal contempt is punitive, intended to vindicate the court's authority through fixed penalties like imprisonment for disruptive behavior in the courtroom, regardless of whether compliance is achieved.^[44] Direct contempt occurs in the immediate presence of the court, allowing for summary adjudication without a full hearing, such as a witness refusing to answer questions during testimony.^[1] Indirect contempt, however, involves actions outside the courtroom, like violating a restraining order, and typically requires notice, a hearing, and proof beyond a reasonable doubt for criminal variants.^[45] The historical evolution of contempt in the United States reflects tensions between judicial authority and constitutional protections, particularly free speech. Early federal courts exercised broad contempt powers under common law, but 20th-century Supreme Court decisions imposed limits to safeguard First Amendment rights. In Bridges v. California (1941), the Court overturned contempt convictions against a labor leader and a newspaper for publishing statements criticizing pending judicial proceedings, ruling that such "clear and present danger" to the administration of justice must be shown before prior restraints on speech can be imposed, thereby narrowing the scope of indirect contempt based on publications.^[46] This precedent established a higher bar for punishing out-of-court expressions, influencing subsequent cases like Craig v. Harney (1947), which further protected press commentary on trials.^[47] Internationally, contempt doctrines vary significantly, with common law systems like those in the UK and Australia retaining broad, judge-driven powers similar to the U.S., while civil law jurisdictions such as France and Germany often codify sanctions in statutes without a unified "contempt" label, treating disobedience as separate civil or criminal offenses with stricter procedural requirements.^[48] For instance, in civil law systems, failure to comply with a court order may result in execution proceedings or fines under civil codes rather than inherent judicial contempt powers, leading to more predictable but potentially less flexible enforcement compared to common law approaches.^[49] In modern applications, particularly since 2023, social media has amplified challenges to contempt rules, with courts addressing posts that violate court orders in civil proceedings. For example, in high-profile U.S. cases, individuals have faced contempt charges for online statements defying judicial directives, such as in federal election-related defamation suits where defendants were sanctioned for social media posts continuing prohibited defamatory conduct.^[50] Similarly, in 2024, a former attorney was fined $105,000 for social media posts breaching a nondisparagement clause in a settlement, illustrating how digital platforms extend indirect contempt risks beyond traditional publications.^[51] These developments, including additional 2025 enforcement actions in ongoing defamation cases, underscore evolving judicial efforts to balance digital expression with compliance to court orders.^[52]

Ethical and Moral Considerations

Contempt, as an emotion involving moral judgment, can serve ethical virtues by motivating responses to injustice and wrongdoing. Philosophers have argued that appropriately directed contempt acts as a moral attitude that signals disapproval of unethical behavior, thereby reinforcing social norms and encouraging accountability. For instance, contempt toward oppressors can drive collective action for justice, functioning as an expressive tool that highlights moral failings and promotes progress against systemic harms. This view aligns with analyses portraying contempt as a reactive emotion that, when focused on vice rather than individuals, aids in upholding ethical standards without descending into personal malice.^[34] However, contempt carries significant moral drawbacks, particularly its potential to foster dehumanization and prejudice. By viewing targets as inferior or unworthy, contempt can erode empathy and justify discriminatory treatment, leading to ethical violations such as exclusion or harm. In utilitarian frameworks, this disrupts social harmony by prioritizing individual superiority over collective well-being, as the emotion's divisive effects outweigh any short-term normative benefits and contribute to broader societal discord. Empirical studies link dispositional contempt to tendencies that deny others' humanity, amplifying biases against marginalized groups and undermining principles of equality and respect.^[53]^[54]^[55] Philosophical debates highlight contempt's ambivalence, with Friedrich Nietzsche endorsing it as an affirmative force in noble ethics, contrasting sharply with Christian traditions emphasizing forgiveness. Nietzsche critiqued Christian morality as promoting pity and absolution that weaken human potential, advocating instead a "pathos of distance" where contempt toward mediocrity fosters self-overcoming and vitality. This tension underscores broader ethical questions about whether contempt liberates or poisons interpersonal and societal relations. In modern bioethics, contempt manifests as disdain in medical contexts, such as institutional racism where healthcare professionals exhibit contemptuous attitudes toward racial minorities, perpetuating inequities and violating principles of beneficence and justice.^[55]^[56]^[57] Ethical strategies to mitigate contempt's harms often center on cultivating empathy to restore moral connection. Empathy, as a vicarious understanding of others' perspectives, counters contempt's dehumanizing gaze by promoting sympathy and reducing prejudicial judgments, aligning with sentimentalist views that emotions like compassion underpin ethical behavior. Such approaches encourage reflective practices that transform contempt into constructive critique, preserving justice motives while avoiding relational damage.^[58]^[59]

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Jun 11, 2019 · Contempt may also play a role in prejudice towards some of the most stigmatized and vulnerable groups in society (e.g., Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, & ...
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Slurs, Dehumanization, and the Expression of Contempt | Bad Words
This chapter argues that explaining how slurs dehumanize requires more than encoding the speaker's contempt toward the target and group.Missing: decline | Show results with:decline
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Nietzsche's Moral and Political Philosophy
Aug 26, 2004 · Nietzsche critiques morality, favors "higher men," and has no systematic political philosophy, aiming to free them from false morality, not ...
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NIETZSCHE ON CHRIST VS. CHRISTIANITY - jstor
In his disdain for equality, Nietzsche concurs with the first Chris- tians with whom he otherwise has only contempt. He thinks the first Christians found ...
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Lead Essay—Institutional Racism, Whiteness, and the Role of ...
Apr 6, 2021 · This symposium opens with an article from Yolonda Wilson arguing for the need to broaden the role and scope of bioethics to address contemptuous ...
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Empathy and Sympathy in Ethics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The eighteenth century texts of David Hume and Adam Smith used the word “sympathy,” but not “empathy,” although the conceptual distinction marked by empathy was ...
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Moral Sentimentalism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jan 29, 2014 · For moral sentimentalists, our emotions and desires play a leading role in the anatomy of morality. Some believe moral thoughts are fundamentally sentimental.2.1 Moral Sense Theories · 2.2 Sympathy/empathy-Based... · 5.1 The Perceptual Model